Unit 1

Communication
Systems - 1

Modulation schemes

BE 5th semester

Faculty: Ashok Herur

Unit outline
Amplitude (Linear) Modulation
Baseband versus Carrier Communication
Amplitude Modulation, Bandwidth efficient AM
Vestigial Sideband (VSB), Local carrier Synchronization

Frequency Division multiplexing, PLL and applications.

Angle (Exponential) Modulation

Nonlinear Modulations, Bandwidth of Angle-modulated waves
Generation and Demodulation of FM signals
Effect of nonlinear distortions and Interference

Super heterodyne AM/FM receivers, FM broadcasting systems.

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Communication Systems
Communications systems help us communicate!
Examples:

Telephones
Radio
TV
Fax
Email
Internet
Postal mail
Newspapers

Communication Systems
All communications systems have:
A transmitter
A receiver
A transmission medium to carry the message signal
The communication can be:
One-way (simplex) or 2-way (duplex)
Unicast, Multicast, or Broadcast

Communication Systems
The message can be:
Voice or non-voice (data)
Analog or Digital
The transmission media can be:
Twisted wire pair (TWP)
- Electrical signal
Coaxial cable
- Electrical signal
Optical fibre
- Light signal
Space (wireless)
- EM wave

Communication Systems
Different transmission media have different bandwidth.
Bandwidth is the range of frequencies that can be
carried with almost the same level of attenuation
Every signal needs a certain bandwidth
If the BW of the media is less than that needed by the
signal, the signal will be distorted.

The signal representing the message can be a:

Baseband signal
Bandpass (modulated) signal

Baseband and Bandpass signals - Examples

A person sings into a mike during the college fest
The voice is converted to an electrical signal that flows on
a wire to the amplifier and then to the speaker.
The bandwidth of this signal extends from 20 Hz to 20 KHz

A person sings into a mike in an AM Radio station studio

The voice is converted to an electrical signal (frequency 20
Hz to 20 KHz) which is first clipped to 20 Hz to 5 KHz.
This signal is then superimposed on the station frequency
(say 800 KHz) and transmitted as EM waves.
The BW of the transmitted signal extends from 795 KHz to
805 KHz.

Need for modulation

Why do we modulate what a person sings at an AM
Radio station?

Reason 1: Radiation efficiency and Antenna length

For a good and efficient radiation, the transmitting antenna
should be around a fourth of the signal wavelength.
For the general range of speech frequencies (100 to 3000
Hz), this antenna length would be 25 to 750 kms!
If the signal was modulated to a higher frequency of, say, 1
MHz, then the antenna length would be 75 meters

Need for modulation

Reason 2: Multiplexing
Each radio station is allotted a unique frequency band for
their exclusive use.
Many stations can thus transmit in the same space at the
same time.
Therefore, the signal being broadcast from a particular
station has to be converted to the allotted frequency band.

Reason 3: Matching Signal bandwidth to Channel BW

Digital pulses have an infinite BW, and so are heavily
distorted on any media of a reasonable length.
Modulation would bring down the BW requirement.

Modulation techniques

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Modulation
It is the process in which the message signal modifies
(modulates) some property of the high-frequency
sinusoidal carrier signal.
One could modulate / modify the Amplitude or Frequency
or Phase of the sinusoidal carrier signal, in accordance
with the magnitude of the message (modulating) signal.
Accordingly, we have 3 types of modulation:
Amplitude modulation (AM)
Frequency modulation (FM)
Phase modulation (PM)

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Amplitude modulation

Modulating signal

Carrier signal

Modulated signal

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Amplitude modulation

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Amplitude modulation
The carrier frequency remains constant during the
modulation process, but its amplitude varies in
accordance with the modulating signal.
An increase in the amplitude of the modulating signal
causes the amplitude of the carrier to increase.
An imaginary line connecting the positive peaks (or
negative peaks) of the carrier waveform gives the exact
shape of the modulating signal. This imaginary line on
the carrier waveform is known as the envelope.

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Amplitude modulation Mathematical analysis

Let the carrier be expressed by:
vc = Vc Sin (2fct)

The sine wave modulating signal can be expressed as:

vm = Vm Sin (2fmt)

The instantaneous amplitude of the carrier would be

Vc + k vm = Vc + k Vm Sin (2fmt), where k is amplitude

sensitivity.

