(Enppi) Corrosion & Cathodic Protection in Petroleum Industry Course (Yasser Tawfik)

18-21 June, 2012
BASICS OF CORROSION
Corrosion of Metals
All interactions between a metal ( or alloy )
with its environment.
Corrosion is derived from

the Latin word "corrosus"
meaning eaten away
3
BASICS OF CORROSION
Corrosion of Metals
Wet
Occurs in wet
environments
Dry
Occurs in dry
environments
high or elevated temp.
low cryogenic temp.
BASICS OF CORROSION
Wet / Aqueous Corrosion of Metals

Occurs in water containing environments
Occurs at ambient temperatures
Environment
Water ( fresh or sea water )
Soil ( wetted )
Atmospheric air ( humid )
5
BASICS OF CORROSION
Electrochemical Nature of Corrosion

Corrosion of metals (e.g. iron) in water is basically an
electrochemical reaction in nature,
i.e.
A chemical reaction accompanied by the passage of an
electric current ( due to movement of electrons ).
BASICS OF CORROSION
Why Metals Corrode?
Metals tend to corrode in order to retain their natural
form (ore).
Metals are usually extracted and purified from their
ores via high-energy input processes.
For example :
Thermal energy (high furnace for Fe)
Electric energy (electrolytic paths for Al & Cu)
BASICS OF CORROSION
Blast Furnace
of reducing iron
ore to iron
In
Ore +
Limestone +
Coke
Waste gases
Out
Hot air
In
Slag
Molten Iron
Out
Out
The extracted free metal has a high energy content. i.e. active state
BASICS OF CORROSION
Electrolytic reduction of Al oxide to Al
Electrolytic production of Cu
The extracted free metal has a high energy content. i.e. active state9
BASICS OF CORROSION
Active free metals tend to react easily to produce
compounds, such as salts and oxides.
Metals in the compounded forms have less energy
content, i.e. stable state.
Corrosion is governed by the Law of

Conservation of Energy :
Energy Gained = Energy Lost
10
BASICS OF CORROSION
Corrosion
Thermodynamic Cycle
Oxides, Ore thermodynamically stable
Corrosion
Mining & Extraction
Pipe Mill
Equipment fabrication,
thermodynamically unstable
11
BASICS OF CORROSION
When man makes metals there is a varying degree of

electrical, mechanical and chemical energy used to
refine the metal from the ore stable state to deliver the
metal into a pure useable state.
A large portion of the energy used in refining remains
as stored or residual energy in metals .
12
BASICS OF CORROSION
Exceptions
There are some exceptions, such as gold, which can occur natively in their
metallic state.
These metals, sometimes known as Nobel Metals ,have low driving forces
for oxidation and can survive in their metallic state for thousands of years
without reacting with oxygen or other elements to form oxides or other
compounds .
13
BASICS OF CORROSION
Iron oxides
+
Practically Corrosion Can be Defined as:

Tendency of a Metal to Revert
to its Native State
Mining &
Extraction
Steel
+
Corrosion
Iron oxides
14
BASICS OF CORROSION
Thermodynamics of Corrosion
In a chemical reaction :
Reactants
Products
G = Gprod Greact
In all corrosion reactions
Gprod < Greact. Therefore,
G is ve
Hence, the corrosion reaction is:
spontaneous
irreversible
15
BASICS OF CORROSION
Occurrence of Corrosion
An old adage in materials science says:
"materials are like people; it is the defects that make them interesting".
The manufacture of a perfect crystal of a material is currently physically
impossible.
Defects in crystalline materials such as:
Non-metallic inclusions,
grain boundaries,
interstitial atoms,
vacancies or
substitutional atoms.
16
BASICS OF CORROSION
Occurrence of Corrosion
Corrosion is initiated at the metal surface defects since they are
the highest energy sites, i.e. the most active sites.
B
A
C
(1)
(2)
(3)
Schematic model of a free metal surface
Atom
Degree of Freedom
C , Terrace (Plane)
1
B , Step (Ledge)
2
A , Kink
3
Activity Order : A > B >C
Dislocation
17
BASICS OF CORROSION
Slip bands, with:

extrusion (e) and
intrusion (i) on the surface
Anodes and cathodes co-exist on the same metal

