WHICH VEGETABLE OIL BIODIESEL IS AN EFFECTIVE SUBSTITUTE FOR DIESEL FUEL

Abstract
The purpose of this experiment was to determine which biodiesel made from vegetable oil would be the best replacement for diesel
fuel in the future.
My hypothesis is that the methanol biodiesel will be the most affective substitute for diesel fuel and less harmful to the environment.
To determine the caloric value of the biodiesels by measuring the amount of fuel needed to heat 50ml of water 5C? and compare to
the results to diesel fuel. To measure flammability, ignite a small amount of the biodiesel and compare the flames to that of all the
other samples at the same time. The suitability of the flame is determined by burning a sample of the biodiesels in the fume hood
and allowing the soot to be collected on a coffee filter and measured with a light sensor. Viscosity is measured by using the
viscosity of water to compare the viscosity of the biodiesel to the diesel fuel. The method of measuring viscosity used in this
experiment was to record the time that it took for a known quantity of the sample to travel through the plastic funnel.
Based on the results of this experiment, my hypothesis should be accepted. From this project, it is possible to learn how much each
fuel pollutes the planet, the effect of each fuel on a fuel injected engine, the flammability of each fuel in case of a spill, as well as the
amount of energy that can be created by each of the biodiesels compared to diesel.
Purpose
The purpose of this experiment was to determine which biodiesel made from vegetable oil would be the best replacement for diesel
fuel in the future. In order to determine which biodiesel would be the best, a series of tests and comparisons must be done. Those
including availability of materials, cost to produce, methods of manufacturing, safety procedures, as well as the properties of diesel
fuel, for a biodiesel to be suitable for consumers. I became interested in this project when I heard a report on a school televised
news program called Channel One. In this report, a high school student had created a biodiesel that successfully ran in his diesel
vehicle. I wanted to test other biodiesels that people had created and see if any could possible be used in the economy and which
one would be preferred. The gases given off from car exhaust cause air pollution, acid rain and are main contributors to the
greenhouse effect, that is likely causing the earth to heat up irregularly. This project has the potential to fight against the growth of
pollution by decreasing the use of diesel fuel with the biodiesels that are tested. Diesel fuel is not renewable and therefore, its
sources will eventually run out and the demand for fuel as an energy source will still be high. This project could be beneficial now
as well as in the future if a successful biodiesel is found and produced in order to prevent unnecessary pollution of the environment.
Hypothesis
My hypothesis is that the methanol fuel will be most like diesel because once I made the fuels; I was able to see that the ethanol fuel
was much thicker than both the methanol and the diesel. I also think that the methanol fuel will be least harmful to the environment
based on the Department of Energy's website concerning alternative fuels which states that ethanol gives off 15% more gases than
methanol. I also read on a methanol site that if the methanol were to spill into the ocean, that biodegradation would occur very
quickly before it had time to disturb the ocean life. The site quoted the Department of Energy on the fact that fuel today is, overall
more hazardous to human health than methanol. In the same site, it states that, methanol is less polluting to water, less toxic, does
not cause cancer, and is much safer to use than fuel today. Based on the materials used, I think that the diesel will create the most
soot because of past experience. The methanol mixture will also be less expensive to make because sodium hydroxide is cheaper
and more available than potassium hydroxide. However, in another article from the U.S. Department of Transportation, it states that
ethanol is renewable from agriculture such as sugar cane and corn. Methanol is made from fossil fuels like coal and natural gas
which may run out farther in the future. The long-term availability must also be considered in the future if the methanol resources
don't hold out. Technology should be improving greatly so it is unlikely that fuel will be used as an energy source that far into the
future. As long as the right precautions are taken if biodiesel were to go commercially, I think that scientists could improve the
energy produced by the fuel with safe additives and different concentrations. I think that methanol will be the fuel of choice based
on the fact that it is cheaper, not harmful to the environment, and easily accessible.
Experiment Design
The constants in this experiment were:
- All biodiesels were made with the same vegetable oil
- All samples are currently being used in diesel engines
- Amount of fuel tested for caloric value
- Amount of fuel tested for flammability
- Amount of fuel tested for suitability of flame
- Amount of fuel tested for viscosity
- Height the lamp was placed from the center of the filter
- Height the light sensor was placed from the filter
- Lamp used to reflect the light off the filter
- Placement of the lamp for reflecting the light off the filter
- Sample of cloth used in all experimentation

