Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Lab Manual
Department of Electrical Engineering
Lab Manual
For Academic Session 2011
Lab Manual
Department of Electrical Engineering
SAFETY RULES
1. Please don t touch any live parts.
2. Never use an electrical tool in a damp place.
3. Don t carry unnecessary belongings during performance of experiments (like
water bottle, bags etc).
4. Before connecting any leads/wires, make sure power is switched off.
5. In case of an emergency, push the nearby red color emergency switch of the
panel or immediately call for help.
6. In case of electric fire, never put water on it as it will further worsen the
condition; use the class C fire extinguisher.
Fire is a chemical reaction involving rapid oxidation
(combustion) of fuel. Three basic conditions when
met, fire takes place. These are fuel, oxygen & heat,
absence of any one of the component will extinguish
the fire.
Lab Manual
Department of Electrical Engineering
HITEC University
Heavy Industries Taxila Education City, Taxila Cantt
Department of Electrical Engineering
LIST OF EXPEREIMENTS
List of Experiments
1. Analysis of different types of cables.
2. Selection of appropriate size of cable for the given load.
3. Using measuring instruments measure the high level of voltage, current and resistance.
4. To study the operation and constructional features of a Distribution Transformer
5. To measure active, reactive and apparent power of a load
6. Power factor improvement with static capacitor.
7. Automatic Reactive Power Controller
8. Determine vector group of a three phase transformer.
9. No load performance of a distribution transformer
10. Load Performance of a distribution Transformer
11. Verifying the Inverse Square Law and compare the difference in output luminescence of
incandescent, fluorescent and compact fluorescent lamps.
12. Calculating the Total Cost in a Residential and Commercial or Industrial Bill.
13. To make connections in home electrical wiring from services main to different
distribution boards and electrical points for appliances in a room.
14. To measure Earthing Resistance and Soil resistivity.
Lab Manual
Department of Electrical Engineering
EXPERIMENT 1
Power Cables
OBJECTIVE
To dissect the power cable into its distinguished parts.
APPARATUS
Dissected Cables
Vernier Calliper
Screw Gauge
THEORY
A cable is defined as an assembly of conductors and insulators used for the transfer of power
in densely populated urban areas. Cables are mostly laid under the ground in order not to
disturb the land beauty and to avoid using the land for power transmission purposes.
Types of Cables
1. Single Core Cables
Lab Manual
Department of Electrical Engineering
PARTS OF CABLE
A cable is composed of the following parts;
Core
All cables either have a central core (conductor) or a number of cores made of strands of
Copper or Aluminum conductors having highest conductivity. Conductors are stranded in
order to reduce the skin effect.
Insulation
It is provided to insulate the conductors from each other and from the outside periphery. The
common insulating materials are Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC) and Polyethylene.
Metallic Sheath
Metallic Sheath protects the cable against the entry of moisture. It is made of lead, some alloy
of lead or Aluminum
Bedding
In order to protect the metallic sheath from injury, bedding is wound over it. It consists of
paper tape compounded with a fibrous material.
Armoring
It consists of one or two layers of galvanized steel wires or two layers of steel tape, to avoid
the mechanical injury. Armoring provides mechanical strength to the cable.
Lab Manual
Department of Electrical Engineering
Serving
A layer of fibrous material, used to protect the armoring.
Different constants for copper and aluminum conductors is given below.
EXERCISE:
You are given three cables of unknown cross section: find out the following information
about each cable.
PROCEDURE
Practical demonstration
RESULT
Cables have been studied and their operation is understood.
Lab Manual
EXPERIMENT 2
Select the Appropriate Cable Size
OBJECTIVE
Select the appropriate cable size for the given load.
APPARATUS
Given Load
Cable Tables Book
THEORY
The cable selection procedures set out in this LAB SESSION will give the basic guidelines to
be followed to determine the minimum size of cable required to satisfy a particular
installation condition.
The following three main factors influence the selection of a particular cable to satisfy the
circuit requirements:
(a) Current-carrying capacity dependent upon the method of installation and the presence
of external influences, such as thermal insulation, which restrict the operating temperature of
the cable.
(b) Voltage drop dependent upon the impedance of the cable, the magnitude of the load
current and the load power factor.
(c) Short-circuit temperature limit dependent upon energy produced during the short circuit
condition.