When a piece of iron is placed in electrolyte, V is established between anodes and cathodes
18
THEORY OF CORROSION
Corrosion Process
Due to the electrochemical nature of corrosion, there shall
be electron transfer
Electron transfer requires presence of anode sites and
cathode sites on the metal surface
Due to potential difference ( V ) between anodes and
cathodes electrons migrate from anodes to cathodes
Electrons liberated at anodes
should be consumed at cathodes
I
e-
19
Ea
Anode
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe++
Fe Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe++
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
O
H
Cathode
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
H
H
O
H
Fe
Fe
Fe
O
H
Fe
Fe
H
H
Ec
20
When a piece of iron is placed in electrolyte, V is established between anodes and cathodes
THEORY OF CORROSION
Corrosion Process
@ Anode Sites :
Surface defects
More -ve potentials
Metal atoms have high energy, i.e. unstable & active
Thus, metal atoms ionize by losing their electrons, i.e.
oxidation reaction : M0
Mn+ + n eAs a result, metal loss occurs, i.e. metal dissolution
OILRIG
Oxidation Is Loss of electrons
Reduction Is Gain of electrons
21
THEORY OF CORROSION
Corrosion Process
@ Cathode Sites :
Intact ( un-defected ) surface areas
More +ve potentials
Metal atoms have low energy, i.e. stable & un-active
Receive electrons to be consumed, i.e. reduction reaction
As a result, no metal loss occurs, i.e. no corrosion
OILRIG
Oxidation Is Loss of electrons
Reduction Is Gain of electrons
22
THEORY OF CORROSION
Oxidation can't occur without Reduction.

In other words, a substance will not loss
electrons unless another substance gains
electrons.
The two processes are Tied Together.
23
THEORY OF CORROSION
Corrosion Process
The corrosion process involves two reactions:
Anodic Reaction (metal dissolution / oxidation )
Cathodic Reaction ( reduction )
The corrosion process occurs in 3 sequential

- but impartial - steps
24
THEORY OF CORROSION
Corrosion Process
Fe atoms at Defect Site
a.
Anodic Reaction
(metal dissolution)
Metal dissolution starts at the defect

sites on the metal surface, where the
energy is Highest; i.e. the metal atoms
are most active
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
25
THEORY OF CORROSION
Corrosion Process
O
a.
Anodic Reaction
(metal dissolution)
Fe
Fe
Anode
Fe (surface defect)
Fe 2+(solution) + 2e- (surface)
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe++
Fe
Fe
Fe++
Fe
O
If place in electrolyte - e.g. water - Fe
atoms at the defect sites on the metal
surface ionize (dissolve in the
electrolyte) leaving their valance
electrons behind onto the metal
surface
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
26
THEORY OF CORROSION
Corrosion Process
O
b. Charge Transfer
The flow of electrons represents

the Corrosion Current (Icorr)
Fe
>
Due to V, the electrons liberated

from the anodic reaction migrate
to the cathodic areas where the
cathodic reaction occurs in order
to consume the electrons
Remember! The direction of electric current

is always in the opposite direction of the flow
of electrons
Icorr
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Cathode
Fe++
Fe
Anode
Fe
Fe
Fe++
A
>
27
THEORY OF CORROSION
Corrosion Process
c. Cathodic Reaction
Once the liberated electrons arrive to the cathode site:
if the electrons accumulate without being consumed, this would cause
cathodic polarization and the corrosion process completely stops.
if the medium contains electron consumer (i.e. Depolarizer), the cathode
will be depolarized and the corrosion process continues.
the most common depolarizers are:
1) Dissolved oxygen
2) Hydrogen ions, H+
28
THEORY OF CORROSION
Corrosion Process
There are 2 main reactions depending on :
Oxygen availability &
pH
1. Oxygen reduction reaction

2. Hydrogen evolution reaction
29
THEORY OF CORROSION
Corrosion Process
1. Oxygen reduction reaction
O2 + 2H2O + 4e-
4 OH-
Predominates in aerated Near-Neutral solutions pH > 5

