Department of Aeronautical Engineering

Subject Name : Elements of Aeronautics

Subject Code : 07A306
Semester : Third semester
Prepared By : U. Selvakumar, Lecturer, Dept. of Aero, BIT, Sathy

Unit I
Historical Evolution
Refer the Introduction to flight by J.D. Anderson.
Unit II
Aircraft Configurations
Components of an Airplane and their Functions
An airplane contains the following important component sections,
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Fuselage
Wings
Empennage
Landing gear
Propulsion system

The following figures shows the isometric and extended view of basic components of an
airplane.

1. Fuselage:
Fuselage is the main body of an airplane which contains cabin /cockpit which provides
space for crew members and flight controls for aircraft. Fuselage also provides space for passengers
and payloads. It gives attachment points for some other aircraft components like wing. There are three
kinds of fuselage structure. They are ,

Truss structure
Monocoque structure
Semi monocoque structure

Truss:
Truss A fuselage design made up of supporting members longerons, diagonal members and
vertical members that resist deformation by applied loads.
Monocoque structure:
Monocoque A shell-like fuselage design in which most of the imposed
stresses are taken by the outside stressed skin. Here bulkheads and formers are used to give the shape to
the fuselage. Stringers are not used.

Semi monocoque structure:

Semi monocoque structure A fuselage design which contains a
substructure of bulkheads and/or formers, along with stringers, that support flight loads and stresses
imposed on fuselage.

2. Wings:
The wings are lifting devices in which series of airfoils attached. It is placed in each side
of the fuselage and are the main lifting surfaces that support the airplane in flight. The cross section of
the wing is called as airfoil. An airfoil is a shape designed to produce lift. Besides the wing, propellers
and the tail surfaces are also airfoils.
An airfoil has a leading edge and a trailing edge. A chord and a camber also characterize an
airfoil. The chord is an imaginary straight line connecting the leading edge with the trailing edge. The
chord is used for determining the geometric angle of attack and for determining the area of a wing. The
mean camber line is the line an equal distance from the upper and lower surfaces of the wing. The
camber is the curvature of the mean camber line.
A wing that has an airfoil with a great deal of curvature in its mean camber line is said to
be a highly cambered wing. A symmetric airfoil has no camber .An airfoil with lift also has an angle of
attack. The relative wind is the direction of the wind at some distance from the wing. It is parallel to
and opposite to the direction of motion of the wing. The velocity of the relative wind is equal to the
speed of the wing. The geometric angle of attack is defined as the angle between the mean chord of the
airfoil and the direction of the relative wind.

There are numerous wing designs, sizes, and shapes used by the various
manufacturers. Each fulfills a certain need with respect to the expected performance for the particular
airplane. Wings may be attached at the top, middle, or lower portion of the fuselage. These designs are
referred to as high-, mid-, and low-wing, respectively. The number of wings can also vary. Airplanes
with a single set of wings are referred to as monoplanes, while those with two sets are called biplanes.
Many high-wing airplanes have external braces, or wing struts, which transmit the flight
and landing loads through the struts to the main fuselage structure. Since the wing struts are usually
attached approximately halfway out on the wing, this type of wing structure is called semi-cantilever. A
few high-wing and most low-wing airplanes have a full cantilever wing designed to carry the loads
without external struts. The principal structural parts of the wing are spars, ribs, and stringers. trusses,
I-beams, tubing, or other devices, including the skin.

The wing ribs determine the shape and thickness of the wing (airfoil). Wing flaps are the trailing
edge control devices attached to the trailing edge of the inboard wing. They may be fixed or retractable.
When deflected downward they will increase lift by increasing the camber during takeoffs and
landings. Slats are the leading edge devices which are used to delay flow seperation. Slot is the space
between the slat and leading edge. It is used to increases the drag.
In most modern airplanes, the fuel tanks either are an integral part of the wings
structure, Ailerons extend from about the midpoint of each wing outward toward the tip and move in
opposite directions to create aerodynamic forces that cause the airplane to roll. Flaps extend outward
from the fuselage to near the midpoint of each wing.

3. Empennage:
The correct name for the tail section of an airplane is empennage. The empennage
includes the entire tail group, consisting of fixed surfaces such as the vertical stabilizer and the
horizontal stabilizer. The movable surfaces include the rudder, the elevator, and one or more trim tabs.
A second type of empennage design does not require an elevator. Instead, it incorporates a one-piece
horizontal stabilizer that pivots from a central hinge point. This type of design is called a stabilator, and
is moved using the control wheel, just as you would the elevator. For example, when you pull back on
the control wheel, the stabilator pivots so the trailing edge moves up. This increases the aerodynamic
tail load and causes the nose of the airplane to move up. Stabilators have an antiservo tab extending
across their trailing edge.