TASK:
Determine the size of cable required & voltage drop in the cable.
SITUATION:
A 150kW, three phase load is supplying from a 400V, 50Hz supply. The circuit is protected
using BSEN 60898 Type B circuit breaker and is situated 150m away from the distribution
board. It is run with two other power circuits and is buried in the ground at a depth of 0.8m.
There the soil resistivity is 1.2 C.m/W. The temperature within the installation can be
assumed to be 30 C. Calculate the size of cable required, assume armored Cu cable is used
here.
150 kW
Load
DB
150 m
Lab Manual
Department of Electrical Engineering
METHOD:
STEP #01
Determine the current requirements of the circuit. This current is known as Design current,
either specified by the manufacturer or can be calculated by the formulae.
Design Current (IN) =
(For 1 phase)
(For 3 phase)
STEP #02
Determine the method of cable installation to be used.
Installation Conditions:
The current-carrying capacity of a cable is dependent on the method of installation to maintain the
temperature of the cable within its operating limits. Different methods of installation vary the rate at
which the heat generated by the current flow is dissipated to the surrounding medium.
Specific conditions of installation are there like cables installed with or without wiring enclosures in
air, in the ground or embedded in building materials.
STEP #03
Determine the environmental conditions in the vicinity of the cable installation, where
applicable, like
(i) The ambient air or soil temperature
(ii) The depth of laying rating factor
(iii) The soil thermal resistivity rating factor
Use any cable s table book to find out the correction factor values.
Here, the correction factors from the tables:
Grouping Factor (Cg):
Ambient Temperature (Ca):
Soil Resistivity Factor (Cr):
Depth of laying factor (Cd):
_______
_______
_______
_______
Lab Manual
STEP #04
Apply the correction factors to determine the current carrying capacity (Ic) of the cable by
using the formula.
Current carrying capacity of cable =
Design current
Correction Factors
The above factors should be applied according to the design situation.
Current carrying capacity of cable =
Design current
Cg x Ca x Cr x Cd
Here,
Current carrying capacity of cable = ________________________
Current carrying capacity of cable = ______________
Minimum cable size = _____________ mm2
Lab Manual
L x IN x Vc
1000
where
Vc = The millivolt drop per ampere-metre route length of circuit, as shown in the tables for
various conductors, in millivolts per ampere metre (mV/A.m)
Vd = Actual voltage drop, in volts
L = route length of circuit, in meters
IN = the current to be carried by the cable, in amperes.
Here,
L = 80m
IN = __________ Amps
Vc= __________ mV/A.m
Voltage Drop (Vd) = _________________
1000
Voltage Drop (Vd) = _______ i.e. % of 400V.
Hence the selected cable of
length of 80m.
EXERCISE:
Repeat the above task
(i) With load 20kW at power factor 0.9.
(ii) With L = 130 m
(iii)Assume unarmored cable is used here installed in air.
Answer:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
mm2
mm2
mm2
Lab Manual
Department of Electrical Engineering
EXPERIMENT 3
Measure the High Level Voltage, Current and Resistance
OBJECTIVE
Using measuring instruments measure the high level of voltage, current and resistance.
APPARATUS
Current Transformer
Potential Transformer
Megger
Clip on Ammeter
THEORY
Current Transformers
Ammeters are employed for measurement of current in
circuits. In high voltage transmission lines, it is more feasible
to use Current Transformers for measurement of current owing
to its higher range of measurement. High values of currents
flowing in the transmission lines serve as the primary circuit of
a current transformer. The high current is stepped down to a
much lower value (normally not more than 5A) which is then
measured by an ordinary ammeter. This way, an ammeter is
not exposed to high currents and voltages.
Potential Transformers
For measurement of high voltages, potential transformers are
commonly used. Difference between the potential transformers and
current transformers is that Current Transformers are connected in
series whereas Potential Transformers are connected in parallel.
Among the available range of PTs and CTs, the selection is based on
the following factors
Insulation Class
Primary to Secondary ratio
Continuous thermal rating
Service conditions
Accuracy
Clip On Ammeter
Current is measured only when an ammeter is connected in a circuit in
series. What if the current in any wire connected to a load is required to
be measured. Using an ammeter, we shall first need to disconnect the
load from the source, insert an ammeter and then measure the current.
