CHAPTER 1

PART A: QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

Q-1. Define research. What are the characteristics of research?
William C. Emory;
Research is any organized inquiry designed and carried out to provide information for solving a
problem.
The Websters Dictionary states;
Research is a careful critical inquiry or examination in seeking facts or principles; diligent
investigation in order to ascertain something.
Characteristics of research:

1- Scientific method: Research uses scientific method to find facts or to provide solutions
to specific problems. The researcher needs to follow a systematic procedure to conduct
research. There is a set of procedures that have been tested over a period of time and are
thus suitable to use in research. This means each step in the research procedure must
follow the other.
Scientific research in any field of knowledge cannot be conducted in a haphazard manner.
Scientific research cannot be merely based on ones beliefs and imagination. To get the best
possible research results, the researcher needs to adopt the scientific method of inquiry or
investigation.

2- Objective and logical: The scientific research is objective and logical in nature.
Research is based on valid procedures and principles.
There is a need to collect relevant, accurate and objective data to investigate into the research
problem. Researchers need to make every possible effort to avoid bias in data collection.
After collection of objective data, the researcher needs to systematically process the data,

analyse and interpret it, and arrive at logical conclusions. Wherever required, the researcher
needs to systematically verify the findings and conclusions.

3- Applied and basic research: Applied research is designed to solve practical problems of
the modern world, rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledges sake. The goal of
applied research is to improve the human condition. It is generally used to solve a
particular problem. For instance, a social research can be conducted to study the problem
of unemployment in rural areas, and based on the research findings, appropriate measure
can be taken by government authorities to reduce the problem of unemployment.
Basic or fundamental research is driven by a scientists curiosity or interest in a scientific
question. The main goal of basic research is to expand mans knowledge. There is no
obvious commercial value to the discoveries that result from basic research. For instance,
basic research can be undertaken to study the origin of the universe.

4- Empirical nature of research: Research can be based on direct experience or

observation by the research. Empirical research is undertaken to study certain situations
or events based on experiments, observation and surveys. In empirical research, the
researcher develops a hypothesis and then collects data to prove it or to disprove it.

5- Generalization: Research findings can be applied to larger population. A researcher can

conduct a research on a sample of respondents that represent the universe. The sample
selection must be done systematically so that it properly represents the whole population
or the universe. The research findings based on sample population can then be
generalized and applied to the whole universe. Therefore, generalization takes place
when research findings based on sample response are applied to whole population.

6- Controlled nature of basic research: In real life experience there are many factors that
affect an outcome. A single event is often the result of several factors. When similar
event is tested in research, due to the broader nature of factors, some factors are taken as
controlled factors while others are tested for possible effect. In pure science it is very
easy to control certain factors because lab experiments are conducted.

7- Development of principles and theories: A systematic research helps to develop new

principles and theories. Such principles and theories can be useful to several
organizations to manage and deal with people and things in a better way. The general

laws or theories developed through research may enable us to make reliable predictions
of events, which have not yet occurred.

8- Multipurpose activity: Research is a multipurpose activity. It helps to discover new

facts or verify old facts. It helps not only to predict future events, but also may help to
control such events. It establishes casual relationship between variables. It also helps to
develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories, which would facilitate reliable and
valid study of human behavior and other aspects.

9- Manipulation of concepts: The researcher tries to manipulate things, or concepts. The

manipulation or purposeful control of things, or concepts is done with a definite purpose
so as to statements of generality. For instance, a researcher may manipulate the
environment in a workplace such as lighting, or layout or seating arrangement to find out
its impact on the productivity of the employees.
10- Quantitative and qualitative research: Research undertaken to measure quantity or
amount is called as quantitative research. For instance, research undertaken to find out the
number of unemployed graduates or the number of unemployed in general. On the other
hand, research, which is undertaken to find out the quality of a particular situation or
phenomenon, is called as qualitative research. For instance, a research undertaken to find out
the reasons as to why employee remain absent from work, or why people behave in certain
manner. The motivational research is an important type of qualitative research. Qualitative
research is especially important in the behavioral sciences where the main aim is to find out
the underlying motives of human behavior.
Q-2. Explain need of research in business and social science?
Need and importance of research in business: Business organizations can gain significantly
with the help of research. The research and development to develop new products, improve the
design and quality of existing ones, and to reduce costs. The marketing research helps to solve
marketing problems relating to price, promotion, physical distribution, packaging, positioning,
and so on.
The need and importance of research in business is stated as follows:

a- Product development: Through marketing research, a business firm can identify the
customer requirements, and therefore, it is possible to design new models or to
modify existing products to satisfy the customers. For instance, through marketing
research, a car manufacturing company may find out that the customers look for
features, after- sale-sale service, re-sale value, right price, fuel efficiency, and so on.
Accordingly, the product will be designed and marketed.

b- Reduction in costs: Research in business helps a firm to reduce costs. The research
may indicate the areas where high costs are involved. It may be possible for the firm
to cut down the costs in certain areas. Therefore, cost-reduction will improve the
overall efficiency of the organization, i.e., the organization will be in a position to
achieve higher returns at a lower cost.

c- Marketing mix decisions: Marketing research enables a firm to arrive at sound

marketing mix decisions with respect to product, price, promotion, and physical
distribution.
Product decisions: As mentioned earlier, marketing research enables a firm to design
the right product to satisfy customer requirements.
Pricing decisions: Marketing research enables a firm to analyse competitors pricing,
customer price sensitiveness. Etc., and accordingly, the firm can fix the right prices.
For instance, if the customers for a particular product are not price sensitive, the firm
may charge a higher price, especially when it enjoys a good image in the market.
Promotion mix decisions: Marketing research may enable a firm to adopt effective
promotion mix. If promotion mix research is not conducted, the firm may give more
emphasis on certain elements of promotion mix, thereby, ignoring the other elements.
Place decisions: Marketing research may also enable the firm to take appropriate
place decisions, with reference to area of distribution, channel selection, incentives to
channel intermediaries, etc. for instance, the firm may increase marketing efforts in
those areas where it gets low sales, or if the existing channels are not effective, it may
select alternative channels, etc.