- Size of cloth used as a wick in each experimentation

- Thermometer used in all experimentation
The manipulated variable was the solutes added to the vegetable oil in order to create the different biodiesels: ethanol, methanol,
potassium hydroxide, and sodium hydroxide.
The responding variable was the caloric value, flammability, suitability of flame, and viscosity of the biodiesels verses diesel fuel.
To measure the responding variable, determine the caloric value of the biodiesels by measuring the amount of fuel needed to heat
50ml of water 5C and compare to the results to diesel fuel. To measure flammability, ignite a small amount of the biodiesel with a
match and compare the flames to that of all the other samples at the same time. The suitability of the flame is determined by burning
a sample of the biodiesels in the fume hood and allowing the soot to be collected on a coffee filter. The coffee filter is placed under
a lamp and then by using a light sensor, is measured in the amount of light able to pass through the soot (in lux). Viscosity is
measured by using the viscosity of water to compare the viscosity of the biodiesel to the diesel fuel. The method of measuring
viscosity used in this experiment was to record the time that it took for a known quantity of the sample to travel through the plastic
funnel. The longer it takes the sample to flow from the funnel means that the sample has a greater viscosity (thickness).
Materials
Quantity
1500ml
590ml
695ml
85ml
75ml
2.5g
2.5g
2.5g
9
6
4
3
3
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
-

Item
Vegetable oil
Diesel fuel
Distilled water
Methanol
Ethanol
KOH (Potassium hydroxide)
NaOH (Sodium hydroxide)
Anhydrous sodium sulfate
Coffee filters
50ml graduated cylinders
Watch glasses
Wicks
Alcohol burner caps
2000ml beakers
1000ml beaker
250ml beaker
10ml graduated cylinder
Thermometer
Burner stand
Stopwatch
Magnetic mixer/heater
Pair of safety goggles
Dryer hose
Triple beam balance
Plastic funnel
Screen funnel
Fume hood
Glass stir stick
Test tube
Test tube stopper
Tin can
Plastic massing cup
One-hole rubber stopper
Mortal and Pestle
teaspoon measuring utensil
Beret clamp
Backboard
Alcohol burner
Ring clamp
Ring Stand
Scissors
Lamp
Vernier light sensor
Vernier LabPro
Vernier LoggerPro
Matches
Disposable pipets
Rubber bands

Plastic wrap
Cotton cloth
Procedures

Procedure for Making the Ethanol Biodisel

1. For safety, put on safety glasses during the process of making and testing the biodisel.
2. Pour 75ml of ethanol and 4ml of water to create a 95% ethanol solution.
3. Add 75ml of the ethanol solution to 500ml of vegetable oil in a 2000ml beaker.
4. Measure 5ml of distilled water into a test tube.
5. Add 2.5g of potassium hydroxide pellets.
6. Cap with a stopper and shake until completely dissolved.
7. Slowly add 5ml of 9mol dm3 potassium hydroxide solution with a pipet over a 1-minute period to the vegetable oil and ethanol.
8. Stir continuously in the magnetic mixer for 3 hours on a low setting while covering the solution with plastic wrap and a rubber
band to prevent evaporation. Do not stir vigorously.
9. Pour the solution through a screen funnel and allow settling for 1 hour and cover with plastic wrap and a rubber band to prevent
evaporation.
10. Pour the settled solution though a screen funnel and discard the lower glycerol layer.
11. Add 20ml of distilled water to the product and mix well with the magnetic mixer (do not shake) and let stand for 1 hour while
covering the solution with plastic wrap and a rubber band to prevent evaporation.
12. Run off the lower layer of the solution through a screen funnel and repeat until the product is clear.
13. Add 2.5g anhydrous sodium sulfate and stir for 15 minutes.
14. Allow the sodium sulfate to settle.
15. Cover the solution with plastic wrap and a rubber band to prevent evaporation.
Procedure for Making the Methanol Biodiesel
1. For safety, put on safety glasses during the process of making and testing the biodiesel.
2. For safety, put on safety glasses.
3. Pour 500ml of vegetable oil into a 1000ml beaker.
4. Place on the magnetic mixer/heater with the magnet in the oil.
5. Heat and stir the mixture while holding a thermometer in the middle of the solution until it reaches 46C.
6. Crush sodium hydroxide in a crushing pot until there are small flakes.
7. In a separate beaker, measure 85ml of methanol and teaspoon of sodium hydroxide.
8. Stir in the magnetic mixer until all of the particles are thoroughly mixed in.
9. Add the methanol solution to the warm vegetable oil and stir vigorously with the magnetic mixer for 30 minutes.
10. Pour the solution into 5 50ml-graduated cylinders and cover with plastic wrap and rubber bands.
11. Allow the mixture to settle for 24 hours.
12. Use a screen funnel to remove the glycerin from the bottom of the mixture.
13. Discard the excess layers.
Procedure for Testing Flammability
1. Put on safety goggles.
2. Pour 1ml of each biodiesel and the diesel sample onto the four watch glasses.
3. Place under the fume hood.
4. Light a match very carefully to all of the samples.
5. Using the observations made, determine in which order the samples are compared in flammability to each other by the physical
aspects of the flame. (Use a 1 to 3 scale).
6. Repeat steps 1-5 2 times and average the results.
Procedure for Testing Suitability of flame
1. Put on safety goggles.
2. Mass the coffee filter on the triple beam balance.
3. Cut nine 5cmX1cm pieces of cotton cloth.
4. Turn on the fume hood.
5. Place coffee filter inside the fume hood so that the soot will be sucked onto it.
6. Place ring stand in the fume hood.
7. Put the 4 dryer hose on the ring stand and direct to the coffee filter.
8. Pour 1ml of fuel into an evaporating dish.
9. Ignite the fuel on an evaporating dish.
10. Let the fuel burn until the fire is burned out.
11. Remove the coffee carefully without disturbing the soot.
12. Place the coffee filter on photo paper.
13. Adjust a lamp above the filter 15cm in a set position.
14. Measure 8cm above the filter and hold the light sensor in place.
15. Collect the data on the computer and hit linear plot to find the average.
16. Repeat steps 1-15 2 times and average the results.
17. Repeat steps 1-16 for each of the fuels.