Instead of doing all this, a clip on ammeter allows current measurement
without disconnecting the line. It operates on the concept of
transformation, as in transformers where flux linkages produce voltages.
Lab Manual
Megger
Megger is a name given to an instrument used to measure large
values of resistance. Measuring resistance of machines and
devices is very helpful in determining faults like short circuits
etc. Once a machine faces a fault, its internal resistance gets
changed. Machine resistance is regularly monitored in order to
detect any internal faults occurring in the machines and other
devices.
OBSERVATION
Using Clip on Ammeter measure the current of a single phase load.
Sr. No
Load
Resistive Load
200 W
400W
20 F
40 F
60 F
0.75 H
1.5 H
3H
Capacitive Load
Inductive Load
Meter Reading
Clip on Meter
Reading
RESULT
Working of measuring instruments practically demonstrated.
Lab Manual
Department of Electrical Engineering
EXPERIMENT 4
Distribution Transformer
OBJECTIVE
To study the operation and constructional features of a Distribution Transformer
APPARATUS
Distribution Transformer
THEORY
Distribution transformer is used to convert electrical energy of higher voltage (usually 11-2233kV) to a lower voltage (250 or 433V) with frequency identical before and after the
transformation. Its main application is mainly within suburban areas, public supply authorities
and industrial customers. With given secondary voltage, distribution transformer is usually the
last in the chain of electrical energy supply to households and industrial enterprises.
CONSTRUCTION
There are 3 main parts in the distribution transformer:
Coils/winding where incoming alternating current (through primary winding) generates
magnetic flux, which in turn induces a voltage in the secondary coil.
Magnetic core material allowing transfer of magnetic field generated by primary winding to
secondary winding by the principle of electromagnetic induction.
A transformers core and windings are called its Active Parts. This is because these two are
responsible for transformer s operation.
Tank serving as a mechanical package to protect active parts, as a holding vessel for
transformer oil used for cooling and insulation.
Transformer Accessories
Lab Manual
Department of Electrical Engineering
Breather
Pressure relief device
Temperature Indicator
Tap Changer etc
SIGNIFICANCE OF VECTOR GROUPS
Three phase machines, such as transformers, are allotted symbols representing the type of phase
connection and the phase angle between the HV and LV terminals. The angle is described by a
clockface
hour figure. The HV vector is taken as 12 o clock, the reference, and the corresponding LV
vector is represented by the hour hand.
For example, a Dy11 represents;
D = HV winding is delta connected
y = LV winding is star connected
11 = clock-face reference indicating that the LV vector is at 11 o clock (30o lead)
with reference to the HV vector.
EXERCISE:
Give the purposes of following parts of Distribution Transformer
1. Bushings
2. Conservator or expansion tank
3. Breather
4. Pressure relief device
5. Tap Changer (OFF Load)
Lab Manual
Department of Electrical Engineering
EXPERIMENT 5
To measure active, reactive and apparent power of a load
Objective
To use voltmeter, ammeter, power factor meter and wattmeter to measure active, reactive and
apparent power of a load.
Apparatus
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Wattmeter
Voltmeter
Ammeter
Load banks
Power factor meter
Connecting leads
Theory
In alternating current circuits, energy storage elements such as inductance and capacitance may
result in periodic reversals of the direction of energy flow. The portion of power flow that,
averaged over a complete cycle of the AC waveform, results in net transfer of energy in one
direction is known as real power (also referred to as active power). That portion of power flow
due to stored energy, that returns to the source in each cycle, is known as reactive power.
The relationship between real power, reactive power and apparent power can be expressed by
representing the quantities as vectors. Real power is represented as a horizontal vector and
reactive power is represented as a vertical vector. The apparent power vector is the hypotenuse of
a right triangle formed by connecting the real and reactive power vectors. This representation is
often called the power triangle. Using the Pythagorean Theorem, the relationship among real,
reactive and apparent power is:
Lab Manual
Power Factor =
The ratio of real power to apparent power is called power factor and is a number always between
0 and 1. Where the currents and voltages have non-sinusoidal forms, power factor is generalized
to include the effects of distortion.
Procedure
Connect load and different measuring instruments as shown below.