d- Customer relationships: Marketing research may help the firm to develop good
relations with its customers, especially, the priority customers. Research can help the
firm to collect valuable inputs about the priority customers. Based on the inputs, the

firm can adopt various customer relationship techniques such as package of loyalty
incentives, one-to-one marketing, effective after-sale-services, incentives for
customer suggestions, etc.

e- Dealer relationships: Nowadays, dealer relationships are vital for the survival and
success of a business organization. Marketing research enables a business firm to
main good relationship with dealers. Through research, the firm can get feedback
from the dealers regarding their expectations. Accordingly, the firm may take
appropriate decisions relating to dealers compensation and incentives so as to
maintain good relationship.

f- Corporate image: Nowadays, firms need to build, maintain, and enhance corporate
image in the minds of shareholders- customers, dealers, employee, and others. For
instance, consumer research may enable the firm to obtain feedback on customer
requirements and expectations.

g- Competitive advantage: Through research, a company can take proactive decisions,

such as introduction of new models, introduce price changes, undertake innovative
promotional schemes, and so on. The proactive decisions can confer competitive
advantage to the firm. Also, through research, the firm can find out the strengths of
the competitors, which make certain buyers to prefer competitors brand.

h- Market expansion: With the help of marketing research inputs, the company can
identify the markets that have good potential. Accordingly, the marketer can enter in
new markets. Entry in new markets can be undertaken with the help of appropriate
marketing activities, such as promotional activities- publicity, advertising,
salesmanship, sales-promotion, etc.
Need and importance of research in social sciences: Social sciences refer to business,
commerce, demography, psychology, sociology, etc. Research in social sciences deals
with the peoples behavior in their different roles, such as consumers, consultant,
learners, leaders, teachers, trainers, employees, executives, procedures, parents, artists,
advisors, etc.
The research in social sciences provides workable solutions to economic and social problems.

1- Modifies social behaviour: Social research studies social behaviour. Almost all our social
problems could be attributed to certain social behaviour of the members of the society. Social
research collects relevant data on social bahaviour, analyses it and recommendations are listed.

1- Development of methodology: Development of methodology to deal with social

issues is one of the contributions of social research. For instance, organizations
face the problem of executive stress, lack of concern for ethics, poor leadership
styles, employee absenteeism and turnover, etc. To overcome such problems,
certain methodology, needs to be developed. Social research enables the
organizations to develop appropriate methodology to study, analyse, and to take
suitable action to overcome the problems.

2- Social development: Social research contributes to societal development. Social

development can be measured in terms of literacy, life expectancy, and other
social development indicators. Research can be undertaken to improve social
development standards of the society. For instance, social research can be
conducted to improve literacy in a particular state. The researchers may study the
measures

adopted

by

highly

literate

states,

and

accordingly

make

recommendations to use such measures so as to improve the literacy rate in low

literacy states.

3- Social welfare: Government organizations can undertake social research to

enhance social welfare of the society. Research can help to design suitable
package of measures to reduce income inequalities, to reduce poverty and
unemployment, to overcome the problems of social evils such as drug addictions,
abuse of alcohol, gambling, and so on.
For instance, to reduce inequalities of income, government adopts progressive
taxation, undertakes transfer payments in form of subsidies, unemployment
allowance, pension to poor senior citizens and handicapped persons, and so on.

4- Formulation of new theories: Social research helps to formulate new theories.

The existing theories can be reevaluated and modified with the help of social
research. For instance, social research has enabled to develop several theories on
leadership, motivation, job satisfaction, group dynamic, and so on. These theories

enable business and non business organizations to design suitable packages for
uplifting the social behaviour of their members.

5- Social planning and control: Social research is a tool for social planning and
control. Any constructive action needs to be planned for effective implementation
so as to achieve the desired outcome. Also, the research may indicate suitable
control measures to correct deviations as and when the deviations occur.
Timely corrective measures would enable to organizations to save lot of time,
effort and money and at the same time, the organization would be in a position to
achieve its predetermined goals.

6- Economic planning: Social science research can be of immense use in economic

planning in a given society. Economic planning requires basic data on the various
aspects of our society and economy, resource endowment and the needs, hopes
and problems of the people, etc. Economic planning is undertaken to achieve
certain objectives such as;
a- To bring about regional development.
b- To make optimum use of available resources.
c- To bring out self-reliance.
d- To generate employment, etc.
A systematic research provides the required data for planning and developing
various schemes or programmes such as employment generation programmes,
rural development programmes, etc.

7- Prediction of events in society: Research can be undertaken to predict future

events in the society and their impact.
For instance, research may be undertaken to find out the incidence of poverty and
its impact on society. The findings of such research would not only indicate the
causes of poverty on the nation. Such research may make the concerned
authorities to take appropriate measures to reduce the incidence of poverty,
thereby, reducing the negative consequences for the society.

Q-3. Discuss in detail different types of research?

The research activity can be classified into different categories. Some of the main types of
research are as follows:
1- Basic research: Basic research is also called as pure or fundamental research. It is
undertaken to develop a theory or body of knowledge. The main goal of basic research is
to expand mans knowledge. In basic research, there is no commercial angel.
In basic research, there is no obvious commercial value to the discoveries that result from basic
research. In almost all countries, pure research is mainly carried out by universities and institutes
financed by the government.
Basic research generates new ideas, principles, and theories, which may not be immediately
utilized. However, the new theories or ideas form the basis of progress and development in
different fields.
2- Applied research: Applied research is a scientific study designed to solve practical
problems, rather than merely acquiring knowledge.
Applied research is used to find solutions to everyday problems, and develop innovative
technologies.The goal of applied research is to improve the human condition. It is generally used
to

handle

particular

situation

or

to

solve

particular

problem.

