Professional Documents
Culture Documents
of emulsiers
Manufacture of emulsions
Introduction to emulsions
1.1
Definitions
1.2
Emulsion types
1.3
1.3.1
1.3.2
1.3.3
1.3.4
1.3.5
Emulsifiers
Structure and mode of action of emulsifiers
Bancroft rule
HLB value
Kinetics
Emulsifier/coemulsifier principle
3
3
4
5
5
6
1.4
1.4.1
1.4.1.1
1.4.1.2
1.4.1.3
1.4.1.4
1.4.2
1.4.3
1.4.4
Properties of emulsions
Stability
Creaming and sedimentation
Aggregation and flocculation
Ostwald ripening
Coalescence
Droplet size distribution
Rheology
Electrical conductivity
8
8
8
9
10
11
12
13
13
Manufacture of emulsions
14
2.1
Microemulsions
14
2.2
14
2.3
Self-emulsifying systems
15
2.4
Mechanical emulsification
15
2.5
16
2.6
17
Appendix
18
3.1
Marker method
18
3.2
20
3.3
22
23
30
32
Microemulsions
36
3.4
3.5
3.6
2
3.7
1 Introduction to emulsions
1.1 Definition
1.3 Emulsifiers
oil-in-water
(O/W)
U=A
U
interfacial energy
interfacial tension between
the two phases
interfacial area
water-in-oil
(W/ O )
water-in-oilin-water
(W / O / W )
Electrostatic repulsion
Different types of emulsions
3
Steric repulsion
Potential energy
Steric repulsion
Electrostatic repulsion
London-van
der-Waals attraction
Sum of attractive and
repulsive forces
According to Derjaguin,
Landau, Verwey and Overbeek
(DLVO theory):
U total = U el + U st U vdW
U total
U el
U st
U vdW
Interdroplet distance
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
HO HO HO HO HO HO HO HO
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
HO HO HO HO HO HO HO HO
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
HO HO HO HO HO HO HO HO
According to Griffins formula, the HLB value is calculated from the mass
of the lipophilic portion as a fraction of the total mass of the molecule:
lipophilic
hydrophilic
10
W/O emulsifiers
15
O/W emulsifiers
Mechanical energy
Coalescence
Deformation
and breakup
20
Continuous phase
+ emulsifier
+ phase to be dispersed
1.3.4 Kinetics
Slow
emulsifier
Fast
emulsifier
Stable
droplets
5
1
e.g. Ullmanns Encyclopedia of Industrial
Chemistry, 6 th edition, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 2000.
1.3.5 Emulsifier/
coemulsifier principle
As described in the previous section,
small emulsifier molecules often
have an advantage when it comes
to rapid stabilization of the internal
phase during droplet fragmentation.
However, small emulsifier molecules
also have a disadvantage. Since
they are generally less tightly
adsorbed on to the interface than
larger emulsifier molecules, especially polymers, they are more readily
removed from the interface again by
Brownian motion. Furthermore, their
smaller molar mass often means
they have smaller repulsive groups
and therefore, according to the
DLVO theory, do not stabilize
droplets so well against coalescence.
Mechanical energy
Slow
emulsifier
Coalescence occurs
before interface is
occupied
Good long-term
stability
Fast
emulsifier
Poor long-term
stability
Dispersed phase
Time scale
dN
Nd log M
Intensity
Emulsifier
Coemulsifier
log M
Molar masses (M) of emulsifier and coemulsifier
O
O
O
O
OH
O
O
O
O
OH
O
O
O
O
OH
O
O
O
O
OH
O
O
O
O
OH
Without coemulsifier
O OH O OH O OH O OH O
O
O
O
OH
O
O
O
OH
O
O
O
OH
O
O
O
OH
O
O
O
OH
1.4.1 Stability
Emulsions have a much larger interfacial area between the two liquids
than the corresponding unemulsified
mixtures. Most emulsions are therefore thermodynamically unstable
even in the presence of emulsifiers.
Only in emulsions where the interfacial tension is extremely small
can the thermal energy exceed the
interfacial energy. Such emulsions
are known as (thermodynamically
stable) microemulsions (see 2.1).