The antiservo tab moves in the same direction as the trailing edge of the stabilator. The
antiservo tab also functions as a trim tab to relieve control pressures and helps maintain the stabilator in
the desired position. The rudder is attached to the back of the vertical stabilizer. During flight, it is used
to move the airplanes nose left and right. The rudder is used in combination with the ailerons for turns
during flight. The elevator, which is attached to the back of the horizontal stabilizer, is used to move the
nose of the airplane up and down during flight. Trim tabs are small, movable portions of the trailing
edge of the control surface. These movable trim tabs, which are controlled from the cockpit, reduce
control pressures. Trim tabs may be installed on the ailerons, the rudder, and/or the elevator.
4. Landing gear:
The landing gear is the principle support of the airplane when parked, taxiing, taking
off, or when landing. The most common type of landing gear consists of wheels, but airplanes can also
be equipped with floats for water operations, or skis for landing on snow. The landing gear consists of
three wheelstwo main wheels and a third wheel positioned either at the front or rear of the airplane.

Landing gear employing a rear mounted wheel is called conventional landing gear.
Airplanes with conventional landing gear are sometimes referred to as tail wheel airplanes. When the
third wheel is located on the nose, it is called a nose wheel, and the design is referred to as a tricycle
gear. A steerable nose wheel or tail wheel permits the airplane to be controlled throughout all
operations while on the ground.

5. Propulsion system:
The powerplant usually includes both the engine and the propeller or simply the
engine (Turbojet, ramjet and scramjet). The primary function of the engine is to provide the power to
turn the propeller. It also generates electrical power, provides a vacuum source for some flight
instruments, and in most single-engine airplanes, provides a source of heat for the pilot and
passengers. The engine is covered by a cowling, or in the case of some airplanes, surrounded by a
nacelle. The purpose of the cowling or nacelle is to streamline the flow of air around the engine and to
help cool the engine by ducting air around the cylinders. The propeller, mounted on the front of the
engine, translates the rotating force of the engine into a forward - acting force called thrust that helps
move the airplane through the air.

Conventional Flight Control

Aircraft flight control systems are classified as primary and secondary. The primary
control systems consist of those that are required to safely control an airplane during flight. These
include the ailerons, elevator (or stabilator), and rudder. Secondary control systems improve the
performance characteristics of the airplane, or relieve the pilot of excessive control forces. Examples of
secondary control systems are wing flaps and trim systems. The axis system has been given below.

An airplane moves in three dimensions called roll, pitch, and yaw. Roll is rotation
about the longitudinal axis that goes down the center of the fuselage. The ailerons control rotation
about the roll axis. Pitch is rotation about the lateral axis of rotation, which is an axis parallel to the
long dimension of the wings. The elevators control the pitch of the airplane. By controlling the pitch of
the airplane, the elevators also control the angle of attack of the wing. To increase the angle of attack,
the entire airplane is rotated up. As we will see, this control or the angle of attack is key in the
adjustment of the lift of the wings.
Finally, yaw, which is controlled by the rudder, is rotation about the vertical axis,
which is a line that goes vertically through the center of the wing. It is important to note that all three
axes go through the center of gravity (often abbreviated c.g.) of the airplane. The center of gravity is
the balance point of the airplane. Or, equivalently, all of the weight of the airplane can be considered to
be at that one point.
Primary Control Surfaces:
Ailerons:
Ailerons control roll about the longitudinal axis. The ailerons are attached to the outboard
trailing edge of each wing and move in the opposite direction from each other. Ailerons are connected
by cables, bellcranks, pulleys or push-pull tubes to each other and to the control wheel.