A
Wattmeter
Power
Factor
Meter
Load
Measure supply voltage and load current by using voltmeter and ammeter respectively. Use
power factor meter to measure power factor of load. These measured values will be further used
in above mentioned formulas to calculate different type of powers taken by load.
Results
Sr. No.
Resistive
Inductive
Capacitive
Conclusions
Load
Power
Factor
cos
Active
Power
VIcos
(watts)
Reactive
Power
VIsin
VAR
Apparent
Power
VI (VAs)
Wattmeter
Meter
Reading
(watts)
Lab Manual
Department of Electrical Engineering
EXPERIMENT 6
Power factor improvement with static capacitor
Objective
To improve the power factor of the power system by changing capacitance of capacitor banks
connected in parallel with distribution lines.
Apparatus Required
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Theory
A power factor of one or "unity power factor" is the goal of any electric utility company since if
the power factor is less than one, they have to supply more current to the user for a given amount
of power use. In so doing, they incur more line losses. They also must have larger capacity
equipment in place than would be otherwise necessary. As a result, an industrial facility will be
charged a penalty if its power factor is much different from 1.
Industrial facilities tend to have a "lagging power factor", where the current lags the voltage (like
an inductor). This is primarily the result of having a lot of electric induction motors - the
windings of motors act as inductors as seen by the power supply. Capacitors have the opposite
effect and can compensate for the inductive motor windings. Some industrial sites will have
large banks of capacitors strictly for the purpose of correcting the power factor back toward one
to save on utility company charges.
For a DC circuit the power is P=VI, and this relationship also holds for the instantaneous
power in an AC circuit. However, the average power in an AC circuit expressed in terms of the
rms voltage and current is
where is the phase angle between the voltage and current. The additional term is called the
power factor
Lab Manual
Department of Electrical Engineering
From the phasor diagram for AC impedance, it can be seen that the power factor is R/Z. For a
purely resistive AC circuit, R=Z and the power factor = 1.
Experiment Procedure
Assemble the circuit according to the following topographic diagram. Connect ammeter, power
factor meter and power meter in the same current path. Connect three phase induction motor in
star and set its load as zero by adjusting parameters of magnetic brake. Connect capacitor bank
as shown in schematic diagram. Run the system and check out power factor with out capacitor
bank activation. Step by step increase capacitance and check out its effect on reactive power and
power factor.
Circuit Diagram
Lab Manual
Results
1) No load operation
M = 0.2 Nm, f = 50 Hz, V = 380 V
Battery Level
Qc (var)
cos
Q (var)
I (mains)
A
I Motor
A
Q (var)
I (mains)
A
I Motor
A
Q (var)
I (mains)
A
I Motor
A
1
0
1
90
1+2
270
1+2+3
630
1+2+3+4
1350
2+3+4
1260
3+4
1080
4
720
2) Load Operation
M = 2 Nm, f = 50 Hz, V = 380 V
Battery Level
Qc (var)
1
1
1+2
1+2+3
1+2+3+4
2+3+4
3+4
4
0
90
270
630
1350
1260
1080
720
cos
3) Load Operation
M = 3 Nm, f = 50 Hz, V = 380 V
Battery Level
Qc (var)
1
1
1+2
1+2+3
1+2+3+4
2+3+4
3+4
4
0
90
270
630
1350
1260
1080
720
cos
Lab Manual
Department of Electrical Engineering
EXPERIMENT 7
Automatic Reactive Power Controller
Objective
Automatic operation on the control of reactive power at various inductive loads and at different
sensitivity.
Apparatus Required
1. Squirrel cage motor (DL 1021)
2. Magnetic power brake (DL 1019P)
3. Magnetic brake control unit (DL 1054TT)
4. Three phase power supply unit (DL 2108TAL)
5. Switchable capacitor battery (DL 2108T20)
6. Wattmeter (DL 2109T26E)
7. Power Factor Meter (DL 2109T27)
8. Ammeter (DL 2108T2A5)
9. Reactive Power Controller (DL 2108T19)
10. Connecting Leads
Procedure
Assemble the circuit according to the following topographic diagram. Connect ammeter, power
factor meter and power meter in the same current path. Connect three phase induction motor in
star and set its load as zero by adjusting parameters of magnetic brake. Set the reactive power
controller in automatic operation mode, three phase connection, 5A ammeter circuit, 15s lag of
batteries, 1-2-4-8 batteries sequence, 4 installed batteries. The power factor set point value of the
controller is set to 1 by mean of potentiometer.