G = G emulsified G unemulsified = A T S
G
A
S
T
free energy
interfacial tension between the two phases
interfacial area
entropy
temperature
v=
d
g
gd 2
18
droplet diameter
acceleration of gravity
difference in density
between dispersed and
continuous phases
viscosity of continuous
phase
Height of
liquid
column h
d 3 g h 6kT
h
k
T
d
Emulsions with very fine droplets and small density differences can be entropy-stabilized against
creaming
( )
()
N
N
= W 4d D Tr
t V
V
W
d
D Tr
N/V
kT
()
kT N
2 V
RTln c(d) =
4 V Mol
+ RTln c(d = )
d
interfacial tension
RT measure of thermal energy
V Mol molar volume of dispersed phase
Ostwald ripening causes large droplets to grow at the expense of small ones
In very dilute emulsions, the rate at which large droplets grow at the
expense of small ones is given by the Lifshitz-Slezov-Wagner (LSW)
equation.
64 D c (d = ) V Mol
(d)3 =
9 RT
t
D=diffusion coefficient of the dispersed in the continuous phase
10
4 V Mol
+ RTln a i = const
di
Adding an auxiliary that is very poorly soluble in the continuous phase
stabilizes an emulsion against Ostwald ripening if for every droplet i
the effects of its diameter d i and the activity a i of the more soluble
component in the auxiliary counterbalance one another until the above
equation is fulfilled.
V Mol
RT
di , ai
interfacial tension
molar volume of dispersed phase
measure of thermal energy
diameter of droplet i and associated activity of dispersed phase
in auxiliary
1.4.1.4 Koaleszenz
Coalescence is the merging of two
or more droplets into a single large
droplet, driven by the reduction in
interfacial area and hence interfacial
energy. Below a distance of approx.
100 nm, two oil droplets in an aqueous solution experience a perceptible attractive force that increases
as the droplets approach one
another. It is suspected that even at
these distances the water between
the droplets adopts structures of
lower entropy. The addition of a stabilizer such as an emulsifier super imposes on this attractive force a
repulsive force that derives from the
spatial requirement or charge of the
hydrophilic groups on the emulsifier.
The balance of these forces is
described by the theory of
Derjaguin, Landau, Verwey and
Overbeek (DLVO, see 1.3.1).
An energy barrier keeps the aggre-
Stabil
Koaleszenz
11
The merging of separate droplets into a single larger droplet is called coalescence
9
8
Volume density
% distribution
q 3(x) (m -1)
100
80
7
6
60
5
4
40
3
2
20
1
0
0
0.1
0.5 1
Volume density
% distribution
q 3(x) (m -1)
10
50 100
1000
Particle size (m)
100
80
7
6
60
5
4
40
3
2
20
1
0
0
0.1
12
0.5 1
10
50 100
1000
Particle size (m)
Typical examples of broad and narrow particle size distributions (measured by laser diffraction)
1.4.3 Rheology
1.4.4 Electrical
conductivity
The specific conductance of emulsions is determined by the conductivity of the continuous phase (or
phases in the case of bicontinuous
emulsions). It is therefore a simple
method for distinguishing W/O from
O/W emulsions. Moreover, the
transition from O/W to W/O, or to a
bicontinuous emulsion, is generally
accompanied by an abrupt change
in specific conductance, which is
therefore an indicator of the formation of new phases or of emulsion
inversion.
viscosity
phase fraction of dispersed phase
60
50
O/W
40
30
20
Bicontinuous
10
W/O
0
20
40
60
80
100
Phase fraction of oil (%)
13
2 Manufacture of emulsions
2.1 Microemulsions
Microemulsions are a special case
because they are thermo -dynamically stable. By cleverly combining
the incompletely miscible phase
components and the emulsifier system or using very high surfactant
concentrations, extremely low interfacial tensions are obtained, so that
the emulsion is entropy-stabilized.
Water
Oil
0.1 m
2.2 Spontaneously
emulsifying systems
Even systems that do not ultimately
form stable microemulsions can
emulsify spontaneously. The necessary interfacial energy is supplied by
the entropy of mixing. For example,
a mixture of oil, surfactant and
ethanol emulsifies spontaneously in
water because the ethanol diffuses
into the water. Another mechanism
involves intermediate microemulsions that form as a result of high
surfactant concentrations at the
interface and break down in the
continuous phase. Turbulence at the
interface can in both cases lead to
the formation of a (metastable) emulsion instead of two macroscopically
separate water and oil phases.