Procedure for Testing Viscosity

1. Put on safety goggles.
2. Measure 75ml of distilled water.
3. Pour into a long-necked funnel and place finger over the bottom.
4. Have a timer ready and remove finger.
5. Stop the timer when the water has completely drained.
6. Repeat steps 1-5 2 times to be accurate and average the amount of time.
7. Repeat step 1-6 for each of the samples 2 times.
8. Compare the results of the fuels viscosity to water in order to compare to each other.
Note: The most viscous sample will take the longest amount of time to flow. Water will be less viscous because vegetable oil is less
dense.
Procedures for Testing Caloric Value
1. Put on safety goggles.
2. Setup apparatus as shown below.
3. Pour 15ml of the fuel into an alcohol burner.
4. Mass the alcohol burner, wick, and fuel on a triple beam balance.
5. Pour 50ml of distilled water into a tin can.
6. Allow the wick to absorb the fuel.
7. Measure the temperature of the distilled water.
8. Ignite the wick and place alcohol burner immediately under the tin can.
9. Burn the fuel until the distilled water rises 5 degrees from its original temperature.
10. Extinguish the flame immediately to keep the mass the same.
11. Mass the alcohol burner, wick, and remaining biodiesel.
12. Subtract the results from the mass of the alcohol burner, wick, and original amount of fuel.
13. Mass a 10ml graduated cylinder.
14. Add the mass of the burned fuel to the mass on the triple beam balance.
15. Pour fuel to the graduated cylinder until calibrated.
16. Measure the amount of fuel in ml that is equal to the mass of the burned fuel.
17. The volume of fuel needed to heat the sample determines the caloric value.
18. Repeat steps 1-17 2 times to be accurate and average the amount of burned fuel.
19. Repeat steps 1-18 for each of the samples.
Return to the top of the page.
Research Report
Introduction
Biodiesel is a safer alternative to diesel fuel because it is environmentally safe and has no known side affects on humans. Diesel is
used in some vehicles today and many consumers do not like them do to the sound and smell. The smell of the fuel is eliminated
with the biodiesel because it is made from different materials. Testing the biodiesels for common characteristics with diesel fuel is
important as well. It is good to know how the biodiesel will affect the planet as well as the consumers car. Money and jobs may
also be a problem when switching from diesel to biodiesel. It can be fixed though if everyone has open minds about change and
how to work around problems with the big picture still in mind
What is diesel and why isnt it used in all cars?
Diesel is a fuel that is made from fossil fuels and has serious side affects to human health. The National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health wanted diesel to be regarded as, a potential occupational carcinogen. A carcinogen is something that causes
cancer and people can get cancer when they breathe the polluted air that the car exhaust from diesel engines are creating. In the late
1970s, over half a million diesel vehicles were sold in the United States alone. Diesel is in buses, cars, trucks, and other
transportation devices in every town. Diesel engines are fuel injected and therefore, the type of fuel that is put into the engine must
be carefully calculated. Diesel is not used in all cars because diesel engines are more expensive, slower in acceleration, less reliable,
hard to start in bad weather, and not to mention that consumers do not like the sound or smell of diesel engines. Gasoline is also
more available than diesel and therefore, consumers seem to buy more gasoline cars as well. It is predicted however, that there will
most likely be more diesel engines on the road because they have a longer engine life and are trying to make diesel a more efficient
fuel. If that is the case, pollution will also be on the incline.
What is a biodiesel and why should it be used?
A biodiesel is a cleaner burning fuel that is renewable and can be substituted for diesel fuel. It can be made from animal fats or
vegetable oil along with alcohol and other solutes. When adding a biodiesel to the engine, a biodiesel must require no engine
modifications to the vehicle. Tests have shown that there is no difference between the performance and wear of certain biodiesels
when compared to diesel. Biodiesels are also safer to the environment and to human health. Biodiesels reduce the amount of
unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and other matter that is dispersed into the environment through the car exhaust. This