The applied research can be undertaken by business organization as well. For instance, a
business organization may undertake applied research to find out the causes of poor sales of a
particular brand in the market. The research findings can be used to design necessary measures to
overcome the problem of poor sales.
3- Descriptive research: Descriptive research or statistical research provides data about the
population or universe being studied. But it can only describe the who, what, when,

where and how of a situation. Therefore, descriptive research is used when the objective
is to provide a systematic description that is as factual and accurate as possible. The two
most commonly types of descriptive research methods include observation method and
the survey method.One of the major limitations is that it cannot help determine what
causes a specific behaviour, motivation or occurrence.
The descriptive research provides facts of a particular event or situation. It gives a description of
the state of affairs, as it exists of a particular event or situation. The researcher has no control
over the situation or event. He can only report what has happened or what is happening.
4- Analytical research: Analytical research is undertaken to collect facts or data, or the
facts or data may be readily available. The researcher attempts to critically evaluate such
facts and data so as to arrive at conclusions.
This type of research may establish the cause and effect relationship. The researcher may
provide necessary recommendations to improve or solve the problem or to handle certain
situation or event.The analytical research helps to understand the cause-effect relationship
between variables. It also helps to focus on those variables that have greater positive effect, and
to eliminate certain variables that have negative effect on the situation.
5- Empirical research: Empirical research can be defined as research based on
experimentation or observation. Empirical research is a way of gaining knowledge by
means of direct and indirect observation or experience or experiment. Such research is
conducted to test a hypothesis.
The word empirical means information gained by experience, observation, or experiment. The
central theme in scientific method is that all evidence must be empirical which means it is based
on evidence. Empirical evidence can be analyzed quantitatively or qualitatively.
6- Qualitative research: Qualitative research is a method of inquiry employed in many
disciplines, especially in the social sciences. Qualitative researchers, aim to gather an in
depth understanding of human bahaviour and the reasons that govern such behaviour.
The qualitative method investigates the why and how of decision making, not just what,

where, and when.Qualitative research is especially important in the behavioural sciences

where the main aim is to find out the underlying motives of human behaviour.
7- Quantitative research: Quantitative research is explaining phenomena by collecting
numerical data that are analysed using mathematically based methods. The objective of
quantitative research is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories and or
hypotheses pertaining to phenomena. The researcher asks a specific, narrow question and
collects a sample of numerical data from the respondents. The researcher analyzes the
data with help of statistics.
More generally, quantitative research is widely used in social sciences such as psychology,
economic, sociology, marketing community health, health and human development, gender and
political science and less frequently in anthropology and history.
8- Other types of research:
Research can be classified into various other types such as:

Field research or laboratory research

One time research or multi period research

Conclusion oriented research or decision oriented research.

Historical research or current situation research.

Q-4. What is research methodology? What are the requisite of good scientific methods.
Research Methodology is a way to find out the result of a given problem on a specific matter or
problem that is also referred as research problem. In Methodology, researcher uses different
criteria for solving/searching the given research problem. Different sources use different type of
methods for solving the problem. If we think about the word Methodology, it is the way of
searching or solving the research problem.
In Research Methodology, researcher always tries to search the given question systematically in
our own way and find out all the answers till conclusion. If research does not work
systematically on problem, there would be less possibility to find out the final result. For finding
or exploring research questions, a researcher faces lot of problems that can be effectively
resolved with using correct research methodology.

The scientific method is one and same in the branches (of science) and that method is the
method of all logically trained minds the unity of all sciences consists alone in its methods,
not its material; the man who classifies facts of any kind whatever, who sees their mutual
relation and describes their sequences, is applying the Scientific Method and is a man of
science. 8 Scientific method is the pursuit of truth as determined by logical considerations. The
ideal of science is to achieve a systematic interrelation of facts. Scientific method attempts to
achieve this ideal by experimentation, observation, logical arguments from accepted postulates
and a combination of these three in varying proportions.

In scientific method, logic aids in

formulating propositions explicitly and accurately so that their possible alternatives become
clear. Further, logic develops the consequences of such alternatives, and when these are
compared with observable phenomena, it becomes possible for the researcher or the scientist to
state which alternative is most in harmony with the observed facts. All this is done through
experimentation and survey investigations which constitute the integral parts of scientific
method.
1- Observation: it is either an activity of a living being (such as a human), consisting of
receiving knowledge of the outside world through the senses, or the recording of data
using scientific instruments.
2- Empirical evidence: it is research that bases its findings on direct or indirect observation
as its test of reality.
3- Commitment to the objectivity: forming judgement upon facts unbiased by personal
impressions.
4- Verifiability: the result of research by a scientist should be verifiable.
5- Use of relevant concepts: research will only relevant concept. They will help in our
thinking and communication. Otherwise clarity and correct understanding cannot be
achieved.
6- Formulation of hypothesis: shrewd guess or imagination formulated by researcher.
7- Logical reasoning process: logical reasoning process is when you use your logic and
think of possible solutions.
8- Ethical neutrality: researcher should be ethically neutral.
Q-5. Explain the steps or process in scientific research?

Scientific research is a systematic process undertaken to study the research problem and to arrive
at conclusions.Each research problem is unique and requires a special emphasis and approach.
One way to face the uniqueness of every problem is to tailor the research work according to
needs of each problem.The scientific research process consists of a sequence of steps that have to
be followed while undertaking a research project:

1- Identifying and selection of research problem: Identifying or formulation of research

problem is the first and most important step of research process. The problem formulation
is like an identification of a destination before undertaking a journey. It is often said that
a well defined problem is half solved.
Before formulating the research problem, the research must always think- what the problem is,
why it is problem, and for whom the problem is.
The following are some of the essentials of good problem formulation:
a) Researchable- : The problem can be investigated through the collection
and analysis of data.
b) Interesting-: The problem keeps the researcher involved in it throughout
the research process.
c) Purposeful-: The findings of which must be useful to solve the problem
or situation.
d) Understandable-: Well formulated and logically structured with main
questions and sub-questions.