Emulsifiable concentrate
Mole fraction
of water
increases
Temperature
2 phases
3 phases
(microemulsion,
oil, (water)
1 phase
(Microemulsion)
Entropy of
mixing leads
to formation
of interface
2 phases
14
(wt. % surfactant)
Typical phase diagram of a microemulsion
2.3 Self-emulsifying
systems
In the case of microemulsions and
spontaneously emulsifying systems,
emulsions are formed without energy
being supplied from the outside,
but with self-emulsifying systems
this is not strictly true. However, only
a small power input is required to
turn self-emulsifying systems into
emulsions, for example from a slowly
turning stirrer or simply by shaking.
Important for this process are small
dynamic interfacial tensions, so that
even a small power input will result
in a sufficiently high critical Weber
number to produce small droplets.
Generally speaking, oil-soluble
surfactants with a low HLB value,
or mixtures containing such
surfactants, tend to be used for
spontaneously or self-emulsifying
systems.
2.4 Mechanical
emulsification
In mechanical emulsification
processes involving high power
densities, very low interfacial
tension is helpful but not essential.
High-turbulence zones, laminar
shear flows and cavitation induce
emulsion formation even without an
emulsifier. Much more important in
such processes is good stabilization
of the resulting emulsion, since the
outlet of dispersion machines is
often characterized by turbulent
flow conditions and a high droplet
collision rate.
We =
vl
c
d
v /l c d
Re =
v
c
l
c
v l c
c
flow rate
viscosity of continuous phase
characteristic dimension (see below)
density of continuous phase
If the dimensions of the stirrer or other emulsifying apparatus are sub stituted for l, then there is laminar flow up to Re 10 3 and turbulent flow
above Re 10 4. Between these values is a tran -sition range. Substituting
the droplet diameter for l allows the Reynolds number in the vicinity of a
droplet to be calculated. Below Re Tr 1 droplet breakup (Re Tr ) is caused
mainly by laminar forces; above Re Tr 1 mainly by inertial forces.
15
FineFine
emulsion
emulsion
Crude
emulsion
Crude
emulsion
High-pressure
High-pressure
homogenizer
homogenizer
Rotor-Stator-System
Rotor-Stator-System
High-pressure homogenizers and rotor-stator systems are commonly used to manufacture emulsions
Continuous phase
+ emulsifier
Membrane
Phase to be dispersed
Fast
emulsifier
Very slow
emulsifier
Mechanical energy
Membranes are very energy-efficient emulsifying apparatuses. However, they are mostly too
expensive for wide-scale industrial application.
16
Another method of producing emulsions is to use other phase boundaries, for example the solid-liquid
interfaces of membranes and micro mixers. Here the large interface of
what is to be the dispersed phase is
generated by appropriate differential
pressure across a membrane that
is not wettable by emulsifier.
The process is very energy-efficient.
Nature makes use of it, for example,
in producing milk.
A gas-liquid interface, such as in
aerosol and condensation processes,
can also be used to produce emulsions.
Temperature
W/O
Case 1
Case 3
PIT
O/W
Case 2
Oil fraction of the emulsion
The phase inversion method produces fine emulsions with little energy expenditure.
It is illustrated here for ethylene oxide based emulsifiers.
Case 1 involves the inversion of a W/O emulsion into an O/W emulsion by cooling.
Case 2 is isothermic phase inversion, and Case 3 is a combination of the other two cases.
17
* It is usual to emulsify approx
10 15K below the PIT.
3 Appendix
3.1 Marker method
A technique used at BASF to determine the stabilizing properties of
emulsifiers is the marker method*,
based on the Danner dyeing
method**. In this technique, the dispersed phase is marked with marker
substances in such a way that after
emulsion coalesced and non-coalesced droplets can be distinguished
and determined quantitatively.
Here we describe how the method
is used to analyze O/W emulsions
with oil-soluble dyes as marker
substances.
First, two coarsely dispersed raw
emulsions are prepared with identical
formulations but a different-colored
oil phase in each (one blue and one
yellow). The two emulsions are mixed
by slowly stirring them together.