Moving the control wheel to the right causes the right aileron to deflect upward and the left
aileron to deflect downward. The upward deflection of the right aileron decreases the camber resulting
in decreased lift on the right wing. The corresponding downward deflection of the left aileron increases
the camber resulting in increased lift on the left wing. Thus, the increased lift on the left wing and the
decreased lift on the right wing causes the airplane to roll to the right.
Elevator:
The elevator controls pitch about the lateral axis. Like the ailerons on small airplanes, the
elevator is connected to the control column in the cockpit by a series of mechanical linkages. Aft
movement of the control column deflects the trailing edge of the elevator surface up. This is usually
referred to as up elevator. Moving the control column forward has the opposite effect. In this case,
elevator camber increases, creating more lift (less tail-down force) on the horizontal stabilizer/elevator.
This moves the tail upward and pitches the nose down.
Rudder:
The Rudder controls movement of the airplane about its vertical axis. This motion is called yaw.
Like the other primary control surfaces, the rudder is a movable surface hinged to a fixed surface, in
this case, to the vertical stabilizer, or fin. Moving the left or right rudder pedal controls the rudder.
When the rudder is deflected into the airflow, a horizontal force is exerted in the opposite direction.
Secondary control surfaces:
Flaps:
Flaps are the most common high-lift devices used on practically all airplanes. These
surfaces, which are attached to the trailing edge of the wing, increase both lift and induced drag for any
given angle of attack. Flaps allow a compromise between high cruising speed and low landing speed,
because they may be extended when needed, and retracted into the wings structure when not needed.
Leading edge flaps, like trailing edge flaps, are used to increase both Cl and the camber of the wings.
There are four common types of flaps: plain, split, slotted, and Fowler flaps.

Slats and Slots:

High-lift devices also can be applied to the leading edge of the airfoil. The most
common types are fixed slots, movable slats, and leading edge flaps. Fixed slots direct airflow to the
upper wing surface and delay airflow separation at higher angles of attack. Movable slats consist of
leading edge segments, which move on tracks. Opening a slat allows the air below the wing
to flow over the wings upper surface, delaying airflow separation.

Spoilers:
On some airplanes, high-drag devices called spoilers are deployed from the wings to spoil the
smooth airflow, reducing lift and increasing drag. Spoilers are used for roll control on some aircraft,
one of the advantages being the elimination of adverse yaw.
Trim Tabs:
The most common installation on small airplanes is a single trim tab attached to the trailing
edge of the elevator. Most trim tabs are manually operated by a small, vertically mounted control
wheel. However, a trim crank may be found in some airplanes. The cockpit control includes a tab
position indicator.
Anti servo Tabs:
In addition to decreasing the sensitivity of the stabilator, an antiservo tab also functions as a
trim device to relieve control pressure and maintain the stabilator in the desired position. The fixed end
of the linkage is on the opposite side of the surface from the horn on the tab, and when the trailing edge
of the stabilator moves up, the linkage forces the trailing edge of the tab up. When the stabilator moves
down, the tab also moves down. This is different than trim tabs on elevators, which move opposite of
the control surface.
Balance Tabs:
The control forces may be excessively high in some airplanes, and in order to decrease
them, the manufacturer may use balance tabs. They look like trim tabs and are hinged in approximately
the same places as trim tabs. The essential difference between the two is that the balancing tab is
coupled to the control surface rod so that when the primary control surface is moved in any direction,
the tab automatically moves in the opposite direction.

Ground Adjustable Tabs:

Many small airplanes have a non-moveable metal trim tab on the rudder. This tab is
bent in one direction or the other while on the ground to apply a trim force to the rudder. it is motor
driven. The trimming effect and cockpit indications for an adjustable stabilizer are similar to those of a
trim tab.
End of Lecture

Unit II
Aircraft Configurations
Lecture - II
Basic Flight Instruments for Flying
Pitot Static Flight Instruments
There are two major parts of the pitot-static system: the impact
pressure chamber and lines, and the static pressure chamber and lines. They provide the source of
ambient air pressure for the operation of the altimeter, vertical speed indicator (vertical velocity
indicator), and the airspeed indicator.

Impact Pressure Chambers and Lines:

In this system, the impact air pressure (air striking the airplane because of its
forward motion) is taken from a pitot tube, which is mounted in locations that provide minimum
disturbance or turbulence caused by the motion of the airplane through the air. The static pressure
(pressure of the still air) is usually taken from the static line attached to a vent or vents mounted flush
with the side of the fuselage. This compensates for any possible variation in static pressure due to
erratic changes in airplane attitude.
The openings of both the pitot tube and the static vent must be checked during
the preflight inspection to assure that they are free from obstructions. Blocked or partially blocked
openings should be cleaned by a certificated mechanic. Blowing into these openings is not
recommended because this could damage the instruments.
As the airplane moves through the air, the impact pressure on the open pitot
tube affects the pressure in the pitot chamber. Any change of pressure in the pitot chamber is