pollution is likely causing the global warming which will also damage our planet later on. Biodiesel is 50% less likely to harm the
ozone if used in an engine rather than diesel fuel. If people continue to use diesel as fuel in transportation, the pollution will cause
serious side affects to wildlife, the environment, and the human race. Humans can get cancer from breathing the pollution along
with other problems in high-populated areas where diesel engines are common. Biodiesels must share common properties with
diesel fuel so that they can be injected properly into the engine as well as the energy that is given off by the fuel. Information about
biodiesel needs to be distributed to the consumer in order for them to fully understand their benefits and therefore increasing the use
of biodiesel throughout the planet.
The differences between ethanol and methanol
Both methanol and ethanol are alcohols that are quiet common and can be found easily. Methanol is more toxic and harmful to your
health than ethanol is. Methanol is made from fossil fuels such as coal and natural gas. Ethanol is made from renewable sources
like sugar cane and corn. There are many arguments about which one should be used in biodiesel and there are many recipes for
making biodiesel using either alcohol. As long as safety precautions are taken when handling the alcohols, there are no tests to
prove that either is better than the other in terms of the same concentrations. It all depends on how and what each will be used for
and the amount of time that it will be used.
Viscosity and why it is important
Scientifically, viscosity is a property of a fluid that resists motion. It is related to how a fluid flows in terms of being poured
downward. The ease for a fluid to flow is called its fluidity. For a fluid to be greater in viscosity, it depends on how much the fluid
resists flowing. Viscosity can be measured in a variety of ways also. It can be measured by dropping a steal ball through the liquid
and timing it, letting a certain amount of fuel pass through a container with a hole and timing that or by using a viscometer. A
viscometer is an instrument that is used by placing a small amount of a sample on the lens and it reads the viscosity in accurate
numbers. It is unnecessary to use a viscometer in this experiment because each fuel was tested using the same methods and
accuracy level. It may be a good idea for larger companies to use a viscometer in order to prefect their produce. Therefore,
molasses has a greater viscosity than water because molasses takes a longer amount of time to flow downward then water does.
Viscosity is important when talking about diesel fuel because a diesel engine is fuel injected. Fuel injected means that unlike a
gasoline engine, the fuel is injected directly into the engine without being compressed first. A biodiesel must have a close viscosity
to diesel fuel because it must have the same fluidity to flow into the engine at the same speed and order that the diesel fuel does.
Flammability and why it is important
Flammability is the way that the fuel is capable of catching on fire. Flammability can be measured with flash point but is a very
dangerous procedure. To measure flash point, the fuel must be heated up until it combusts without the use of a flame. This is
dangerous because biodiesel has such a high flash point that the fuel would explode and it would go by so quickly that there
wouldnt be enough time to take accurate observations. Instead, by using a wick to light the fuels at the same time, visual
observations, photographs, and comparisons can be made for the research. In order to determine flammability, it is important to
keep tract of how the fuel ignited, the flame created but the fuel, and how long the fuel was burning. It is very easy to make
observations and determine flammability because each substance is so much different in its compounds. It is important to test for
flammability in case of an oil spill and it catching fire. With the information from such a test, it would be easy to determine how a
fuel may react in such ha situations to prepare others. It also may broaden the thought process on the transportation methods used
by the fuel companies today.
Caloric value and why it is important
Caloric value is a measure that tells the amount of fuel that is needed in order to heat a known amount of water 5C?. Caloric value
is measured by poring a known quantity of fuel into an alcohol burner burning it in order to heat the distilled water 5C?. This
information tells how much energy is going to be created when using the same amount of fuel. This kind of knowledge would be
important to consumers because if a fuel can get a greater amount of energy from a smaller amount of fuel, then their products will
run more efficiently. If a fuel can give off more power, then it will be more desirable because it is less costly to use a less amount of
fuel for the same energy in a greater amount of fuel.
Suitability of flame and why it is important
Suitability of flame determines how much pollution the fuel gives off when it is burned. It can be determined by burning a small
amount under a coffee filter and then using a light sensor to detect the amount of soot. It is best if the coffee filter is placed in a
fume hood, which basically sucks up the fumes through a large vacuum pump. It is important to know how much a fuel is going to
pollute the environment because if a fuel is going to work the same as another fuel and it pollutes less, then consumers are going to
be interested in helping the planet. When the consumers pollute the planet less, it will create a better living environment for
wildlife, plants, and humans. Car exhaust is one of the leading causes of pollution and could be reduced by over 50% if biodiesel is
used. The future will also benefit if biodiesel is used because their surroundings will also stay fresher and there will be less extinct
species that have died from the pollution that is created by diesel engines.
If biodiesel goes commercially, what will happen to the workers that make diesel?
If diesel is replaced by biodiesel, then there will be many workers that are put out of work do to the increase in a different product.
The workers then must move to where the increase is beginning like in the vegetable fields where the oil is made or in the
manufacturing plants where the biodiesel is made. The people who also transport the diesel could also switch over and begin