2- Review of literature: The researcher should undertake extensive literature survey

relating to the problem. He may consider various publications, such as journals, books,
research report, and other published matter. Particularly, the researcher should go through
the similar research studies that were conducted previously. Such review of literature
would provide a good insight into the problem.

3- Formulation of hypothesis: The researcher should formulate the hypothesis. The

hypothesis is a tentative assumption made to test its logical or empirical consequences.
The hypothesis should be formulated on the basis of insight and knowledge about the
problem. The hypothesis may prove to be either wrong or right.

4- Research design: The researcher must prepare a research design. It is a logical and
systematic plan prepared for conducting a research study. It can be called as a blue print
for collection, measurement and analysis of data. The research design provides guidelines
to researcher regarding the time period within which research is to be conducted, the type
of data is to be collected, the techniques of data collection and data analysis and so on.
The research design must include the following aspects:

A clear statement of the research problem.

The source of data collection.

The time period of research study.

The area or place where research is to be conducted.

The resources required to conduct the research.

The techniques of data collection.

The universe of research.

5- Designing the questionnaire: If the researcher cannot solve the problem with the help of
secondary data, observation and experimentation, then he should make efforts to collect
the primary data from the field for which he requires a questionnaire. While designing a
questionnaire, the following points must be kept in mind:

What type of information is required?

What type of technique will be used for conducting the research, i.e.,
whether telephone interview, personal interview or mail?

There should be proper wording and proper sequence of questions.

6- Sampling design: Generally, it is not possible to collect data from each member of the
universe or population under study due to limitations of time, effort, and money.
Therefore, the researcher needs to select a sample of respondents that represent the
universe.

Sampling design is a plan to select the appropriate sample to collect the right data so as to
achieve the research objectives. Sample represents those individuals chosen from the population
of interest as subjects in an experiment or to be respondents to a survey.

There are certain essentials of a good sampling design:

The sample must be representative of the universe.

The sample size must be economical or cost effective.

The sample size should be suitable to collect relevant data

The sample size must be flexible and not rigid.

7- Collection of data: Problem solving is essentially a process of collecting information.

The data can be collected from various sources- primary and secondary. While collecting
data care should be taken of:

Information is up-to date and free from bias.

It is objective and relevant to the needs of problem.

It is complete in all respects.

8- Processing of data: The collected data is mostly available in a raw form and therefore, it
needs to be processed. Processing of data involves:
a) Editing-: It helps to weed out unwanted and irrelevant data. It also helps
to check errors and omissions in data collection.
b) Coding-: it involves assigning codes to the categories or responses. It is
required especially when sample size is large and when there is large
number of responses.
c) Classification-: It refers to grouping of data under different categories or
classes such as age, gender, education, area, etc. It facilitates tabulation of
data.
d) Tabulation-: It involves transferring of classified data in a tabular form.
Tabulation of data facilitates analysis and interpretation of data.

9- Data analysis: Organization of data is generally followed by its analysis and

interpretation. The purpose of analyzing data is to establish a relation between the
information and problem. They quite often overlap and so it is difficult to find out the end
of analysis and the beginning of interpretation.

10-

Hypothesis testing: After analysis and interpretation of data, the researcher must

be in a position to test the hypothesis. Various tests, such as chi-square test, f-test, etc.
have been developed for such testing. The testing of hypothesis will result in either
accepting it or rejecting it.

11-

Preparation of research report: The research findings and conclusions are

presented with the help of research report. The research report is divided into three parts:
a) Preliminary contents- which includes title of the report, letter of
authorization, letter of transmittal, and table of contents.
b) Main body- which includes introduction, methodology, findings,
limitations if any, conclusions and recommendations.
c) Concluding part- which includes appendix and bibliography.

12-

Follow up of report: the researcher should submit the report to concerned

authorities. For instance, a doctorate thesis is to be submitted to guide for approval and
then to the concerned university. The researcher should find out whether his report is
accepted. If accepted, whether his recommendations are accepted and implemented. If
implemented, whether the recommendations are successful in solving the problem.
Q-6. Write a note on review of literature?
Review of literature is an important stage in research activity. Review of literature refers to
extensive review of literature relating to research problem which the researcher intends to
undertake. The researcher reviews previous research studies, relevant reference books, articles in
specific journals and other published sources. Such review of literature provides a good insight
into the research problem. He evaluates the conclusions drawn from the research findings. He
also analysis the impact of the recommendations made by the other researchers.

When to undertake literature review?

The literature review can be conducted throughout the research activity. It starts with the
identification and selection of the research problem. It continues throughout the various stages of
research process and ends with the writing of research report.
Steps in review of literature:

Identify and select the research problem.

Determine the sources of literature relevant to the research problem which may include
doctoral these, articles in journals, reference books, and other published and unpublished
sources.

Read and understand the relevant literature relating to the research problem.

Note record the relevant information,

Analyse the relevant information

Purpose of review of literature:

To get background knowledge of the research topic.

To formulate research hypothesis.

To prepare research design to undertake the research problem.

To understand the structure of research report.

To compile bibliography.

Q-7. What is research design and explain its essentials?

A research design is defined as a logical and systematic plan prepared for directing a
research study. It specifies the objective of the study; the methodologies and techniques to be
adopted for achieving the objectives. - Philips Bernad
Research design actually constitutes the blue print for the collection, measurement and analysis
of the data.