At f=50 Hz, U=380V the current of first capacitor battery is;
Ic
U
3 Xc
2 fc
U
3
= 0.14 A
Ic1
10 = 0.28
In
Set this value on the controller by mean of K potentiometer, when it is positioned in manual
operation. The toggle switches of battery must be on left side position. Start the motor brake set
and dont activate the brake exciter. The motor runs at no load. As expected the controller
Lab Manual
Department of Electrical Engineering
executes automatically the calculation of wanting data and through the consequence the complete
summery, to adjust the installation power factor: the controller connects battery 4. Increasing the
load the compensation battery 4 remains always connected. Repeat the above testing for different
sensitivities and no load operation. Stop the motor and dont forget the starter resistance that
must be completely inserted before any activation.
Set controller sensitivity K = 0.2; maximize K potentiometer in ive direction. Start the motor
brake set and dont activate the brake exciter. The motor runs at no load. The controller adjusts
the installation power factor automatically connecting the compensation batteries with a
determined sequence.
Now set controller sensitivity K = 1.2; maximize K potentiometer in +ive direction. Start the
motor brake set and dont activate the brake exciter. The motor runs at no load. The controller
adjusts the installation power factor automatically connecting the compensation batteries with
another determined sequence (2/3/2 + 3/1 + 2 + 3/4).
Circuit Diagram
Lab Manual
Department of Electrical Engineering
EXPERIMENT 8
Vector Group of a Distribution Transformer
Objective
Determine vector group of a three phase transformer.
Apparatus Required
1. Three phase power supply (DL 1013T1)
2. Three phase transformer (DL 1080TT)
3. Voltmeter (DL 2109T3PV)
Procedure
Initially assemble the circuit according to the following topographic diagram. Connect terminal
1U2 (capital A) with terminal 2U6 (lower case letter a), terminal 1V2 with capital B and 1W2
with capital C, terminal 2V6 with lower case letter b and 2W6 with lower case letter c.
Adjust the supply voltage in order to obtain a phase-to-neutral primary voltage of about 100 V.
Lab Manual
Department of Electrical Engineering
Lab Manual
Department of Electrical Engineering
UCb...UBc
Use the group table and determine the vector group of its connection.
Lab Manual
Department of Electrical Engineering
Lab Manual
EXPERIMENT 9
No load performance of a distribution transformer
Objective
To determine voltage transformation ratio and equivalent circuit quantities based on consumed
active and reactive power.
Apparatus Required
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Procedure
Assemble the circuit according to the following topographic diagram. Measurements are
conducted on one phase of transformer, dont connect phases L2 and L3. Set primary side of
three phase transformer in star connection 380V, the secondary side in star connection and
tertiary side left open. Adjust the supply voltage in order to obtain the nominal voltage (phase-toneutral voltage 220V) at the primary side of three phase transformer. This value must be kept
constant for all the measurements. Measure the no load voltage U2 on the secondary side of three
phase transformer for every indicated tap. Enter the measured values in the following table and
calculate the transformation ratio;
n12 = U1/U2
U1 (V)
Tap
220
UN + 5%
220
UN
220
UN - 5%
220
UN - 10%
220
UN - 15%
U2 (V)
n12
The calculated value of transformation ratio reflects the approximate value of the winding turn
ratio w1/w2 of the winding taps used.
Without changing any of the relationship on the primary side use the voltmeter of the secondary
side to measure the voltage at the tertiary side (terminals 3U1 3U2).
Find out the transformation ratio n13 = U1/U3.
Lab Manual
U1 (V)
U3 (V)
n13
220
Now remove the voltmeter on the secondary or tertiary side in order to refrain from distorting the
measurement results of no load current and active power consumed by the transformer.