transporting biodiesel in its place. If the resources run out and they eventually will, the workers would eventually be forced to find
other fields of work. The manufacturing of biodiesel can be simple and the amount of education required in each area would depend
on the managers. It should not be a problem for diesel companies to switch to biodiesel because it will make the agricultural
business grow and that would be good for the many farmers.
Cost changes from diesel to biodiesel
The cost for 1 gallon of diesel is $1.49 at about every gas station. Biodiesel is actually not that much more expensive. Most
consumers carry vegetable oil for cooking anyways and all the other solutes can be found in local stores for a cheap price
considering the amount that is being used. It would all depend if the consumers decided to buy the fuel commercially because it
could be much cheaper to make it themselves. It is not time consuming and is very easy to understand as long as the consumer pays
proper attention to the instructions. Buying biodiesel is available now, but is not as easy to access in smaller quantities for the
average consumer to store.
Summary
Biodiesels can expand commercially in order to improve the environment and reduce the risks of some cancers. Diesel is not a safe
and renewable source of energy and consumers are going to have to choose a new fuel source some time in the future. It would be
best to start the testing now so that consumers will know what their options will be later on. Testing for the properties of each
biodiesel is important in order to observer the affects that it will have later on in both the car and in the planet. When a business
shuts down, like the diesel companies will, the jobs of their employees is something that many are going to worry about. As long as
people move to where the economy is going to be expanding such as processing plants and farming areas, the availability of job
opportunities should not be a problem. Most consumers are worried about the cost of biodiesel and that all depends on the quality
of the materials that are used. The prices are relatively the same and if the agriculture is plentiful and less expensive, the there
should not be a large price increase.
Results
The purpose of this experiment was to determine which biodiesel made from vegetable oil would be the best replacement for diesel
fuel in the future. The results of this experiment were that the diesel was least viscous with an average flow time of 15.9 seconds.
Methanol fuel followed with an average flow time of 32.97 seconds. Ethanol fuel was most viscous with an average flow time of
117.62 seconds, which is dramatically more viscous than the other samples. Water had an average flow time of 11.07 seconds just
to compare all the samples to another common fluid. The trials were all very consistent and more accurate than I had predicted them
to be. Diesel was also more flammable than each sample and was followed by the methanol fuel and then the ethanol fuel. Both
diesel and the methanol fuel samples were acceptant to the flame from the match to the saturated wick. They both also created large
flames that burned rather quickly and extinguished at roughly the same time. The ethanol fuel was very difficult to light and took
several attempts. Its flame was also very small and burned for long amounts of time. The diesel used the most amount of fuel to
heat the water at an average of 0.32g. The methanol fuel followed next with an average amount of fuel to burn at 0.23g. Ethanol
fuel used the least amount of fuel to heat the water at 0.14g. This means that it would take less ethanol fuel to create the energy
needed to run the vehicle. The diesel also created the most soot with an average amount of light able to pass though it at 170.63
lux. The ethanol created the next most amount of soot allowing an average of light able to pass through it at 268.47 lux. The
methanol fuel created the least amount of soot, allowing the average amount of light to pass through at 280.87 lux.
Data Table
Viscosity (seconds)

Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3
Average

Water
11.03
11.00
11.19
11.07

Methanol
33.75
32.38
32.78
32.97

Ethanol
117.72
117.72
117.41
117.62

Diesel
16.34
15.6
15.75
15.9

Caloric Value (grams)

Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3
Average

Diesel
0.3
0.33
0.33
0.32

Methanol
0.21
0.23
0.24
0.23

Ethanol
0.13
0.14
0.15
0.14

Suitability of Flame (lux)

Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3

Diesel
169.1
176.5
166.3

Methanol
293.4
277.6
271.6

Ethanol
272.7
268.3
264.4

Average

170.6333

280.8667

268.4667

Flammability (visual observations)

Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3
Average

Diesel
3
3
3
3

Methanol
2
2
2
2

Ethanol
1
1
1
1

Note: The scale above is a 1 to 3 scale with 3 being most flammable and 1 being the least.
Graphs