If k=1 (for simplicity), then the modulated carrier would be:

vcm = [Vc + Vm Sin (2fmt)] Sin (2fct)
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Amplitude modulation Mathematical analysis

The modulated carrier would be:

vcm = Vc Sin (2fct) + Vm Sin (2fmt) Sin (2fct)
vcm = Vc Sin (2fct) + 0.5 Vm [Cos 2(fc - fm)t - Cos 2(fc + fm)t]

So, the modulated carrier has 3 components:

The original carrier of frequency, fc, and amplitude Vc
Sine wave of frequency (fc - fm), and amplitude Vm /2
Sine wave of frequency (fc + fm), and amplitude Vm /2
The two new components are called as Lower Side Band
(LSB) and Upper Side Band (USB)

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AM wave components

LSB
Carrier

USB

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AM wave components in the Frequency domain

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Amplitude modulation Mathematical analysis

When only a single-frequency sine wave modulating
signal is used, the modulation process generates two
sidebands.
If the modulating signal is a complex wave, such as
voice or video, a whole range of frequencies modulate
the carrier, and thus a whole range of sidebands are
generated.

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AM wave components in the Frequency domain

Bandwidth = 2 * fm (max)

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AM Frequency bands and Bandwidth

Example:
If a voice signal in the range 300 to 5000 Hz modulates a
1.5 MHz carrier of an AM radio station, calculate:
The frequency ranges in the LSB and the USB
The bandwidth of the modulated signal

LSB = (fc - fm) = (1500 5) to (1500 0.3)

= 1495 to 1499.7 KHz

USB = (fc + fm) = (1500 + 0.3) to (1500 + 5)

= 1500.3 to 1505 KHz
Bandwidth = 2 * fm (max) = 2* 5 = 10 KHz
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AM wave Modulation Index

The modulation index, ma, is defined as the ratio of the
amplitudes of the modulating signal and the carrier.

ma = Vm / Vc = (Vmax Vmin) / (Vmax + Vmin)

Refer the figure on next slide; Therefore the index can
range between 0 and 1.
If ma is greater than 1, it results in over modulation, thereby
causing distortion.

The modulated carrier can be rewritten as:

vcm = Vc Sin (2fct) + 0.5 ma Vc [Cos 2(fc - fm)t - Cos 2(fc + fm)t]
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AM wave Modulation Index

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Modulation Index
Example:
If Vmax and Vmin read from an oscilloscope are 5.9 and
1.2 volts respectively, calculate:
The modulation index
Carrier amplitude, Vc
Message signal amplitude, Vm

ma = Vm / Vc = (Vmax Vmin) / (Vmax + Vmin) = 0.662

Vc = (Vmax + Vmin) / 2 = 3.55 volts

Vm = (Vmax - Vmin) / 2 = 2.35 volts

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Power of an AM wave

Here, R is the resistive part of the load impedance;

Pc is the carrier power;

PT is the total power.

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Power calculations
Example:
An AM transmitter has a carrier power of 30 W. The
percentage of modulation is 85 percent. Calculate
(a) the total power and (b) the power in one sideband.
Total power, PT = PC ( 1 + m2 / 2) = 40.8 W
Power in both sidebands = PT - PC = 10.8 W
Power in one sideband = 5.4 W (Also = PC * m2 / 4)

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Power calculations
Example:
An antenna has an impedance of 40 ohms. An
unmodulated AM signal produces a current of 4.8 A. The
modulation is 90 percent. Calculate (a) the carrier
power, (b) the total power, and (c) the power in each
sideband.

PC = I 2 R = (4.8)2 * 40 = 921.6 W
Total power, PT = PC ( 1 + m2 / 2) = 1295 W
Power in one sideband = 186.7 W

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Power calculations
Example:
The antenna current in an AM transmitter changes from
4.8 A to 5.1 A, when the signal transmission begins.
What is the percentage of modulation?

PC = Ic2 R = (4.8)2 * R
PT = IT2 R = (5.1)2 * R

PT = PC ( 1 + m2 / 2)

m = 0.51 (or 51%)

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AM generation and detection techniques

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AM Generation Square law modulator

When a device, like a diode, is operated in its non-linear
(square law) region, the output can be expressed as a
second order function of the input:
v2 = a + b*v1 + c*v12

A square law modulator uses such a device, and applies

the sum of the modulating signal and the carrier signal,
at its input.

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AM Generation Square law modulator

vm = Vm Sin (2fmt)

vc = Vc Sin (2fct)

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AM Generation Square law modulator

v2 = a + b*v1 + c*v12 , where v1 = vm + vc

v2 = a + b*(vm + vc) + c*(vm + vc)2

v2 = a + b*vm + b*vc + c*vm2 + c*vc2 + 2*c*vc*vm

Thus, v2 would contain the following frequencies:
DC, fm , fc , 2fm , 2fc , fc + fm , fc - fm

If the lower cut-off of the resonant circuit is above 2fm, and the
upper cut-off is below 2fc, then the output will contain the
carrier frequency and the 2 sidebands.

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AM demodulator - Envelope detector

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AM demodulator - Envelope detector

During the positive half cycles of the input signals, the
diode D is forward biased and the capacitor C charges
up rapidly to the peak of the input signal.