transmitted through a line connected to the airspeed indicator, which utilizes impact pressure for
its operation.
Static Pressure chamber and Lines:
The static chamber is vented through small holes to the free undisturbed air,
and as the atmospheric pressure increases or decreases, the pressure in the static chamber changes
accordingly. Again, this pressure change is transmitted through lines to the instruments which utilize
static pressure.
An alternate source for static pressure is provided in some airplanes in the
event the static ports become blocked. This source usually is vented to the pressure inside the cockpit.
Because of the venturi effect of the flow of air over the cockpit, this alternate static pressure is usually
lower than the pressure provided by the normal static air source. When the alternate static source is
used, the following differences in the instrument indications usually occur: the altimeter will indicate
higher than the actual altitude, the airspeed will indicate greater than the actual airspeed, and the
vertical speed will indicate a climb while in level flight. Consult the Airplane Flight Manual or Pilots
Operating Handbook (AFM/POH) to determine the amount of error.
If the airplane is not equipped with an alternate static source, breaking the
glass seal of the vertical speed indicator allows ambient air pressure to enter the static system. This
makes the VSI unusable.
1. Altimeter:
An altimeter is an aneroid barometer that measures the absolute pressure of the ambient air and
displays it in terms of feet or meters above a selected pressure level.
Principle of Operation:
The sensitive element in a sensitive altimeter is a stack of evacuated, corrugated bronze
aneroid capsules. The air pressure acting on these aneroids tries to compress them against their natural
springiness, which tries to expand them. The result is that their thickness changes as the air pressure
changes. Stacking several aneroids increases the dimension change as the pressure varies over the
usable range of the instrument.
Below 10,000 feet, a striped segment is visible. Above this altitude, a mask begins to cover it,
and above 15,000 feet, all of the stripes are covered. Another conguration of the altimeter is the
drum-type. These instruments have only one pointer that makes one revolution for every 1,000 feet.
Each number represents 100 feet and each mark represents 20 feet. A drum, marked in thousands of
feet, is geared to the mechanism that drives the pointer. To read this type of altimeter, rst look at the
drum to get the thousands of feet, and then at the pointer to get the feet and hundreds of feet.
A sensitive altimeter is one with an adjustable barometric scale allowing the pilot to set
the reference pressure from which the altitude is measured. This scale is visible in a small window
called the Kollsman window. A knob on the instrument adjusts the scale. The range of the scale is from
28.00" to 31.00" inches of mercury (Hg), or 948 to 1,050 millibars.

Rotating the knob changes both the barometric scale and the altimeter pointers in such a
way that a change in the barometric scale of 1" Hg changes the pointer indication by 1,000 feet. This is
the standard pressure lapse rate below 5,000 feet. When the barometric scale is adjusted to 29.92" Hg
or 1,013.2 millibars, the pointers indicate the pressure altitude. The pilot displays indicate altitude by
adjusting the barometric scale to the local altimeter setting. The altimeter then indicates the height
above the existing sea level pressure.
Altimeter Errors:
A sensitive altimeter is designed to indicate standard changes from standard conditions,
but most ying involves errors caused by nonstandard conditions and the pilot must be able to modify
the indications to correct for these errors. There are two types of errors: mechanical and inherent.
2. Airspeed Indicator:
An ASI is a differential pressure gauge that measures the dynamic pressure of the air
through which the aircraft is ying. Dynamic pressure is the difference in the ambient static air pressure
and the total, or ram, pressure caused by the motion of the aircraft through the air. These two pressures
are taken from the pitot-static system.

The mechanism of the ASI consists of a thin, corrugated phosphor bronze aneroid, or
diaphragm, that receives its pressure from the pitot tube. The instrument case is sealed and connected to
the static ports. As the pitot pressure increases or the static pressure decreases, the diaphragm expands.

This dimensional change is measured by a rocking shaft and a set of gears that drives a pointer across

the instrument dial. Most ASIs are calibrated in knots, or nautical miles per hour;
some instruments show statute miles per hour, and some instruments show both. Types of Airspeed:
Just as there are several types of altitude, there are multiple types of airspeed: Indicated Airspeed (IAS),
Calibrated Airspeed (CAS), Equivalent Airspeed (EAS), and True Airspeed (TAS).
Indicated Airspeed (IAS):
IAS is shown on the dial of the instrument, uncorrected for instrument or system
errors.
Calibrated Airspeed (CAS):
CAS is the speed at which the aircraft is moving through the air, which is found by
correcting IAS for instrument and position errors. The POH/AFM has a chart or graph to correct IAS
for these errors and provide the correct CAS for the various flap and landing gear configurations.
Equivalent Airspeed (EAS):
EAS is CAS corrected for compression of the air inside the pitot tube. EAS is the
same as CAS in standard atmosphere at sea level. As the airspeed and pressure altitude increase,
the CAS becomes higher than it should be, and a correction for compression must be subtracted from
the CAS.
True Airspeed (TAS):
TAS is CAS corrected for nonstandard pressure and temperature. TAS and CAS are