- David & Nachmias

Essentials of a good research design:

To make research design more effective, the researcher must consider certain guidelines or
essentials:

1- Focus on objectives: The research design must focus on the research objectives. The
research objectives must be very clear to the researcher as well as to the research staff.
The research objectives differ depending upon the type of research.

2- Flexibility: The research design should not be rigid. The research design must be flexible
depending upon the situation

3- Pilot study: It is always advisable to conduct a pilot study for finalizing the research
design. Pilot study is a research activity undertaken on a small segment of the research
universe.

4- Acceptance: The research design must be acceptable to the persons concerned. For
instance:

In case of social research, the research design must be acceptable to the social or
other organizations that are going to finance or sponsor the research activity.

5- Suitability: The research design must be suitable to achieve research objectives. Certain
factors to be considered while finalizing the research design as follows:

The availability of funds.

The available of time.

The availability of manpower.

6- Simplicity: The research design should be simple and easy to understand. The language
used in the research design must be clear and simple.

7- Cost effective: The research design should be cost effective. In a commercial research,
the research work based on research design must bring benefits to the organization.

8- Training to the research staff: To conduct effective research, proper training must be
given to the research staff. Training helps to improve: knowledge, attitude, skills and
social bahaviour.
Q-8. Explain different types of research design?
The research design can be broadly divided into two groups:

a- Exploratory research
b- Conclusive research

Descriptive research

Diagnostic research

a- Exploratory research: it is conducted to explore information about the nature or causes

of research problem. It is conducted when the causes of the research problem are not
known to the researcher.
Exploratory research can be conducted for the following purposes:

To defined the problem more clearly.

To develop hypothesis.

To identify alternate courses of action.

Features of exploratory research:

1- Unstructured: Generally, exploratory research does not have a formalized set of
objectives, sample plan or questionnaire. It is conducted when a researcher does not
know much about the problem and needs additional information.
2- Flexible: Exploratory research is systematic but it is very flexible. It allows researcher to
investigate the problem from whatever sources he/ she desires. The extent of information
also depends upon the researcher.
3- Informal: Often exploratory research is conducted at the outset of a research project.
Exploratory research is aimed at gaining additional information about a topic and
generating possible hypotheses. Therefore, it is described as informal.

b- Descriptive research: it is conducted to obtain descriptive information about certain

aspects of a problem. For instance, a researcher may like to know detailed information
about students appearing for m.com part 2 of university of Mumbai in aspect of age,
income, gender, occupation, etc.
A descriptive research may be undertaken for commercial purpose. A marketer may try to
find answer for questions like:

Who the customers are? (firms / competitors)

What they buy? (quantity, quality, size)

When they buy? (time / season)

Types of descriptive research:

a- Cross sectional studies: measure population aspects at only one point of time. For
example- sample survey by a magazine publisher of magazine readers.

b- Longitudinal studies- measure repeatedly the same population over a period of time. For
example, a marketer may undertake panel surveys.
Q-9. What is sampling? Explain essentials of good sampling.
Sampling design is a plan designed to select the appropriate sample in order to collect the
right data so as to achieve research objectives.
A sample is a part of the universe that can be used as respondents to a survey or for the
purpose of experimentation, in order to collect relevant information to solve a particular
problem.
those individuals chosen from the population of interest as subjects in an
experiment or to be the respondents to a survey.
Essentials of good sampling: In sampling, a part of the universe is selected for obtaining
information. Therefore, sampling offers several essentials to the researcher, as follows:

1- Time saving: sampling helps to save time in respect of collection and analysis of data.
2- Overcomes complexities: sampling helps to reduce complexities in research work. If a
limited sample is used, then fewer respondents are required to collect data. As a result,
the researcher may require less time for editing, coding, and interpretation of data.

3- Motivation to research staff: limited sample size brings relief to the research staff. They
get motivated to collect the right information. This is because; they get sufficient time for
collection and analysis of data. Secondly, they may get higher rewards due to good
quality research work.

4- Detailed information: due to sampling, the researcher can collect detailed information
from the sample respondents. For instance, in case of commercial research relating to the
study of customer behaviour, the researcher can obtain detailed information in respect of:

What the consumers buy?

When they buy?

Where they buy?

How often they buy?

5- Economical: sampling generates economy in conducting research. For any research,

availability of funds is a constraint. A smaller sample requires less fund not only for data
collection but also for processing and interpretation of data.

6- Suitability: the sampling technique is suitable in the case of commercial and academic
research. But the sampling technique is not suitable in case of census survey. This is
because, in census survey, relevant data must be collected from every household or every
element of the universe.

7- Optimum use of resources: sampling helps to make optimum use of resources.

Depending upon the resources, the researcher selects the appropriate sample size.
Therefore, proper sample size will help to make best use of physical, human and financial
resources.

8- Quality of research work: the quality of research work may be improved due to
sampling. The field staff will get sufficient time to collect the data from respondents.
They need not rush through the collection of data. Also, data analysis staff gets sufficient
time for data analysis. Therefore, the overall quality of the research work improves.
Q-10. Explain different methods or techniques of sampling?
The methods of sampling can be broadly divided into two groups:
1- Probability methods
a- Simple random sampling
b- Systematic sampling
c- Cluster sampling
d- Stratified sampling
2- Non-probability methods
a- Convenience sampling
b- Accidental sampling
c- Judgement sampling

d- Quota sampling

1- Probability methods: probability is also known random sampling. Probability means

possible chance. Therefore, each element of the population has known chance or
opportunity of being selected or included in the sample.
Features:

The results of probability sampling are more accurate and reliable.

It helps in the formulation of a true representative sample by eliminating

human biases.