Then, the OH- ions combine with Fe2+ ions leading to the deposition of
iron hydroxide (rust) as a Corrosion Product
Fe2+ + 2OH-
Fe(OH)2
30
The Corrosion Cell : in Aerated Natural Water

O
H
O2
OH_
Fe
Fe
Fe++
Fe
Anode
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Cathode
Fe
Fe
O2
OH_
Fe++ +
Fe
OH
Fe(OH)2
OH_
Fe
O2
Fe
O2
O2
O
H
H
H
O
H
O2
O2
Fe
O
H
O2
O
H
The surface becomes covered with brown-orange corrosion product (Iron Hydroxide)31
known as RUST. Rust is specific to steel corrosion in water due to oxygen.
THEORY OF CORROSION
2. Hydrogen evolution reaction
2H+ + 2e2H (adsorbed)
H2 (gas)
Predominates in acid solutions pH < 5
P.S.
The corrosion product is H2 gas
i.e. NO solid products

As corrosion proceeds the
concentration of free Fe2+ ions
increases in the solution.32
The Corrosion Cell : in Acidic Water Solutions

O
H
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Fe
Cathode
O
H
Fe
H
H
Fe++
H+
Fe
Fe
Fe
H+
H
H+
H+
H+
O
H
H+
Anode
Fe
H+
H+
H
H0
H+
H+
H0
H+
O
H
H+
33
THEORY OF CORROSION
A.
B.
In Conclusion
The corrosion process involves two reactions:
Anodic Reaction
: occurs @ anode sites
M n+solution + neMetal Dissolution
: M 0surface
Oxidation Reaction : involves loss of electrons
Cathodic Reaction : occurs @ cathode sites
Reduction Reaction : involve gain of electrons
Oxygen reduction : gain of electrons by dissolved O2
Hydrogen evolution: gain of electrons by H+ ions
34
THEORY OF CORROSION
Possible Cathodic Reactions Cathodic Depolarization

4 OH-
O2 + 2H2O + 4e-
(natural water)
Charge Transfer
2H+ + 2e-
H2 (gas)
(acid water)
Fe3+ + e-
Fe2+
(acid water)
Cl2 + 2e-
2Cl-
SO42- + 8H+ + 8e-
(SRB)
(chlorinated water)
S2- + 4H2O
(bacterial)
p.s.
more than one cathodic reaction can occur at the same time
Anodic Reaction
Fe (surface defect)
Fe 2+(solution) + 2e- (surface)

35
THEORY OF CORROSION
Corrosion of metals requires the following conditions:
An anode, a cathode, an electrical path, and an electrolyte
must all be present .
The anode and cathode must be in contact with the same
electrolyte .
The metal must electrically connect the anode and
cathode for electrons to flow .
The anodic (oxidation) and cathodic (reduction) reactions
must be equivalent and simultaneous .
36
THEORY OF CORROSION
In conclusion:
A piece of metal immersed
in an electrolyte acts as its
own:
Anode
Cathode
Electrical connection
Electrolyte
Anode
2H++2e
Cathode
2H
H2
37
THEORY OF CORROSION
The Corrosion Cell
In a corrosion cell:
Electrons leave the anode
and migrate to cathode
within the metal;
i.e. electronic movement
Corrosion Cell
The circuit is close by

migration of +ve & -ve
ions between anode and
cathode in the electrolyte;
i.e. ionic movement
38
THEORY OF CORROSION
The Corrosion Cell

Simple DC Circuit Representing a Corrosion Cell
Ea
Where:
Rm = resistance of metallic path between anode and
cathode
Rm
Icorr
Re
Ec
(Metals have reasonably Low Rm)

Re
= resistance of electrolytic path between anode

and cathode
(Affected by presence of Salts)

Role of salts:
- salts lower the resistance of the electrolytic path (Re)
- thus speeding up the corrosion cycle without being involved in the chemical reactions;
- i.e. salts act as a catalyst
39
THEORY OF CORROSION
Factors of Corrosion
1- Water
2- Oxygen
3- Acidity
Accordingly, there are TWO types of Aqueous Corrosion:

Oxygen Corrosion due to presence of dissolved oxygen
Acid Corrosion due to presence of acidity (H+ ions)
Both types can occur simultaneously in aerated acidic aqueous media
40
THEORY OF CORROSION
Aerated neutral
saline aqueous
solution
Deaerated
neutral saline
aqueous solution
Deaerated acidified saline

aqueous solution
THEORY OF CORROSION
Testimony
An environment
is considered
corrosive if it
contains Water
with dissolved
Oxygen and / or
Acidity ( H+ ions )
Fe
42
THEORY OF CORROSION
Pourbaix Diagram:
Theoretical
Based on thermodynamic data
Correlates metal potential in
water at different pHs
Metal can exist in 1 of 3 states:
Corrosion- Passivation- Immunity
Gives no information about rate of
corrosion
43
THEORY OF CORROSION
Potential
Pourbaix Diagram for Iron

2.0
1.6
1.2
0.8
0.4
0.0
-0.4
-0.8
-1.2
-1.6
Fe3+
Fe oxides
stable
Fe2+ stable
Fe metal stable
0
14
44
THEORY OF CORROSION
Potential

2.0
1.6
1.2
0.8
0.4
0.0
-0.4
-0.8
-1.2
-1.6
Will iron corrode

in acid?
Fe3+
Fe oxides
stable
Fe2+ stable
Fe metal stable
0
Yes - there is a
reasonably wide
range of potentials
where hydrogen
can
14 be evolved
and iron dissolved
45
THEORY OF CORROSION
2.0
1.6
1.2
Fe3+
0.8
0.4
Fe oxides
Yes - although iron can
stable
0.0
form an oxide in neutral 2+
Fe stable
solution, it tends-0.4
not to
-0.8
form directly on the
metal,
Fe metal stable
as the potential is-1.2
too low,
therefore it is-1.6
not
0
7
protective.
Potential
Will iron corrode

in neutral
waters?
14
46
THEORY OF CORROSION
Will iron corrode

in
2.0
1.6
alkaline solution?
1.2
Fe3+
Potential
0.8
0.4
Fe oxides
stable
0.0
-0.4 Fe2+ stable
-0.8forms a solid
No - iron
Feand
metal stable
oxide at-1.2
all potentials,
will
passivate
-1.6
0
7
14
47
THEORY OF CORROSION
Corrosion Rate (Kinetics of Corrosion)

The rate at which metal loss occurs due to corrosion is
expressed in terms of:
mpy
milli- inch per year
mmpy
milli- meter per year
Or
P.S. :
1 milli-inch = 1/1000 inch
48
THEORY OF CORROSION
NACE International Ranking for Corrosion Rates
of Steel
Corrosion Rate
(mpy)
Level of Corrosion
<1
Low
1-5
Moderate
5-10
Severe
>10
Intense
NACE= National Association for Corrosion Engineers

49
COST OF CORROSION
STATISTIC RELEVANCE OF CORROSION FAILURES
50
COST OF CORROSION
Consequences of Corrosion
Corrosion related problems are the MOST costly
and hazardous, since
Corrosion is the primary source of failure in process industry
Corrosion related failures could be Catastrophic leading to
loss of human lives and injuries
Leakages resulting from corrosion failures have negative
impact on the environment and living species
51
COST OF CORROSION
Corroded rotor leading

to equipment failure
Leakage leading to
environmental pollution
BP Crude P/L Alaska 2006
52
COST OF CORROSION
Catastrophic failures
Condensate Tank on Fire

53
COST OF CORROSION
Corrosion of a municipal water

underground steel pipe
54
COST OF CORROSION
Soil collapse due corrosion of a municipal

water underground steel pipe
55
COST OF CORROSION
Corrosion of Under-ground Tank Leading to