Adjust again the supply voltage in order to obtain the nominal voltage at the primary side of
three phase transformer and measure the following quantities;
U1 (V)
I10 (mA)
P10 (W)
Cos 0
220
Calculate the power factor on primary side by using the following expression;
Cos 0 = P10/(U1. I10)
At nominal voltage calculate the active and reactive components of the no-load current according
to the following expressions:
IFE = I10 .Cos 0 =.. (mA)
I = I10 .sin 0 =..(mA)
Now calculate the iron resistance and magnetizing reactance by using following expressions:
U2 = ..(V)
Lab Manual
Department of Electrical Engineering
After disconnecting the voltmeter on the secondary side measure the no load current I10 and the
consumed active power P10.
I10 = (mA)
P10 =(W)
Circuit Diagram
Lab Manual
Department of Electrical Engineering
EXPERIMENT 10
Load Performance of a distribution Transformer
Objective
Measuring the effect of load type and magnitude on the performance of secondary
voltage
Determining the efficiency of transformer
Apparatus required
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Procedure
Assemble the circuit diagram in accordance with the following topographic diagram. Set the
primary side of transformer in star connection 380 V (phase voltage 220 V) and the secondary
side with Un = 220 V winding tap in star connection. First of all connect the resistive load in star
connection. Before starting the measurements the load is set to zero. Adjust the supply voltage in
order to obtain the nominal no load phase to neutral voltage U20 = 220 V.
Beginning from R1, reduce the value of resistive load in steps until R6 value. For each step
measure the load voltage U2 and current I2 as well as active power absorbed P1 at primary and
P2 at secondary side.
Lab Manual
Department of Electrical Engineering
Lab Manual
Enter the measured values in the following table and calculate the voltage drop on secondary
side after applying load and efficiency.
Load
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
U20(V)
220
220
220
220
220
220
U2(V)
U(V)
I2(A)
P1(W)
P2(W)
(%)
U20(V)
220
220
220
220
220
U2(V)
U(V)
I2(A)
U20(V)
220
220
220
220
220
U2(V)
U(V)
I2(A)
Capacitive Load
Load
C2
C3
C4
C5
C6
Results
Lab Manual
Department of Electrical Engineering
EXPERIMENT 11
Luminescence
OBJECTIVE
Verifying the Inverse Square Law and compare the difference in output luminescence of
incandescent, fluorescent and compact fluorescent lamps.
APPARATUS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
A wooden board
Connecting wires
Fluorescent Light
Incandescent Light
LUX Meter
Theory
INVERSE SQUARE LAW
The inverse-square law, which states that the luminance at a point on a surface
perpendicular to the light ray is equal to the luminous intensity of the source at that point
divided by the square of the distance between the source and the point of calculation.
E = I/D2
Where:
E= Illuminance in footcandles
I = Luminous intensity in candles
D= Distance in feet between the source and the point of calculation
Lab Manual
Department of Electrical Engineering
which an electric current is passed. The current heats the filament to an extremely high temperature
(typically 2000 K to 3300 K depending on the filament type, shape, size, and amount of current
passed through). The heated filament emits light that approximates a continuous spectrum. The
useful part of the emitted energy is visible light, but most energy is given off in the near-infrared
wavelengths.
Lab Manual
Department of Electrical Engineering
A compact fluorescent lamp (CFL; also called compact fluorescent light, energy-saving light,
and compact fluorescent tube) is a fluorescent lampdesigned to replace an incandescent lamp; some
types fit into light fixtures formerly used for incandescent lamps.
Compared to general-service incandescent lamps giving the same amount of visible light, CFLs use
less power (typically one fifth) and have a longer rated life (six to ten times average). In most
countries, a CFL has a higher purchase price than an incandescent lamp, but can save over five times
its purchase price in electricity costs over the lamp's lifetime. Like all fluorescent lamps, CFLs
contain mercury, which complicates their disposal. In many countries, governments have established
recycling schemes for CFLs and glass generally.
CFLs radiate a light spectrum that is different from that of incandescent lamps.
Improved phosphor formulations have improved the perceived colour of the light emitted by CFLs,
such that some sources rate the best "soft white" CFLs as subjectively similar in colour to standard
incandescent lamps.
Results
Lab Manual
Department of Electrical Engineering
EXPERIMENT 12
Calculating the Total Cost in a Residential and Commercial or Industrial Bill
OBJECTIVES
Theory
The rates of utility companies are based upon the following guidelines:
1. The amount of energy consumed [kWh]
2. The demand rate at which energy is consumed [kW]
3. The power factor of the load.
The amount of energy consumed is measured by Energy meter and the demand of the system
during the demand interval is measured by Demand meter.