the same in standard atmosphere at sea level. Under nonstandard conditions, TAS is found by applying
a correction for pressure altitude and temperature to the CAS.
3. Vertical Speed Indicator:
The VSI is also called a vertical velocity indicator (VVI), and was formerly known as a
rate-of-climb indicator. It is a rate-of-pressure change instrument that gives an indication of any
deviation from a constant pressure level.
Inside the instrument case is an aneroid very much like the one in an ASI. Both the inside
of this aneroid and the inside of the instrument case are vented to the static system, but the case is
vented through a calibrated orifice that causes the pressure inside the case to change more slowly than
the pressure inside the aneroid. As the aircraft ascends, the static pressure becomes lower. The pressure
inside the case compresses the aneroid, moving the pointer upward, showing a climb and indicating the
rate of ascent in number of feet per minute (fpm).

When the aircraft levels off, the pressure no longer changes. The pressure inside the case
becomes equal to that inside the aneroid, and the pointer returns to its horizontal, or zero, position.
When the aircraft descends, the static pressure increases. The aneroid expands, moving the pointer
downward, indicating a descent.
The pointer indication in a VSI lags a few seconds behind the actual change in
pressure. However, it is more sensitive than an altimeter and is useful in alerting the pilot of an upward
or downward trend, thereby helping maintain a constant altitude. Some of the more complex VSIs,
called instantaneous vertical speed indicators (IVSI), have two accelerometer-actuated air pumps that
sense an upward or downward pitch of the aircraft and instantaneously create a pressure differential. By
the timethe pressure caused by the pitch acceleration dissipates, the altitude pressure change is
effective.

Gyroscopic Instruments
Principle:
Any spinning object exhibits gyroscopic properties. A wheel or rotor designed and mounted
to utilize these properties is called a gyroscope. Two important design characteristics of an instrument
gyro are great weight for its size, or high density, and rotation at high speed with low friction bearings.
There are two general types of mountings; the type used depends upon which property of
the gyro is utilized. A freely or universally mounted gyroscope is free to rotate in any direction about its
center of gravity. Such a wheel is said to have three planes of freedom. The wheel or rotor is free to
rotate in any plane in relation to the base and is so balanced that with the gyro wheel at rest, it will
remain in the position in which it is placed. Restricted or semirigidly mounted gyroscopes are those
mounted so that one of the planes of freedom is held fixed in relation to the base.
There are two fundamental properties of gyroscopic actionrigidity in space and
precession.
Rigidity in Space:
Rigidity in space refers to the principle that a gyroscope remains in a fixed position in the plane in which
it is spinning.
Procession:
Precession is the tilting or turning of a gyro in response to a deflective force. The reaction to
this force does not occur at the point where it was applied; rather, it occurs at a point that is 90 later in
the direction of rotation.
1. Attitude Indicators:
The rst attitude instrument (AI) was originally referred to as an articial horizon, later
as a gyro horizon; now it is more properly called an attitude indicator. Its operating mechanism is a
small brass wheel with a vertical spin axis, spun at a high speed by either a stream of air impinging on
buckets cut into its periphery, or by an electric motor. The gyro is mounted in a double gimbal, which
allows the aircraft to pitch and roll about the gyro as it remains xed in space.
A horizon disk is attached to the gimbals so it remains in the same plane as the gyro,
and the aircraft pitches and rolls about it. On early instruments, this was just a bar that represented the
horizon, but now it is a disc with a line representing the horizon and both pitch marks and bank-angle
lines. The top half of the instrument dial and horizon disc is blue, representing the sky; and the bottom
half is brown, representing the ground. A bank index at the top of the instrument shows the angle of
bank marked on the banking scale with lines that represent 10, 20, 30, 45, and 60.