Probability sampling is commonly used in research because of its sound

theoretical and mathematical base.

a- Simple random sampling: this is the most popular method which is normally
followed to collect research data. This technique provides every element or unit
an equal chance of being selected in the simple.

b- Systematic sampling: it is variation of simple random method. This technique is

superior to simple random method. In this case, a sampling fraction is calculated
based on the total population under study. After the sampling fraction is
calculated, a certain number is selected at random and the process continues to
select the sample size.

c- Cluster size: cluster sampling is also called as area sampling. Under this
method, instead of selecting individual units, the researcher divides the
population into clusters or groups and accordingly sample is selected.

d- Stratified sampling: the population is divided into various strata or segments

based on income, occupation, age, religion, gender, etc. after dividing the
population into different segments, certain number of sample members is
selected from each stratum or segment.
2- Non-probability methods:

a- Convenience sampling: the sample is selected as per the convenience of the

researcher. Under this method, every element of the population does not get a chance
of being selected.

b- Accidental sampling: the researcher may select the sample by chance without
following a systematic procedure. Every element of the universe does not get a
chance of being selected.

c- Judgement sampling: the sample is selected based on the judgement of the

researcher or some other person assisting or advising the researcher.

d- Quota sampling: under this method, the researcher allocates certain quota to certain
groups under study. The quotas may differ from each area depending upon certain
factors like age, occupation, income, etc.
Q-11. What is secondary data and explain its limitations?
The secondary data is readily available data from published printed sources. The secondary data
is generally used in the case of academic research and to a certain extent in case of social
research.
Generally the researcher first makes an attempt to obtain information from secondary sources to
solve the problem. However, when the secondary data is insufficient and outdated, the researcher
resorts to primary data.
There are certain limitations of secondary data collection methods such as follows:

1- Problem of accuracy: The quality of secondary data is affected due to the problem of
accuracy. One cannot be certain of the genuineness of data. The records may not be well
maintained or organized. Therefore, one must be cautious in using secondary data.

2- Problem of reliability: The secondary data lacks, reliability. The published data may be
outdated, and therefore, it may not serve the purpose of the current research work
undertaken by the researcher.

3- Problem of adequacy: At times, the secondary data may be accurate and reliable, but the
data may be insufficient to solve the current research problem. The secondary data may
not provide complete data to solve research problem.

4- Lack of in- depth information: The secondary data not only may lack adequacy, but it
may not provide in-depth information to solve the research problem. For instance,

commercial research requires in-depth knowledge of consumer behaviour which can be

obtained more through in-depth questioning of the target respondents.

5- Problem in quality decision making: The secondary data may affect the quality of
decision making. This is because, the data may be inaccurate, insufficient and unreliable.
Therefore, the decisions made purely on the basis of secondary data would bring poor
outcomes.

6- Problem of specific data: The secondary data may be more general in nature rather than
specific. The researcher needs specific data to solve specific problems. Therefore, the
researcher cannot depend merely on secondary data, but instead collect specific data to
solve the specific problem.

7- Unsuitability: The secondary data may not be suitable in certain cases. Secondary data
may be of less use in case of commercial research. To solve business related problems, a
researcher may require more of primary data rather than secondary data.

8- Problem of biased information: There is possibility of bias in secondary data. The

researcher has no control over the quality of the secondary data. The secondary data may
be badly influenced by the bias of the respondents and also that of the researcher.
Therefore, one should not blindly depend on secondary data.
Q-12. Explain different methods of collecting primary data?
The primary data collection methods include:
1- Survey / interview method
2- Observation method
3- Experimentation method
1- Survey / interview method: The survey can be census survey or sample method. In case
of census survey, the entire universe is contacted to collect the data. In sample survey
method, only a part of the universe is selected to collect the data. But the sample should
be so selected that it represents the universe.
Under the survey method, the data is collected through interviews.
The interviews can be:- personal interview,- telephone interview or mail survey.

a- Personal interview: it is a face to face interaction between the interviewer and the
respondent. The interviewer may ask the questions, and the respondent accordingly
responds.

b- Telephone interview: it is a method of conducting interview by telephone the

respondents. The series of questions are asked on phone and the answers are
recorded. It is a very popular method extensively used in western countries.

c- Mail survey: it is another method of data collection. A questionnaire is prepared

containing a list of questions to solicit information from selected respondents. This
questionnaire is sent through post or advertised in a newspaper or magazine,
explaining the purpose of the questionnaire and a request to complete and return it to
the researcher. A reply paid envelop may also be given to the respondent wherever
possible to encourage the respondents to promptly send the answers.

2- Observation method: The researcher obtains information of the subjects under study
with the help of observation rather than by way of interviewing. For instance, a
researcher studying customer buying behaviour at shopping malls; then he would visit the
shopping malls observe the behaviour of the customers in terms of:

What they buy / prefer?

How much they buy?

3- Experimentation method: the experimentation method is mostly used in the case of

scientific research study. With the help of experimentation, the researcher may like to
study the cause-effect relationship between two or more variables.
The experimentation method can be also used in development of a new product. For
instance, a firm may like to introduce fuel efficient bike or some other product.
Therefore, R & D experiments may be required so as to develop the fuel efficient
product. The newly developed product may be subject to trials before it is launched in the
market.

Advantages:

It provides first hand information.

It provides reliable and relevant information.

The researcher may be in a position to develop new techniques / methods.

Disadvantages:

It may be very expensive as lot of money may be required for experimentation.

At times, lot of time and effort is required on the part of the researcher.

The delay in results may generate frustration on the part of the researcher.