Graph 1

Graph 2

Conclusions
From the results, it can be said that methanol is the most like diesel in its properties and ethanol is not. The flammability test shows
how the fuel could catch on fire if there was an oil spill and if consumers would need to take extra precautions when handling the
fuel. Methanol would be more flammable than ethanol but that would depend on the concentrations that scientists devise. The
viscosity of the fuel is important because diesel engines are fuel injected and the viscosity of what is being injected could affect the
vehicles ability to use the fuel. Methanol once again had the most similar viscosity to diesel than ethanol did and therefore would
create fewer problems for the engine. The caloric values of the fuels are relevant because the energy that a fuel can create is the
whole purpose behind powering anything with that particular fuel. If a fuel cannot create enough energy for something to have the
power to run, then the fuel is useless. The methanol also was able to create more energy than the ethanol and therefore would be a
better choice for consumers. The results of this experiment can show how much pollution is going to be created by the fuel when it
is burned in the vehicle. This could reduce the amount of pollution that is created in the environment by the gases given off in the
car exhaust. The soot collected on the filter shows what will be put in the environment with a given and comparable measure. The
methanol created the least amount of soot and therefore would be a better substitute for diesel fuel, which created a great amount of
pollution. My original hypothesis was that the methanol biodiesel would be the most affective substitute for diesel fuel. Based on
the results of this experiment, my hypothesis should be accepted because methanol proved to be most like diesel in each test and less
harmful to the environment. After the results of this experiment, I wonder what the long-term affects of the biodiesel might have on
the engine. I also wonder what kinds of gases are put off by the biodiesel and how it would affect humans despite the fact that it is
proven to not create cancer. It would also be interesting to know how the different concentrations of the alcohol and vegetable oil
affect the properties and the engine of the vehicle. Some systematic errors would be the fact that there wasnt an accurate way to
place the light sensor and lamp over the coffee filter. Since I used a cotton wick do to the fact that the fuel wouldnt light with a
match, it could also affect the way each fuel burned and perhaps the gases given off. There also wasnt an accurate way to measure
the flammability in a safe way without testing the flash point that would be at a very high temperature and it would go too quickly to
make any observations. If someone were to repeat this experiment, I would recommend using different concentrations of each fuel
as well as different solutes added to the solution. It may also be interesting to know how the biodiesels could possibly clog the
filters in the vehicle if they were to set for long periods of time and the methods that would be used to clear the problem. Using
different alcohols may also give a new incite to those who are interested in making biodiesel either commercially or personally.

There are currently more than one billion people without access to safe drinking water. Solutions are urgently needed.
To date, water technology has been focused mainly on desalination, which is limited by economic and ecological
factors.
I have carried out an independent home project to create novel atmospheric water condensers to passively extract
water from the air. The condensers were designed to function without external energy or mechanical assistance.
Potential to condense water was maximized by a high surface area, continuous exposure to water vapour through
convective air movement and hydrophobic surfaces. Passive radiative cooling techniques were developed to cool the
devices to dewpoint. This pilot-scale system was capable of continuous condensation for up to 12.5 hours per night and
water production rates that indicated yields of up to 2.65 L/night.

I have also developed a novel solar still to passively purify contaminated water. Major design features are a modular
system of evaporation basins and a separate, high capacity condenser. The still converted non-potable water to potable
with removal of bacterial, sediment and chemical contamination. The rate of distillate production in a solar still is directly
proportional to water-condensing surface temperature differentials. The differential was > 3x greater in this projects
solar still than in traditional stills. Both the atmospheric water condenser and novel solar still have the potential to
increase access to potable water for basic human requirements. Several directions I would like to explore include
increasing water yield, scaling up models and testing in a range of climates.
Hypotheses:
Atmospheric Water Condensers to Passively Extract Water from Air:
If devices have:
high thermal conductivity, high internal surface area, surfaces that promote flow of water, are suitably shaped and their
rate of natural cooling is passively enhanced,
then,
condensation of atmospheric water vapour will take place on their surfaces and condensate will flow from those
surfaces. Furthermore, convective air flow will be induced resulting in continuous movement of air through the devices.
This will permit exposure of the condensing surfaces to large volumes of water vapour and potentially enable high water
yield.
High-Capacity Solar Stills to Passively Produce Potable Water from Contaminated Water:
If devices are created in which:
multiple, thermally-efficient evaporating basins containing contaminated water are connected to a high surface area
condenser, the condenser is positioned such that it is separated from the basins to prevent their shading, and a
temperature gradient is established in which the condenser is the coolest part of the system,
then,
potable water will evaporate simultaneously from the basins and condense in the condenser from which it can be
collected in potentially large volumes.
Water is a human right1 yet shortages and quality are global issues, effecting developing and developed countries alike.
One third of all deaths in the developing world are due to consumption of contaminated water 1 and sizable areas across
North America, Australia and Europe are also experiencing acute and worsening water shortages4,5,6,7. It is estimated
that by 2050, demand will exceed supply by 40%8.
Many solutions are required, including use of technology9,10, to address the water crisis. Desalination is currently the
only major alternative method of obtaining fresh water11. There are several issues with this process. Reverse osmosis,
the current separation method used, has high operating costs12. Other problems include costs of transport and waste11,
environmental and safety concerns13,14,15,16, and a large carbon footprint11,17 .
The atmosphere is an essentially untapped reservoir of 12,900 km3 of fresh water18, or 1.84 million litres per capita.
Natural dew forms when air cools to dewpoint and water in air condenses and this is a source of water for several
organisms19,20,21. However, attempts to capture this water for human use have been largely unsuccessful. Commercial
devices exist22,23 but they are impractical as they require external energy sources and are inaccessible to the worlds
poor. Attempts have been made to condense atmospheric water for drinking purposes on single planar condensers that
are passively cooled24-27, however they have had little success. These condensers have minimal control over cooling
and rely on tangential airflow for exposure to water vapour. They are further constrained by a theoretical maximum of
0.8-1 L/m2 of dew that can naturally form on surfaces, which in turn can form only if wind speeds are below 0.5-3 m/s,
depending on the terrain28,29,30. In addition, the only method of increasing yield is to increase the surface area resulting in
very large condensers, for example 30 and 40.6 m2 31,32. These are susceptible to destruction by weather factors and
surfaces can be easily contaminated with bacterial and chemical contaminants33,34,.