Demand Measurement
Demand varies by customer and month. To record demand, a special meter tracks the
flow of electricity to a facility over a period of time, usually 30-minute intervals.
Over the course of a month, the 30-minute interval with the highest demand is
recorded and reflected on a monthly bill.
Minimum Charges means a charge to recover the costs for providing customer service to
consumers even if no energy is consumed during the month.
Fixed Charges means the part of sale rate in a two-part tariff to be recovered on the basis of
Billing Demand in kilowatt on monthly basis.
Variable Charge means the sale rate per kilowatt-hour (kWh) as a single rate or part of a
two-part tariff applicable to the actual kWh consumed by the consumer during a billing
period.
Maximum Demand where applicable , means the maximum of the demand obtained in any
month measured over successive periods each of 30 minutes duration.
Sanctioned Load where applicable means the installed load in kilowatt as applied for by the
consumer and allowed/authorized by the Company for usage by the consumer.
Power Factor shall be to the ratio of kWh to KVAh recorded during the month or the ratio of
kWh to the square root of sum of square of kWh and kVARh,.
Formulae to be used:
Lab Manual
Department of Electrical Engineering
Lab Manual
Department of Electrical Engineering
EXPERIMENT 13
Home Electrical Wiring
OBJECTIVE
To make connections in home electrical wiring from services main to different
distribution boards and electrical points for appliances in a room.
APPARATUS
THEORY
Designing the home electrical wiring needs careful consideration because of safety. For wiring in
residential buildings or industrial buildings, wiring layout should be first prepared on the drawing
board. The number of light and power points in a building is determined not only by its size, but is
also a matter of individual preference especially in the case of residential buildings and as such the
owner should be consulted for this. The number of outlets should be adequate to ensure convenient
hooking up of the various electric operated gadgets & appliances. Minimum four outlets one per wall
should be provided in each room. Lamps & motors should normally be wires on different circuits.
EXERCISE
Make connection of the three phase watt hour meter with the service main and
distribute the three-phase incoming service main & neural wire to different
distribution boards & electrical points (for appliances) in different rooms of
the house.
Select cables for them.
Measure the total energy.
Also draw the circuit diagram on AUTOCAD using the standard symbols of
switch fan bulb etc.
Lab Manual
Department of Electrical Engineering
EXPERIMENT 14
Earthing
OBJECTIVE
To measure Earthing Resistance and Soil resistivity.
APPARATUS
THEORY
Earthing provides protection to personnel and equipment by ensuring operation of protective
control gear and isolation of the faulted circuit in the following cases.
Insulation puncture or failure
Breakdown of insulation between primary & secondary windings of a transformer.
Lighting stroke
Ensuring low earth resistance is important in earthing
process. In case where protection against the faulted list is
provided by mean of fuse or a circuit breaker, the total
resistance of the earth path must be low enough to enable the
operation of the protective device.
The earth electrode resistance depends upon the electrical
resistivity of the soil in which the electrode is installed,
which in turn is determined by the following factors:
1. Nature of soil
2. Extent of moisture
3. Presence of suitable salts dissolved in moisture.
TYPES OF EARTH ELECTRODES
Rod & Pipe Electrodes
Plate Electrodes
Strip or Round Conductor Electrodes
Plate Electrodes:
Plate electrodes consist of copper, cast iron or steel plate.
The minimum thickness of plate is recommended as
For cast iron - 12mm
For GI or steel - 6.3mm
For Copper - 3.15mm
And size not less than 600mm x 600mm.
Lab Manual
Department of Electrical Engineering
2A
Lab Manual
Department of Electrical Engineering
In this case, the approximate resistance to ground in a uniform soil can be expressed by:
100 8l
ln 1
2 * * l d
where
R= Resistance in
l = length of pipe in cm
d = internal diameter of pipe in cm
Resistivity of Soil:
Type of soil
1. Wet organic soil
2. Moist Soil
3. Dry Soil
4. Bed rock
Average resistivity ( )
10
100
1000
10000
It has been found that the resistivity of the soil can be reduces by a chemical treatment with
the following salts.
Normal Salt (NaCl) and a mixture of salt & soft coke.
MgSO4
CuSO4