PART B: RESEARCH ON CASTEISM IN INDIA

INTRODUCTION
The caste system in India is a system of social stratification which has pre-modern origins, was
transformed by the British Raj, and is today the basis of educational and job reservations in
India. It consists of two different concepts, varna and jti, which may be regarded as different
levels of analysis of this system.
Varna may be translated as "class," and refers to the four social classes which existed in
the Vedic society, namely Brahmins, Kshatriyas,Vaishyas and Shudras. Certain groups, now
known as Dalits, were historically excluded from the varna system altogether, and are still
ostracised as untouchables.
Jti may be translated as caste, and refers to birth. The names of jtis are usually derived from
occupations, and considered to be hereditary and endogamous, but this may not always have
been the case. The jtis developed in post-Vedic times, possibly from crystallisation of guilds
during its feudal era. The jtis are often thought of as belonging to one of the four varnas.
The varnas and jatis have pre-modern origins, and social stratification may already have existed
in pre-Vedic times. Between around 2200 BCE and 100 CE admixture between northern and
southern populations in India took place, after which a shift to endogamy took place. This shift
may be explained by the "imposition of some social values and norms" which were "enforced
through the powerful state machinery of a developing political economy".
The caste system as it exists today is thought to be the result of developments during the collapse
of the Mughal era and the British colonial regime in India. The collapse of the Mughal era saw
the rise of powerful men who associated themselves with kings, priests and ascetics, affirming
the regal and martial form of the caste ideal, and it also reshaped many apparently casteless
social groups into differentiated caste communities. The British Raj furthered this development,
making rigid caste organisation a central mechanism of administration. Between 1860 and 1920,
the British segregated Indians by caste, granting administrative jobs and senior appointments
only to the upper castes. Social unrest during the 1920s led to a change in this policy. From then
on, the colonial administration began a policy of positive discrimination by reserving a certain
percentage of government jobs for the lower castes.

Caste-based differences have also been practised in other regions and religions in the Indian
subcontinent like Nepalese Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, Judaism and Sikhism. It has been
challenged by many reformist Hindu movements, Islam, Sikhism, Christianity and also by
present-day Indian Buddhism.
New developments took place after India achieved independence, when the policy of caste-based
reservation of jobs was formalised with lists of Scheduled Castes (Dalit) and Scheduled
Tribes (Adivasi). Since 1950, the country has enacted many laws and social initiatives to protect
and improve the socioeconomic conditions of its lower caste population. These caste
classifications for college admission quotas, job reservations and other affirmative action
initiatives, according to the Supreme Court of India, are based on heredity and are not
changeable.[23][a] Discrimination against lower castes is illegal in India under Article 15 of its
constitution, and India tracks violence against Dalits nationwide.

HISTORY
Vedic period (1500-1000 BCE)
During the time of the Rigveda, there were two varnas, the rya varna and the dsa varna. The
distinction oringally arose from tribal divisions. The Vedic tribes regarded themselves
as rya (the noble ones) and the rival tribes were called dsa, dasyu and pani. The dsas were
frequent allies of the Aryan tribes, and they were probably assimilated into the Aryan society,
giving rise to a class distinction. Many dsas were however in a servile position, giving rise to
the eventual meaning of dsa as servant or slave.
Later Vedic period (1000-600 BCE)
In an early Upanishad, Shudra as referred to as Pan or nourisher, suggesting that Shudras were
the tillers of the soil. But soon afterwards, Shudras are not counted among the tax-payers and
they are said to be given away along with the land when it is gifted. The majority of the artisans
were also reduced to the position of Shudras, but there is no contempt indicated for their
work. The Brahmins and the Kshatriyas are given a special position in the rituals, distinguishing
them from both the Vaishyas and the Shudras. The Vaishya is said to be "oppressed at will" and
the Shudra "beaten at will."

Imperial rule and the end of population mixture (ca. 100 CE)
According to Moorjani et al. (2013), widespread population mixture took place between 4,200
and 1,900 years ago (2200 BCE-100 CE), where-after a shift to endogamy took place and
admixture became rare. According to Moorjani et al. (2013), the end of admixture is also
documented in Indian texts of that time. While the early parts of the Rig Veda reflect social
mobility and the assimilation of non-Vedic people, post-Vedic texts as the Book of Manu
forbade intermarriage between castes.
Late classical and early medieval period (650 to 1400 CE)
Scholars have tried to locate historical evidence for the existence and nature of varna and jati in
documents and inscriptions of medieval India. Supporting evidence for the existence and nature
of varna and jati systems in medieval India has been elusive, and contradicting evidence has
emerged.
Varna is rarely mentioned in extensive medieval era records of Andhra Pradesh, for example.
This has led Cynthia Talbot, a professor of History and Asian Studies, to question whether varna
was socially significant in the daily lives of this region. The mention of Jati is even rarer, through
the 13th century. Two rare temple donor records from warrior families of the 14th century CE
claim to be Shudras, one states that Shudras are the bravest, the other states Shudras are the
purest. Richard Eaton, a professor of History, writes, "anyone could become warrior regardless
of social origins, nor do jati - another pillar of alleged traditional Indian society - appear as
features of people's identity. Occupations were fluid." Evidence shows, states Eaton, that
Shudras were part of the nobility, and many "father and sons had different professions,
suggesting that social status was earned, not inherited" in the Hindu Kakatiya population, in the
Deccan region of India, between 11th to 14th century CE
Medieval era, Islamic Sultanates and Mughal empire period (1000 to 1750 CE)
Early and mid 20th century Muslim historians, such as Hashimi in 1927 and Qureshi in 1962,
proposed that "caste system was established before the arrival of Islam, and it and a nomadic
savage lifestyle" in the northwest Indian subcontinent were the primary cause why Sindhi nonMuslims "embraced Islam in flocks" when Arab Muslim armies invaded the region. According
to this hypothesis, the mass conversions occurred from the lower caste Hindus and Mahayana