Product Leakage and Loss
56
COST OF CORROSION
Corrosion An Expensive Issue for Industry
Corrosion Co$t :
NACE study in 2005 showed that:
Costs associated with corrosion
losses were estimated as $364
billion dollars, draining about 3.1%
of the GDP from the US economy.
Corrosion
yearly
losses
are
presently comparable to those
associated with Hurricane Katrina !
57
COST OF CORROSION
Annual Est. Corrosion Costs (US$)
$2.8B
Oil & Gas Production
$3.4B
$7.4B
Refining
$14B
58
Chemical Processes
Utilities
COST OF CORROSION
The Co$t of Corrosion
Direct Cost:
Replacement of corroded components

Use of corrosion resistant alloys
Use of coatings
Use of inhibitors
Cathodic Protection
59
COST OF CORROSION
Corrosion cost :
Indirect cost
corrosion-related inspection
corrosion- related maintenance
repairs due to corrosion
replacement of corroded parts
rehabilitation
loss of productive time
60
COST OF CORROSION
Global Direct Cost of Corrosion:
In 2004, NACE has surveyed the direct cost in only 17 countries.
In this year the Worlds gross output (GWP) was $51.48 Trillion, and
the global cost of corrosion was $990 Billion approx.
I.e. 2% of the GWP
Global Indirect Cost of Corrosion:

Even though it is very difficult to assess the indirect cost of
corrosion, a rational figure of $940 Billion was adopted.
Hence, the overall global cost was $1930 Billion.
I.e. 3.8% of the GWP
61
COST OF CORROSION
Cost of corrosion is expressed in terms of Asset Loss Risk:
Risk = probability of failure X consequence
62
COST OF CORROSION
Asset loss risk depends on type of equipment
High
Risk
. Piping
. Reactors
Priority of
Maintenance
. Tanks
. Process
Lower towers
Risk
63
COST OF CORROSION
Severity
People
Consequence
Assets Environ- Repument tation
Multiple fatalities Extensive

5. Catastrophic or permanent damage
E.
total disabilities
Massive
effect
International
impact
Major
effect
National
impact
Localised
effect
Considerable
impact
4. Severe
D.
Single fatality
or permanent
total disability
3. Critical
C.
Major injury
or health
effects
Local
damage
Minor injury
or health
effects
Minor
damage
Minor
effect
Minor
impact
Slight injury
or health
effects
Slight
damage
Slight
effect
Slight
impact
B.
2. Marginal
A.
1. Negligible
Major
damage
Probability
Likelihood
(Probability)
1A
2B
3C
Improbable
Remote
1 in 10,000
years
1 in 100,000
years
Occasional
1 in 1000
D
4
Probable
1 in 100
5E
Frequent
1 in 10
years
years
years
64
MANAGING CORROSION
To reduce risk of equipment failures, corrosion

control is to be dealt with by implementing a
Predictive / Proactive Corrosion Management
Program in both :
Design phase
Running/ operative phase
65
Overall Predictive
Management Program
DESIGN PHASE
RUNNING PHASE
Process flow
Stream analyses
Service conditions
Codes, standards,
specifications, textbooks,
handbooks, vendors
recommendations
Operation Dept.
Materials & Corrosion

Control Dept.
Corrosion
Monitoring
Past experience, case

studies
Predictive
Design
Inspection Dept.
Predictive mode
Predictive
Maintenance
- Effective corrosion
control
- Extended service life
Reduced Cost
High Profitability
66
MANAGING CORROSION
Types of Maintenance
Cost
Corrective (Reactive):
Unplanned.
Most costly.
1.00
0.75
0.50
0.25
Preventive:
Planned on a fixed time scale.
Corrective
Preventive
Predictive
Relative Cost Of Maintenance