* DE 10247086
** Dr. Thomas Danner, Tropfenkoaleszenz in
Emulsionen, dissertation at the University
of Karlsruhe, GCA-Verlag, Herdecke 2001
Fine emulsification
Crude emulsion A
1:1 mixture
Micrograph showing
coalesced droplts
Crude emulsion B
Principle of the marker method
18
Original image
Droplet separation
Color evaluation
19
3.2 Continuous
emulsification in orifice
systems
Orifice
Turbulence
Laminar
extensional flow
High pressure,
low flow rate
Autoclave with orifice in outlet
Laminar
Extensional
flow
Shearing,
turbulence
Cavitation
20
Low pressure,
high flow rate
Good emulsifier
Stable emulsion
No coalescence
Poor emulsifier
Unstable emulsion
Coalescence
Emulan P, AT 9, NP 3070
Triglycerides
Emulan EL
Silicone oil
Emulan TO range, EL
Emulan NP 3070
21
22
OH
n-Decanol ethoxylate
OH
Emulsion preparation
and methodology
The stability against coalescence at
room temperature of O/W emulsions
was measured with two model oils:
Thin fluid paraffin oil with a visco sity of 30 mPas (23C) and an
Mn of about 300 as a model of
hydrophobic hydrocarbons
Sunflower seed oil with a viscosity
of 56 mPas (23C) and an acid
number of maximum 0.15 mg
KOH/g as a model of native
triglycerides
23
S = - log (r * month)
2
1
0
-1
r = 0.079 1/month
-2
-3
10 11 12
t in month
13
14
15 16
17 18
-1
-2
less suitable
Lutensol A..N, AO
Lutensol AT
n-Decanol ethoxylate
-3
6
10
11
well suited
Weeks Months
C 20C 22 x 7.3 EO
C 10 Alcohol ethoxylates:
HLB = approx. 13
24
Days
10 % of the drops
have coalesced after
Stability index
2
2s
Minutes Hours
12
13
14
15
16
17 18
HLB value
10 % of the drops
have coalesced after
Stability index
2
2s
Weeks Months
iso C 17 Ethoxylate
-1
Days
Lutensol TO
Minutes Hours
Lutensol TDA
Lutensol ON
-2
-3
6
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17 18
HLB value
less suitable
well suited
10 % of the drops
have coalesced after
1
Lutensol XL
0
Decanol ethoxylate
Lutensol XP
Days
Weeks Months
Stability index
2
2s
Minutes Hours
-1
Lutensol ON
-2
-3
6
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17 18
HLB value
25
less suitable
well suited
Weeks Months
10 % of the drops
have coalesced after
Stability index
2
2s
Lutensol TO
Days
Lutensol A..N, AO
Minutes Hours
-1
Lutensol TDA
-2
-3
7
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17 18
HLB value
10 % of the drops
have coalesced after
Stability index
2
2s
Weeks Months
1
Lutensol TO
Days
0
Lutensol XL
Nonylphenol ethoxylate
-2
-3
6
26
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17 18
HLB value
Minutes Hours
-1
Weeks Months
1
Lutensol AT
0
C 20C 22 x 7.3 EO
Days
10 % of the drops
have coalesced after
Stability index
2
2s
-1
Lutensol A..N, AO
-2
n-Decanol ethoxylate
-3
6
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Minutes Hours
17 18
HLB value
well suited
Months
10 % of the drops
have coalesced after
Lutensol TO
iso C 17 Ethoxylate
Days
Weeks
Stability index
2
2s
Lutensol TDA
Hours
-1
Lutensol ON
-2
Minutes
-3
6
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17 18
HLB value
27
less suitable
well suited
10 % of the drops
have coalesced after
Weeks Months
Stability index
2
2s
1
Lutensol XP
Lutensol XL
Days
Minutes Hours
-1
Lutensol ON
-2
n-Decanol ethoxylate
-3
6
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17 18
HLB value
less suitable
well suited
Weeks Months
10 % of the drops
have coalesced after
Stability index
2
2s
Lutensol TO
Days
0
Lutensol TDA
Lutensol A..N, AO
-2
-3
6
28
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17 18
HLB value
Minutes Hours
-1
Weeks Months
10 % of the drops
have coalesced after
Stability index