A small symbolic aircraft is mounted in the instrument case so it appears to be ying

relative to the horizon. A knob at the bottom center of the instrument case raises or lowers the aircraft
to compensate for pitch trim changes as the airspeed changes. The width of the wings of the symbolic
aircraft and the dot in the center of the wings represent a pitch change of approximately 2.
For an AI to function properly, the gyro must remain vertically upright while the
aircraft rolls and pitches around it. The bearings in these instruments have a minimum of friction;
however, even this small amount places a restraint on the gyro producing precession and causing the
gyro to tilt. To minimize this tilting, an erection mechanism inside the instrument case applies a force
any time the gyro tilts from its vertical position. This force acts in such a way to return the spinning
wheel to its upright position.
The older articial horizons were limited in the amount of pitch or roll they could
tolerate, normally about 60 in pitch and 100 in roll. After either of these limits was exceeded, the
gyro housing contacted the gimbals, applying such a precessing force that the gyro tumbled. Because of
this limitation, these instruments had a caging mechanism that locked the gyro in its vertical position
during any maneuvers that exceeded the instrument limits. Newer instruments do
not have these restrictive tumble limits; therefore, they do not have a caging mechanism.
When an aircraft engine is rst started and pneumatic or electric power is supplied to
the instruments, the gyro is not erect. A self-erecting mechanism inside the instrument actuated by the
force of gravity applies a precessing force, causing the gyro to rise to its vertical position. This erection
can take as long as 5 minutes, but is normally done within 2 to 3 minutes.
Attitude indicators are free from most errors, but depending upon the speed with
which the erection system functions, there may be a slight nose-up indication during a rapid
acceleration and a nose-down indication during a rapid deceleration. There is also a possibility of a
small bank angle and pitch error after a 180 turn. These inherent errors are small and correct
themselves within a minute or so after returning to straight-and-level ight.
2. Heading Indicators:
A magnetic compass is a dependable instrument used as a backup instrument.
Although very reliable, it has so many inherent errors that it has been supplemented with gyroscopic
heading indicators.

The gyro in a heading indicator is mounted in a double gimbal, as in an attitude

indicator, but its spin axis is horizontal permitting sensing of rotation about the vertical axis of the
aircraft. Gyro heading indicators, with the exception of slaved gyro indicators, are not north seeking,
therefore they must be manually set to the appropriate heading by referring to a magnetic compass.
Rigidity causes them to maintain this heading indication, without the oscillation and other errors
inherent in a magnetic compass.

Older directional gyros use a drum-like card marked in the same way as the magnetic
compass card. The gyro and the card remain rigid inside the case with the pilot viewing the
card from the back. This creates the possibility the pilot might start a turn in the wrong direction similar
to using a magnetic compass. A knob on the front of the instrument, below the dial,
can be pushed in to engage the gimbals. This locks the gimbals allowing the pilot to rotate the gyro and
card until the number opposite the lubber line agrees with the magnetic compass. When the knob is
pulled out, the gyro remains rigid and the aircraft is free to turn around the card.
Directional gyros are almost all air-driven by evacuating the case and allowing ltered
air to ow into the case and out through a nozzle, blowing against buckets cut in the periphery of the
wheel. The Earth constantly rotates at 15 per hour while the gyro is maintaining a position relative
to space, thus causing an apparent drift in the displayed heading of 15 per hour. When using these
instruments, it is standard practice to compare the heading indicated on the directional gyro with the
magnetic compass at least every 15 minutes and to reset the heading as necessary to agree with the
magnetic compass.
Heading indicators work on the same principle as the older horizontal card indicators,
except that the gyro drives a vertical dial that looks much like the dial of a vertical card magnetic
compass. The heading of the aircraft is shown against the nose of the symbolic aircraft on the
instrument glass, which serves as the lubber line. A knob in the front of the instrument may be pushed
in and turned to rotate the gyro and dial. The knob is spring loaded so it disengages from the gimbals as
soon as it is released. This instrument should be checked about every 15 minutes to see if it agrees with
the magnetic compass.

3. Turn Indicator:
Attitude and heading indicators function on the principle of rigidity, but rate instruments
such as the turn-and-slip indicator operate on precession. Precession is the characteristic of a gyroscope
that causes an applied force to produce a movement, not at the point of application, but at a point 90
from the point of application in the direction of rotation.

4. Turn-and-Slip Indicator:
The rst gyroscopic aircraft instrument was the turn indicator in the needle and ball, or
turn-and-bank indicator, which has more recently been called a turn-and-slip indicator.