Predictive (Proactive):
On a sliding time scale.
Least costly.
67
MANAGING CORROSION
A Proper Maintenance program lowers Asset Loss Risk
68
MANAGING CORROSION
Causes of Corrosion Failures
US based leading chemical company investigation outcome
Causes
% Freq
A Poor design/ wrong

material/ bad operation
36
B Wrong specification
16
C Bad inspection
10
D Human error
12
E Poor planning
14
F Others
G Unforeseen
F
G
D
E
69
MANAGING CORROSION
92% of corrosion failures are Preventable if the Predictive
Corrosion Management Program is strictly implemented
during Design and Running phases
Only 8% of unforeseen causes to be dealt with
Results: significant reduction in maintenance

activities and lower cost
70
MANAGING CORROSION
Consequences of Management on Operation & Production
Proper Management
1 Pro-active
Mismanagement
Reactive
2 Farsighted - long term planning No vision- out of sight, out of

mind attitude
3 Early warning of corrosion
problems
Sudden, unexpected costly

failure , i.e. unplanned shutdown
4 Increased production capacity
Decreased production capacity
5 High quality products
Low quality products due to

contamination
6 Responsible environmental and Environmental and safety

safety records
hazards
7 Pay a little now
Pay a lot later
71
FORMS OF CORROSION
Types of Corrosion:
1. Uniform (General) Corrosion
1. Localized Corrosion
Pitting and Crevice Corrosion
Stress Corrosion Cracking
Hydrogen Damage ( Embrittlement / Blistering )
Galvanic Corrosion
72
FORMS OF CORROSION
According to the National Physical Laboratory UK :

30% of equipment failures are due to uniform corrosion
70% of equipment failures are due to localized corrosion
73
FORMS OF CORROSION
General Corrosion
In general corrosion there is no distinction between the
anode and the cathode sites
i.e. the whole metal surface is acting as anode and cathode
Therefore, the metal loss is equally and uniformly distributed
all over the surface, i.e. corrosion proceeds horizontally
along the metal surface
74
FORMS OF CORROSION
General Corrosion
Rust Layer
Environment (Electrolyte)
O2
H2O
Fe++
Anode
Cathode
O2
H2O
Fe++
Cathode
Anode
Fe++
O2
H2O
Anode
Cathode
Iron
1- Corrosion is initiated at anode sites ( surface defects ).

75
FORMS OF CORROSION
General Corrosion
O2
H2O
Fe++
Cathode
Anode
O2
O2
H2O
Fe++
H2O
Cathode
Anode
Cathode
Fe++
Anode
O2
Iron
2- Corrosion spreads and the rust layer covers the whole

surface. Metal surface is acting as anode and cathode.
76
FORMS OF CORROSION
General Corrosion
Uniform corrosion of an
internal carbon steel pipe
77
FORMS OF CORROSION
General Corrosion
A Steel fitting suffering from

General Corrosion
General Corrosion on the shell

side of a heat-exchanger
78
FORMS OF CORROSION
General Corrosion
Atmospheric General Corrosion
Atmospheric General Corrosion

endangers Safety
79
FORMS OF CORROSION
Localized Corrosion
In localized corrosion there is clear distinction between the
anode and the cathode sites
The anode sites are being very small compared with the
large cathode
Therefore, the metal loss is concentrated in local areas, i.e.
corrosion proceeds downwards perpendicular to the metal
surface ( Penetration )
Penetration
80
FORMS OF CORROSION
Pitting corrosion
Occurs with metals having oxide ( Passive )
film
I.e. the metal is in the zone of Passivity, e.g.
stainless steels, due to film local breakdown
Chloride ions (Cl-) have damaging effect on
oxide film of stainless steels
81
FORMS OF CORROSION
Pitting Corrosion
Oxide Layer
Cl-
Fe++
Anode
ee
O2
H2O
Cathode
Cl-
O2
H2O
Anode
Cathode
Cl-
Cathode
e
Iron
Rust inside pits

O2
H2O
Fe++
Anode
Iron
Cathode
Pitting Corrosion is initiated at anode sites ( surface defects