2
2s
Lutensol TO
Days
0
Lutensol AT
Minutes Hours
-1
Nonylphenol ethoxylate
-2
-3
6
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17 18
HLB value
2
Lutensol TO
C 12 C 15
Ethoxylates
of paraffin oil
C 12 C 15
Ethoxylates
of sunflower oil
C 10 Ethoxylates
of paraffin oil
-1
Lutensol XP
C 10 Ethoxylates
of sunflower oil
-2
-3
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
29
month
weeks
weeks
days
days
hours
hours
minutes
minutes
6
10
11
12
13
10
14
15
16
value 13
11HLB12
15 16
HLB value
30% oil, 1% emulsifier, 69% water, storage at 23C
14
Lutensol /Emulan AT
Lutensol XL
30
Lutensol XP
Lutensol /Em
Lutensol ON
Lutensol XL
Lutensol TO
Lutensol XP
Lutensol O
Lutensol TO
APEO (for co
Performance
of alcohol ethoxilates
Coalescence
stability at elevated temperature
Coalescence stability at room temperature
month
month
weeks
weeks
days
days
hours
hours
minutes
minutes
10
11
12
13
14
10
11 HLB12value13
15
16
15 16
HLB value
30% oil, 1% emulsifier, 69% water, storage at 70C
14
Lutensol /Emulan AT
Lutensol XL
Lutensol XP
Lutensol /Emulan AT
Lutensol ON
Lutensol XL
Lutensol TO
Lutensol XP
Lutensol ON
Lutensol TO
Low
creaming
Small
droplets
Low
odor
Ecology
Emulan AF
++
++
++
Lutensol TO 5-7
++
++
Lutensol XL 50
+*
++
Lutensol XP 50
++
Emulan AT 9
++
++
++
Lutensol AT 11
++
++
++
++
++
* for extremely low odor choose Lutensol XA, the narrow range versions of Lutensol XL
31
Method 1
dissolve the nonionic surfactant
with water.
add the amino silicon oil and
emulsify as finely as possible
upon vigorous stirring add acid
to charge the amino oil. The
microemulsion will form automatically.
Method 2
mix the non-aqueous nonionic
surfactant with the silicon oil
and stir
upon stirring add acetic acid
to charge the amino oil
upon vigorous stirring add water
and emulsify
In both cases elevated temperatures
help to overcome the formation of
gels or gel particles.
Typical start values for the final
microemulsion are: 25% silicon oil,
12% nonionic emulsifier
(HLB = ca. 10 12), water to 100%,
adjust pH to 4.5.
Subsequently, optimize oil and
emulsifier content plus HLB.
32
Examples:
Microemulsions with different types
of amino oils are checked in a temperature interval of 5 to 50C to
determine both the efficiency and
the tolerance window of the nonionic
emulsifiers.
Tolerance window
Efficiency
18
17
16
Recipe:
25%
Silicon Oil 1.0 Pas/
0.6 mmol N/g
x%
Lutensol TO
75-x% Water
pH =
4.2
15
10
NPEO
Lutensol TO
% Surfactant
Microemulsion
14
50C
13
12
o/w Emulsion
5 23C
11
9
Silicon oil A:
1.0 Pas, 0.3 mmol N/g
Silicon oil B:
1.0 Pas, 0.6 mmol N/g
solid/gel
solid/gel
Lutensol XL
10
11
12
13
14
HLB
33
Low gelling
tendency*
Efficiency &
tolerance window
Lutensol TO
++
Lutensol XL
++
Lutensol XP
++
++
Lutensol ON
++
++
Conclusion:
ranking of the nonionic
surfactants with respect to
microemulsion formation
Please note that the table exhibits
the average trend. From oil to oil
slight variations may occur.
For comparison:
Nonyl phenol ethoxilate
Application
The microemulsion concentrate is
diluted to ca. 5 g/l silicon oil to be
applied on the fabric. Upon heating,
addition of salts, bases or shear
stress this diluted emulsion must
be stable, otherwise staining of the
fabric or silicon residues in the
machinery are possible. Emulsifiers
with additional high-speed wetting
power help to deaerate the fabric
during the impregnation step.
Lutensol TO
++
++
++
Lutensol XL
Lutensol ON
++
Lutensol XP
++
+ to ++
+ to ++
++
++
++
For comparison:
34
Please note that the table exhibits
the average trend. From oil to oil
slight variations may occur.