When the input signal falls below this value, the diode
becomes reverse biased and the capacitor C discharges
through the load resistor RL.
The discharge process continues until the next positive
half cycle.
When the input signal becomes greater than the voltage
across the capacitor, the diode conducts again and the
process is repeated.
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AM demodulator - Envelope detector

The charge time constant (rf + Rs)C must be short
compared with the carrier period, the capacitor charges
rapidly and there by follows the applied voltage up to the
positive peak when the diode is conducting.

So, the charging time constant shall satisfy the condition:

(rf + Rs)C << (1 / fc)

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AM demodulator - Envelope detector

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AM demodulator - Envelope detector

On the other hand, the discharging time-constant RLC
must be long enough to ensure that the capacitor
discharges slowly through the load resistor RL between
the positive peaks of the carrier wave.
However, it must not be so long that the capacitor voltage
will not discharge at the maximum rate of change of the
modulating wave.

That is the discharge time constant shall satisfy the

condition:
(1 / fc) << RLC << (1 / fm)
The ripple in the output can be easily removed by a LPF

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Variants of AM

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Bandwidth and Power- efficient variants of AM

All the information in an AM wave is present in each of
the two identical sidebands.
Transmitting both the sidebands and the carrier is
therefore a waste of bandwidth and power

Double Side Band, Suppressed Carrier (DSB SC): In

this case, both the sidebands are transmitted, while only
the carrier is suppressed, thereby saving substantial
power.
Single Side Band (SSB SC): In this case, in addition to
the carrier, one of the side bands is also suppressed,
thereby saving power and bandwidth.
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Bandwidth and Power- efficient variants of AM

SSB is suited for the transmission of voice signals by
virtue of the energy gap that exists in the spectrum of
voice signals between zero and a few hundred hertz.
Its principal disadvantage is increased cost and
complexity.
Vestigial Side Band (VSB): Here, almost the whole of
one of the side bands is transmitted along with a small
part (vestige) of the other sideband.
Suited for the transmission of wideband signals, such as
television signals

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Variants of AM

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Double Side Band - Suppressed Carrier

DSB-SC signal can be obtained by multiplying the
message signal with the carrier signal.
For example, while one of them is the input of an amplifier,
the other one can control the amplifier gain.

DSB signal, s(t) = Vc Cos(2fct) * m(t)

This will only have the side bands at (fc - fm) and (fc + fm),

The envelope of a DSB-SC modulated signal is different

from the message signal.
The modulated signal, s(t), undergoes a phase reversal
whenever the message signal m(t) crosses zero.

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Double Side Band - Suppressed Carrier

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Double Side Band - Suppressed Carrier

Message spectrum

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Modulated signal spectrum

Double Side Band - Suppressed Carrier

Single-tone message signal

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Coherent Detection of a DSB-SC signal

Since the carrier is suppressed, the demodulation of the
DSB-SC signal at the receiver involves using a locally
generated carrier signal.
This carrier has to be coherent (or perfectly
synchronized in frequency and phase) with the carrier
used at the transmitter.
The DSB-SC signal is multiplied with the locally
generated carrier, and the resulting signal is passed
through a LPF to obtain the message.

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Coherent Detection of a DSB-SC signal

Assume an arbitrary phase difference between the carrier

used during modulation, and the one generated at the receiver.

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Coherent Detection of a DSB-SC signal

The first term is filtered off by the LPF; Therefore, the output
signal would be proportional to the message signal m(t).

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Coherent Detection of a DSB-SC signal

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Coherent Detection of a DSB-SC signal Costas Receiver

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Single Side Band modulation

Generation of a SSB signal is straight forward.
Generate a DSB-SC signal and pass it through a BPF to
filter one of the side-bands

The demodulation is quite complex and costly.

SSB signal

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Vestigial Side Band modulation

VSB system is a compromise between DSB and SSB.
It inherits the advantages of DSB and SSB but avoids their
disadvantages.

VSB signals are relatively easy to generate and their

bandwidth is only slightly (typically 25 percent) greater
than that of SSB signals.

Message signal
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VSB signal spectrum

Vestigial Side Band modulation

In VSB, instead of rejecting one sideband completely as
in SSB, a gradual cutoff of one sideband is accepted.
Almost the whole of one sideband is transmitted along with
a small amount (vestige) of the other sideband.

The filter is allowed to have a non-zero transition band.

The roll-off characteristic of the filter is such that the
partial suppression of the transmitted sideband in the
neighbourhood of the carrier is exactly compensated for
by the partial transmission of the corresponding part of
the suppressed sideband.

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Vestigial Side Band modulation

Our goal is to determine the particular H(f) for the filter,
required to produce a modulated signal s(t), such that
the original baseband signal m(t) may be recovered from
s(t) by coherent detection.

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Any questions?

ashokherur60@gmail.com

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