)
82
FORMS OF CORROSION
Pitting Corrosion
What is the role of chloride ions in localized corrosion;
pitting ?
Help in breaking down the passive oxide film, specially
at weak point
Allow a very low pH to be achieved inside the pit, due
to the formation of HCl
Metal chlorides are very soluble
83
ClClO2
OH-
ClCl-
Cl-
Cl-
Cl-
Cl-
Cl-
Cl-
Cl
ClCl
Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl- Cl
-
ClCl-
ClCl-
O2
Cl-
OH-
M+
O2 + 2H2O +
M+
4e
->
4(OH )
M+
M+
M+
M+
Pitting
Corrosion
84
Cl-
Cl-
ClO2
Cl-
ClClCl-
Cl-
ClCl-
Cl-
ClCl-
Cl-
Cl-
Cl-
Cl-
Cl-
Cl-
O2
Cl-
Cl-
Cl-
OH-
OH-
MCl + H2O = MOHH++ HCl

e-
M+
ClCl-
e-
M+
M+
Cl-
M+
M+
e-
M+
Cl-
M+
e-
M+
e-
M+
M+
M+
e-
Pitting
Corrosion
85
FORMS OF CORROSION
Pitting Corrosion
86
FORMS OF CORROSION
Pitting Corrosion
Pitting may lead to pipe perforation
87
FORMS OF CORROSION
Crevice Corrosion
88
FORMS OF CORROSION
Examples of avoiding
crevice corrosion by design
89
FORMS OF CORROSION
crevice corrosion by
design
Continuous Weld
Good
Bad
Skip Weld
90
FORMS OF CORROSION
crevice corrosion by
design
Improper Weldments
Proper Weldment
91
Crevice Mechanism
O2
Cl-
Cl- Cl
O2
OH-
Metal (M)
M+
Na+
e-
e-
Cl- Cl- Cl Cl
Cl
+
Cl
+
Cl
M
+
Cl
Cl
M
Na
+ HClH+
Cl- - MCl
Na+ + H2O = MOH
+
Na
ClO
H+
O2
- H+
OH
2
Na+
O2
O2
+
Na H
O2
+ - OH
+
Cl- H
Cl H+
O2
OH- Cl
OH
OH
+
O2
H
2
2
M+
M+
M+ -
O + 2H O + 4e -> 4(OH )
e-
e-
Metal (M)
e-
92
FORMS OF CORROSION
Crevice corrosion under gasket
93
FORMS OF CORROSION
Pitting corrosion on
free surface
Crevice corrosion
under washers
94
FORMS OF CORROSION
Crevice corrosion - Stainless steel (AISI 316)
Severe crevice attack as well as general
95
FORMS OF CORROSION
96
FORMS OF CORROSION
Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC)
Caused by the simultaneous effects of tensile stress and a
specific corrosive environment.
Tensile Stress
Susceptible
Alloy
Corrosive
Environment
97
FORMS OF CORROSION
Stresses may be due to:
applied loads ( static / dynamic )
residual stresses from the
manufacturing process, or
combination of both
Residual stresses due to

rolling , welding & bending
Residual stresses due to

rolling & welding
98
FORMS OF CORROSION
Atoms of metal at stressed areas
have high energy , i.e. very active
High localized corrosion rates at
such areas
Localized metal loss leading to
cracking, i.e. Pit-to-Crack Transition
99
FORMS OF CORROSION
Cracked weld
Weld
Cracked Pipe
100
FORMS OF CORROSION
Stress corrosion cracking of brass
101
FORMS OF CORROSION
Hydrogen Damage
H (atomic) can diffuse into the metal causing:
cracking
blistering
embrittlement
Hydrogen evolution reaction
2H+ + 2e-
2H (adsorbed)
H2 (gas)
Diffusion is easier at Grain Boundaries,

surface defects and non-metallic inclusions
102
FORMS OF CORROSION
Hydrogen Blistering
Grain Boundaries
103
FORMS OF CORROSION
Hydrogen Blistering :
Surface bulges, resulting from subsurface voids produced
in a metal by hydrogen absorption in (usually) low-strength
alloys.
H+
H+
H2
e-
H2
e-
H2
104
FORMS OF CORROSION
Hydrogen Blistering
Cross-sections of carbon steel