Microemulsion
Robustness
during application
Wetting,
deaeration
Lutensol TO
++
++
Lutensol XL
++
++
Lutensol ON
++
Lutensol XP
++
++
+ to ++
++
For comparison:
Please note that the table exhibits
the average trend. From oil to oil
slight variations may occur.
35
3.7 Microemulsions
Water
Oil
0.1 m
36
Substantial differences
between microemulsions and
conventional (macro-)
emulsions
Microemulsions are thermo dynamically stable phases that
form spontaneously after the
mixing of all components without
an input of energy.
In microemulsions ultra-low interfacial tensions occur between the
oil and water phases.
Microemulsions react most
strongly to a change in intensive
magnitudes in the system, e.g.,
the temperature, the composition
of the oil and water phases as well
as the surfactant mixture. When
the range of existence of micro emulsions is exceeded, they often
transform into macroemulsions,
and this is an effective means of
producing the latter.
Microemulsions, as opposed to
conventional emulsions, separate
excess oil and water phases out
relatively quickly.
Microemulsions have maximal
stability at the phase inversion
point of the system.
Microemulsions are very dynamic;
boundary surfaces form and
disappear, usually within micro seconds.
Examples of applications
of microemulsions
Stable formulation of two nonmiscible liquid phases.
Formulation for production of
macroemulsions via spontaneous
emulsification.
Creation of a large contact area
between two non-miscible
phases, e.g. to facilitate material
transfers during dissolving and
cleaning processes, reactions or
extractions.
Generation of ultra-low interfacial
tension between two phases, e.g.,
to mobilize the one in the other.
Simultaneous transporting of
two non-miscible phases through
a porous medium, a fabric or
through narrow capillaries.
37
Example of a microemulsion
In a 1 liter upright cylinder at 23C
one adds:
436.4g
112.8g
50g
5g
354.4 g
H 2O
NaCl
Lutensol TO 6 (HLB = 11)
sec-butanol
n-dodecane
Isotherm 23 C
38
Temperature-insensitive
microemulsions
To formulate microemulsions with a
broad thermal existence range, one
requires a surfactant mixture that
has the same space requirement
for its hydrophobic and hydrophilic
parts irrespective of the temperature. Here one will exploit the fact
that when ethylene oxide chains are
heated they successively lose their
hydrate shell and therefore occupy
less space, while in the case of ionic
groups, the Debye radius increases
and with it the space requirement.
A mixture of ethoxylate and ionic
surfactant is therefore recommended
for the formulation of such micro emulsions.
Empirically, Lutensit A-BO has
been shown to be of value as
an ionic partner. By combining
Lutensit A-BO with ethoxylates,
microemulsions with existence
ranges over 60 Kelvin, and more,
can be produced.
Further reading:
How to Study Microemulsions
Kahlweit, Strey, Haase, Kunieda,
Schmeling, Faulhaber, Borkovec,
Eicke, Busse, Eggers, Funck,
Richmann, Magid, Sdermann,
Stilbs, Winkler, Dittrich und Jahn,
J. Coll. Surf. Sci., 118, 2, 1987, 436
General Patterns of the Phase
Behavior of Mixtures of H 2O,
Nonpolar Solvents, Amphiphiles,
and Electrolytes. 1 Kahlweit,
Strey, Firman, Haase, Jen,
Schmcker, Langumir 1988, 4, 499
General Patterns of the Phase
Behavior of Mixtures of H 2O,
Nonpolar Solvents, Amphiphiles,
and Electrolytes. 2 Kahlweit,
Strey, Schomcker, Haase,
Langumir 1989, 5, 305
Nonionic Surfactants with Linear
and Branched Hydrocarbon Tails:
Composition Analysis, Phase
Behavior, and Film Properties in
Bicontinous Microemulsions
Frank, Frielinghaus, Allgaier, Prast,
Langumir 2007, 23, 6526
Interfacial Tensions and Solubilizing Ability of a Microemulsion
Phase that Coexists with Oil and
Brine Huh, J. Coll. Interface Sci.,
71, 2, 1979, 408
43.5g
3g
66g
37.5g
water
NaCl
ortho-sec-butylphenol
Lutensit TC-CS 40
(HLB = 41)
39
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