Solar stills utilize solar radiation to purify water35. They are used to provide potable water to some communities where
the natural supply of fresh water is inadequate or of poor quality36,37. However, climate and thermal loss factors limit their
efficiency38-42. 95% of all functioning passive stills are simple single basin stills with a sloped glass cover on which water
condenses35.

Shaping the Project and Potential Benefits of the Work:

Humans need a minimum of 3-5 L of drinking water per day9. In this project, I am developing novel atmospheric water
condensers, which have been optimized for cooling and airflow, and a novel high capacity basin solar still. These
systems could potentially provide the daily minimum requirements of water by producing water more efficiently and with
greater yield than existing systems. These systems are sustainable and low cost. They are also low maintenance, are
free of running costs, require no infrastructure and thus are proposed to offer one significant solution for providing
potable water to those in need.
Atmospheric Water Condensers (AWCs)
Design and Construction: A linear prototype consisting of 18 vertical rectangular prism cells, .0025 x 1 m, was
constructed from rectangular pieces of 18Ga aluminum secured with waterproof aluminum tape. Progressively enclosed
forms were then constructed and other prototypes, with cells differing in number and arrangement, surrounding a central
space were created and used for testing.

Operation and Testing:

AWCs and Solar Stills were tested outdoors in test stations, secured with their long axes perpendicular to the ground,
with an unobstructed view of the sky.
Setting up AWC Tests:

Enhancement of Passive Cooling:

(i) Radiative thermal transfer from other objects was reduced with a layer of metallized boPET film around the
prototypes and between the prototypes and the ground underneath.

(ii) The rate of radiative cooling of the prototypes was increased by

(a) Placement of a reflective parabolic array on the sky-facing top of the prototypes:

and
(b) Conduction of heat from the prototypes to horizontal radiating panels. The emissivity of the upper panel surfaces
was increased with black paint, and warming of the lower surfaces reduced with a photon shield. The panels were
attached to the prototypes with thermal bridges interfaced with a heat sink compound:

Cooling of the prototypes was tested for 1-2 hours without, and then overnight with, the cooling components
in position.

Increasing Flow Rate of Condensate: Condenser material was coated with a hydrophobic paint, to enable rapid water
flow. The effect of the treatments on the drop rate of water from the surfaces was measured with a drop counter. All
prototype internal surfaces were subsequently coated with the paint.
Solar Stills (SS):
Construction: Insulated evaporation basins with black inner surfaces, having a sealed horizontal glass cover, were
connected by a duct or tubing to a prototype without radiating panels and with its upper opening sealed. The condenser
was wrapped in a photon shield. Water collection containers were sealed under the condenser base.

Lake water, used to simulate contaminated water, was poured into the SS evaporation basin(s) prior to testing. Water
was collected from the condenser during testing.

Water Quality: Fastidious aerobic bacteria and heterotrophic plate counts, nitrate, phosphate, dissolved oxygen
concentrations, pH and turbidity were measured in water from both systems and controls using standard test kits.

Safety Considerations: Heterotrophic and fastidious aerobic bacteria in water in the environment are considered
Biosafety Level 1. Culture was with standard test kits. Gloves were worn for all water tests (for additional safety
information and supervisor contact, please see acknowledgments section).
Atmospheric Water Condenser (AWC) Development:

Fully enclosing the linear design to a hexagonal prism structure with a central space had minimal effect on cooling of the
prototype.
Enhancement of Passive Prototype Cooling:
The initial prototype was above ambient temperature all night. With the shield, prototype warming rates were less than
ambient and cooling rates were greater than ambient for 50-100% of the test period.