The inclinometer in the instrument is a black glass ball sealed inside a curved glass tube
that is partially lled with a liquid for damping. This ball measures the relative strength of the force of
gravity and the force of inertia caused by a turn. When the aircraft is ying straight-and-level, there is
no inertia acting on the ball, and it remains in the center of the tube between two wires. In a turn made
with a bank angle that is too steep, the force of gravity is greater than the inertia and the ball rolls down
to the inside of the turn. If the turn is made with too shallow a bank angle, the inertia is greater than
gravity and the ball rolls upward to the outside of the turn.
The inclinometer does not indicate the amount of bank, nor does it indicate slip; it only
indicates the relationship between the angle of bank and the rate of yaw.

Unit II
Aircraft Configurations
Typical systems for Control Actuation
AIRCRAFT HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS

Objective:
Identify

the components of aircraft hydraulic systems and recognize their functions.

Introduction:
The aircraft hydraulic systems found on most naval aircraft perform many functions. Some
systems operated by hydraulics are flight controls, landing gear, speed brakes, fixed-wing and
rotary-wing folding mechanisms, auxiliary systems, and wheel brakes. Hydraulics has many
advantages as a power source for operating these units on aircraft. ! Hydraulics combine the
advantages of lightweight, ease of installation, simplification of inspection, and minimum
maintenance requirements.
Hydraulics operation is almost 100-percent efficient, with only a negligible loss
due to fluid friction. However, there are some disadvantages to using hydraulics. ! The
possibility of leakage, both internal and external, may cause the complete system to become
inoperative. ! Contamination by foreign matter in the system can cause malfunction of any unit.
Cleanliness in hydraulics cannot be overemphasized.

Components of a Basic System:

Figure shows a basic system with the addition of a power-driven pump and other
essential components. These components are the filter, pressure regulator, accumulator, pressure
gauge, relief valve, and two check valves. The function of these components is described below.
The filter
removes foreign particles from the fluid, preventing moisture, dust,
grit, and other undesirable matter from entering the system. The pressure regulator unloads or
relieves the power-driven pump when the desired pressure in the system is reached. Therefore,
it is often referred to as an unloading valve. With none of the actuating units operating, the
pressure in the line between the pump and selector valve builds up to the desired point.

A valve in the pressure regulator automatically opens and fluid is bypassed back
to the reservoir. (The bypass line is shown in figure, leading from the pressure regulator to the
return line.)
NOTE: Many aircraft hydraulic systems do not use a pressure regulator. These
systems use a pump that automatically adjusts to supply the proper volume of fluid as needed.
The accumulator serves a twofold purpose. 1. It serves as a cushion or shock
absorber by maintaining an even pressure in the system. 2. It stores enough fluid under pressure to
provide for emergency operation of certain actuating units. The accumulator is designed with a
compressed-air chamber separated from the fluid by a flexible diaphragm, or a removable
piston.
The pressure gauge indicates the amount of pressure in the system. The relief
valve is a safety valve installed in the system. When fluid is bypassed through the valve to the
return line, it returns to the reservoir. This action prevents excessive pressure in the system.
Check valves allow the flow of fluid in one direction only. There are numerous check
valves installed at various points in the lines of all aircraft hydraulic systems.
A careful study of figure shows why the two check valves are necessary in this system.
One check valve prevents power pump pressure from entering the hand-pump line. The other valve
prevents hand-pump pressure from being directed to the accumulator.
6. Reservoir 2. Power pump 3. Filter 4. Pressure regulator 5. Accumulator
6. Check valves 7. Hand pump 8. Pressure gauge 9. Relief valve 10. Selector valve
11. Actuating unit

AIRCRAFT PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS

Introduction:
There are two types of pneumatic systems currently used in naval
aircraft. One type uses storage bottles for an air source, and the other has its own air compressor.
Components of Basic System:
Generally, the storage bottle system is used only for emergency operation. See
figure. This system has an air bottle, a control valve in the cockpit for releasing the contents of the
cylinders, and a ground charge (filler) valve. The storage bottle must be filled with
compressed air or nitrogen prior to flight.
Air storage cylinder pneumatic systems are in use for emergency brakes,
emergency landing gear extension, emergency flap extension, and for canopy release mechanisms.

When the control valve is properly positioned, the compressed air in the storage
bottle is routed through the shuttle valve to the actuating cylinder.
NOTE: The shuttle valve is a pressure-operated valve that separates the normal
hydraulic system from the emergency pneumatic system. When the control handle is returned to
the normal position, the air pressure in the lines is vented overboard through the vent port of
the control valve.
The other type of pneumatic system in use has its own air compressor. It also
has other equipment necessary to maintain an adequate supply of compressed air during flight.
Most systems of this type must be serviced on the ground prior to flight. The air compressor used in
most aircraft is driven by a hydraulic motor. Aircraft that have an air compressor use the
compressed air for normal and emergency system operation.