Buddhists who had become "corroded from within by the infiltration of Hindu beliefs and
practices". This theory is now widely believed to be baseless and false.[149][150]
Derryl MacLein, a professor of social history and Islamic studies, states that historical evidence
does not support this theory, whatever evidence is available suggests that Muslim institutions in
north-west India legitimised and continued any inequalities that existed, and that neither
Buddhists nor "lower caste" Hindus converted to Islam because they viewed Islam to lack a caste
system. Conversions to Islam were rare, states MacLein, and conversions attested by historical
evidence confirms that the few who did convert were Brahmin Hindus (theoretically, the upper
caste). MacLein states the caste and conversion theories about Indian society during the Islamic
era are not based on historical evidence or verifiable sources, but personal assumptions of
Muslim historians about the nature of Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism in northwest Indian
subcontinent.
During British rule (1857 to 1947 CE)
Although the varnas and jatis have pre-modern origins, the caste system as it exists today is the
result of developments during the post-Mughal period and the British colonial regime, which
made caste organisation a central mechanism of administration.
Jati were the basis of caste ethnology during the British colonial era. In the 1881 census and
thereafter, colonial ethnographers used caste (jati) headings, to count and classify people in what
was then British India (now India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Burma). The 1891 census included
60 sub-groups each subdivided into six occupational and racial categories, and the number
increased in subsequent censuses. The British colonial era census caste tables, states Susan
Bayly, "ranked, standardised and cross-referenced jati listings for Indians on principles similar to
zoology and botanical classifications, aiming to establish who was superior to whom by virtue of
their supposed purity, occupational origins and collective moral worth". While bureaucratic
British officials completed reports on their zoological classification of Indian people, some
British officials criticised these exercises as being little more than a caricature of the reality of
caste system in India.
Contemporary India
Societal stratification, and the inequality that comes with it, still exists in India, and has been
thoroughly criticised. Government policies aim at reducing this inequality by reservation, quota

for backward classes, but paradoxically also have created an incentive to keep this stratification
alive. The Indian government officially recognises historically discriminated communities of
India such as the Untouchables under the designation of Scheduled Castes, and certain
economically backward castes as Other Backward Castes.
Loosening of caste system
Leonard and Weller have surveyed marriage and genealogical records to study patterns of
exogamous inter-caste and endogamous intra-caste marriages in a regional population of India
between 1900-1975. They report a striking presence of exogamous marriages across caste lines
over time, particularly since the 1970s. They propose education, economic development,
mobility and more interaction between youth as possible reasons for these exogamous marriages.
A 2003 article in The Telegraph claimed that inter-caste marriage and dating were common in
urban India. Indian societal and family relationships are changing because of female literacy and
education, women at work, urbanization, the need for two-income families, and global influences
through television. Female role models in politics, academia, journalism, business, and India's
feminist movement have accelerated the change

CHAPTER 2
A. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Participant
The participants for this study were 36 people from different backgrounds of society and
religion. The participants involved were taken from slum areas, a local market and a mall. 12
participants from every area given.
Material
The research was conducted on the 12 questions questionnaire prepared by me. It included both
subjective questions and objective questions based on caste system prepared in India.

B. TYPE OF RESEARCH
The type of research I used was basically qualitative research which was based on the
information collected by me during th research period.
Also, I gathered information from the internet and India today magazine for the research work.

C. OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
Research Statement: Mentality of Indian towards Caste system prevailing in through out India
and among the different religion, gender, race and region, and reasons for existing caste system
in modern India
General Objective: To know the mentality of Indians towards prevailing caste system and its
effect on Pan India.
Specific Objective:
1. To know mentality of Indian People towards casteism.
2. To know the effect of casteism on the Indian Economy.
3. To know the effect of casteism on the Human Resource of India.
4. To find out why still today in modern India caste system is prevailing.
5. To find out that caste system is affecting education system in India.
6. To find out that casteism has increased discrimination and divided the citizens of the country.
7. To collect information regarding violence in India.

D. HYPOTHESIS
The caste system has exercised a profound influence on the economic activities of the people of
India.There were four original functional castes, which followed different occupations, namely
the Brahmins (the priestly class), the Kshatriyas (the fighting caste), the Vaisyas (the trading
class) and the Sudras (the serfs).
Positive effects:
1. Fixed occupation: The caste system has promoted contentment and the stability of Indian
society. The birth of a man fixes his career for him and thus he has not to worry about the
choice of an occupation.
2. Preservation of hereditary skill: It preserves the advantages of hereditary skill. The son
in early life picks up the trade of his farther and becomes skilled.
3. Trade guilds: The caste organizations served as Trade Guilds. They regulated production
and prices and settled trade disputes.
Negative effects: However, in modern times, caste system has negatively affected the Indian
society. The defects maybe summarized as follows:
1. Caste system prevents the choice of occupations according to ones personal taste and
ability.
2. Since change of occupations is debarred by the caste system, mobility of labor is not
possible.
3. Caste system hinders the growth of large-scale enterprises. In large-scale enterprises
intellect, capital and labor require to be brought together; but since the caste system
allocates these two different castes, any large-scale enterprise is out of the question.
4. The rigidity of caste distinctions is responsible for the tendency of higher classes to look
down upon certain forms of labor. This lack of the sense of dignity of labor is inimical to
economic progress.

E. DATA SOURCES
Primary data Sources:
1. Questionnaire.
Secondry Data
1. Socio Econmic and Caste Census 2011
2.. Indian Human Development Survey 2011
3. Natonal Crime records Bureau
4. Reservation in State of Maharashtra, 2015

F. SAMPLE SIZE
The participants for this study were 36 people from different backgrounds of society and
religion. The participants involved were taken from slum areas, a local market and a mall. 12
participants from every area given.

G. LIMITATION OF STUDY
Following are the limitations of the study:
1. The research is limited to a singular geographical location and does not tell true story of whole
India.
2. The research basically divided the participant on the basis of income which can result in
uncorrect collection.
3. The research lacks of primary data.
4. Statistical data at few place is missing.

H. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Bibiliography
www.wikipedia.com
www.wsj.com
www.scribd.com
www.slideshare.com
www.surveysystem.com
www.secc.com
www.