Parabolic Reflector Array: The array induced rapid increases in the cooling rates of the prototypes and a mean overall
cooling rate of 1.23-fold ambient rates. Net effects:
Prototypes were at a lower temperature than ambient for 75-100% of the time in 64% of tests.
Mean ambient-prototype temperature differentials were 0.34 C +/- 0.11 std. dev.
Radiating Panels: The panels rapidly increased the prototype cooling rates relative to ambient. There was an increase
in overall cooling relative to ambient of up to 1.3-fold.

Net effects:
Prototypes were under ambient for 100% of the time during all tests.
Mean ambient-prototype differentials were 1.1C +/- 0.46 std.dev.

Effect of a Hydrophobic Surface Coating:

AWC Operation:
There was an increase in cooling rates with progression from cloudy to clear skies and a negative correlation between
the prototypes cooling rates and sky darkness. On clear nights the prototype cooling rates were on average 3.1-times
those on cloudy nights resulting in median ambient-prototype differentials of 0.42C/hr and 0.01C/hr on clear and
cloudy nights respectively.

This resulted in theoretical air volumes of 14.5-22 m3/s passing through the prototypes/test.

Supersaturation within the Condensers:

The prototype internal relative humidity was 17.73-1.59% higher than ambient. Supersaturation, indicative of
condensation occurring on a surface, occurred in 33.3-100% of tests.

Supersaturation occurred for up to 95.54% of test hours. In these periods, ambient saturation did not occur. During
periods in which dewpoint was reached in the prototypes and not ambiently, there was an average 0.80C +/- 0.43 std.
dev. differential between ambient temperature and dewpoint.

Water Production:
Water was produced and collected from the prototypes.

Water Quality:
The condensate had 24-80/ml total HPC counts and <102/ml FAB, which are equivalent to tap water. In addition, the
condensate had turbidity (0), nitrate (<<<5ppm) and phosphate (<1ppm) levels also equivalent to tap water.
Solar Still Operation
Temperature gradients in the SS system:
Temperature gradients were established in which the condenser inner surfaces were the coolest locations in the system.
Water condenser temperature differentials were 3.16-fold that of the water glass cover in an adjacent traditional basin
still.

Water Quality:
The extent of removal of HPC and FAB from unpolluted lake water was used as an indicator of the stills ability to
remove microbial content (contamination) from water.

There was almost total removal of HPC and FAB in the SS system.
Using international guidelines, post-still water was potable having 100 and 97% reductions in pre-still FAB and HPC
respectively.

I have carried out projects for 6 years to develop passive technologies to improve human access to freshwater. This
project is focused on the passive provision of water to supplement daily supplies in areas of acute shortage, and
conversion of contaminated water to potable.
1. A microclimate was created to enable condensation within novel devices, independent of ambient conditions, at rates
considerably exceeding those of natural dew occurrence, resulting in water extraction from the air. Cooling was
passively increased in the prototypes to enable them to be below ambient for 100% of the night. This allowed dewpoint
to be reached and condensation to occur for up to 12.5 hours. At maximal flow rates observed, the condensers had
potential water yields of up to 2.65 L/night.

2. A novel, high capacity, thermally efficient passive solar still (SS) was created in which multiple thermally-efficient
evaporation basins are connected to a high capacity condenser. SS function was demonstrated by (i) establishment of
high temperature gradients between the contaminated water and condenser > 3x that in traditional single-effect stills ,
(ii) water production and (iii) complete conversion of non-potable water to potable.
These results therefore support the project hypotheses that devices could be created that could be passively cooled to
extract water from air and a novel solar still could be created as theorized.

Discussion:
95% of SS are single basin stills with low production rates35. The rate of distillate production is directly proportional to
water-condensing cover temperature differential40,41. A combination of higher temperature differentials between the
condensing surfaces and water in addition to higher condensing surface area and multiple basins indicates that this
novel still produces water in greater yields and more efficiently than traditional single basin stills.
Based on principles of convection and condensation, similar to what occurs in thunderstorms, the AWC is the first
system that can reliably extract practical volumes of water from air.
These systems require no external energy or infrastructure, are low-cost ($130 each), survived freezing, hot, and windy
conditions for 6 months at a time, are portable and low maintenance.
One third of water-related deaths occur in the Developing World1 and 84% of those deaths occur in children aged 01444. Lack of access to the minimum daily requirement of water causes enormous human suffering and tragedy9. It is
hoped that the novel solar still created in this project could contribute to improving these conditions. In addition, while
continuous extraction of large volumes of water from the atmosphere would not be sustainable, the atmospheric water
condenser could supplement existing low supplies in areas suffering from water scarcity.

Applications:
These systems could:

Provide long-term, low cost, consistent sources of potable water in remote or isolated communities:

- which do not have access to clean water supplies

- which lack a water distribution system
- where well, piped or rain water is not reliable

Supplement existing supplies in urban areas where water systems are:

- unreliable - comprom - costly

Provide solutions to fresh water shortages in disaster situations