----------------------------------------- End of Lecture-----------------------------------------------

Unit III
Introduction to Principles of flight
Atmospheric Model

1.DifferentLayersofAtmosphere

2.SealevelValues

Unit III
Evolution of Lift, Drag and Moment

Unit III
Mach Number, Maneuvers, Airfoils

Unit IV
Introduction to airplane Structures and Materials

1. Fuselage:
Fuselage is the main body of an airplane which contains cabin /cockpit which provides
space for crew members and flight controls for aircraft. Fuselage also provides space for passengers
and payloads. It gives attachment points for some other aircraft components like wing. There are three
kinds of fuselage structure. They are ,
2. Truss structure
3. Monocoque structure
4. Semi monocoque structure
Truss:
Truss A fuselage design made up of supporting members longerons, diagonal members and
vertical members that resist deformation by applied loads.
Explanation:
Truss structure is constructed using steel or aluminum tubing. The strength and rigidity
can be obtained by welding those tubing into series of triangular shapes called trusses. Warren truss is
one of the type of truss structure. Here longerons, diagonal members and vertical members are used to
assemble the structure. In order to reduce weight sometimes they are using aluminum tubing. They are
riveted or bolted into one piece with cross - bracing members. Here the structure is enclosed using
fabric cloth. Typical warren truss type fuselage has been given below.

Monocoque structure:
Monocoque A shell-like fuselage design in which most of the imposed
stresses are taken by the outside stressed skin. Here bulkheads and formers are used to give the shape to
the fuselage. Stringers are not used.
Explanation:
It is also called as stressed skin structure. Here all the loads imposed by the flight are taken
by the skin. It can be strong but it will not withstand deformation. In which bulkheads, formers and
skin is used. Here bulkheads and formers will give shape to the fuselage. They are enclosed by the skin.
The skin must be strong enough to withstand the loads since no bracing members are employed. The
main drawback of this structure is its weight penalty. i.e. It is really tough to maintain enough strength
while keeping reduced weight. To avoid this problem semi-monocoque structure is employed in most
of the modern aircraft. A typical monocoque structure has been given below.

Semi monocoque structure:

Semi monocoque structure A fuselage design which contains a
substructure of bulkheads and/or formers, along with stringers, that support flight loads and stresses
imposed on fuselage.
Explanation:
This design contains a substructure with the stressed skin. The substructure contains

bulkheads, formers and stringers. This substructure reinforces the stressed skin by taking some of the
bending loads from the fuselage. It also contains attachment points for wings and firewall. This firewall
is used to protect crew members and passengers from accidental engine fires. It is mainly made up of
stainless steel. A typical semi monocoque fuselage design has been given below.

Wings:

The wings are lifting devices in which series of airfoils attached. It is placed in each side
of the fuselage and are the main lifting surfaces that support the airplane in flight. The cross section of
the wing is called as airfoil. An airfoil is a shape designed to produce lift. Besides the wing, propellers
and the tail surfaces are also airfoils.
Many high-wing airplanes have external braces, or wing struts, which transmit the flight
and landing loads through the struts to the main fuselage structure. Since the wing struts are usually
attached approximately halfway out on the wing, this type of wing structure is called semi-cantilever. A
few high-wing and most low-wing airplanes have a full cantilever wing designed to carry the loads
without external struts. The principal structural parts of the wing are spars, ribs, and stringers. trusses,
I-beams, tubing, or other devices, including the skin.

The wing ribs determine the shape and thickness of the wing (airfoil). Wing flaps are the trailing
edge control devices attached to the trailing edge of the inboard wing. They may be fixed or movable.
When deflected downward they will increase lift by increasing the camber during takeoffs and
landings. Slats are the leading edge devices which are used to increases the lift. Slot is the space
between the slat and leading edge. It is used to increases the drag. Some kind of flaps, slats and slots
has been given below. In most modern airplanes, the fuel tanks either are an integral part of the wings
structure, Ailerons extend from about the midpoint of each wing outward toward the tip and move in
opposite directions to create aerodynamic forces that cause the airplane to roll. Flaps extend outward
from the fuselage to near the midpoint of each wing.

Unit IV
Structural Materials

--------------------------------------------------End of fourth unit ---------------------------------------------------

Unit V
Power plants used in Airplanes

--------------------------------------------End of fifth unit-------------------------------------------------------------