plate & pipe
showing a large hydrogen blister
Hydrogen blistering of
a carbon steel plate
105
FORMS OF CORROSION
Example of hydrogen
blistering damage in steel
pressure vessel
106
FORMS OF CORROSION
Hydrogen Embrittlement
Hydrogen Embrittlement
caused violent rupture
107
FORMS OF CORROSION
Galvanic Corrosion
Occurs when two dissimilar metals are in
direct electric contact
Dissimilar metals have different reactivities
since they have different positions in the
Electrochemical Series
108
FORMS OF CORROSION
Active (-) ANODIC
GALVANIC SERIES
OF METALS
Nobel (+)
more reactive
Magnesium
Zinc
Aluminium
Steel
Lead
Tin
Brass
Bronze
Copper
Nickel-Copper
Alloys
Stainless Steel
Silver
Gold
Platinum
CATHODIC
less reactive
109
FORMS OF CORROSION
Galvanic Corrosion
Anode from Latin word Anodos = way-up
Cathode from Latin word Kathodos = way-down
110
FORMS OF CORROSION
Galvanic Corrosion
Due to the potential difference
between dissimilar metals :
The less noble metal is more Active
and acts as Anode ; i.e. it dissolves
The more noble metal acts as
Cathode ; i.e. it remains intact.
111
FORMS OF CORROSION
Conventional
current
Electrons
2+ 2+
FeFe
Fe
O2
O2
Cu
Galvanic Corrosion
112
FORMS OF CORROSION
Galvanic Corrosion
Conditions of galvanic corrosion:
1- Presence of two different metals.
2- The two metals are exposed to the
same electrolyte completely or partially.
3- The two metals are in direct contact,
either by:
touching/welding, or
via a metallic conductor
Absence any one of the above conditions

eliminates galvanic corrosion
113
FORMS OF CORROSION
Brass fitting
Steel pipe
114
FORMS OF CORROSION
Carbon steel
tube sheet
Galvanic corrosion
Stainless steel tubes
Galvanic corrosion is very common in tube and shell heat exchangers. The main
areas of concern are where the tubes enter the tube sheets and where they go
through the baffles.
115
FORMS OF CORROSION
Surface area effect in galvanic corrosion

Small cathode
Large anode combination is Acceptable
SS
CS
Stainless
Steel Valve
Carbon Steel
116
FORMS OF CORROSION

Small anode
Large cathode combination is NOT Acceptable
Carbon Steel
Valve
Stainless Steel
CS
SS
117
FORMS OF CORROSION
Which is better ???
9
Brass rivets on a steel structure
Small brass cathode will

cause small increase in
corrosion of steel
structure. Rivets will be
protected from corrosion
by coupling to steel
X
Steel rivets on a brass structure
Small steel anode will

suffer large increase in
corrosion due to
coupling with brass
structure.
118
FORMS OF CORROSION
Brass rivets on a steel bar

submerged in 3% sodium
chloride solution at the start
of the experiment
after six months
after ten months
FORMS OF CORROSION
Steel rivets on a brass bar
submerged in 3% sodium
chloride solution at the start
of the experiment
after six months
after ten months
FORMS OF CORROSION
Galvanic Corrosion
Corrosion Rate of Zirconium in a galvanic cell with Graphite .

Zr (anode) // C (cathode)
121
FORMS OF CORROSION
Galvanic Corrosion
An Example of Small anode - Large cathode combination, which is
NOT Acceptable
122
Carbon Steel Bolts on Duplex Stainless Steel
FORMS OF CORROSION
To prevent galvanic corrosion
Avoid contact between dissimilar metals
by using Flange Isolating Kits @ material break points
Non-metallic Gasket
Non-metallic
Sleeve
Non-metallic Washers
Components of
Flange Isolating Kit
123
FORMS OF CORROSION
To prevent galvanic corrosion
Avoid contact between dissimilar metals
Nobel
Active
Flange Isolating Kit
Flange Isolating Kit @ material break point
124
FORMS OF CORROSION
Modes of Corrosion
The forms of corrosion can be divided into 2 main categories:
Intrinsic modes of corrosion (occur independently of design configuration)
general corrosion
pitting corrosion
stress corrosion cracking
hydrogen damage
Extrinsic modes of corrosion (affected by design)
crevice corrosion
galvanic corrosion
flow assisted corrosion
P.S.: The corrosion process for all modes is basically the same; i.e. it
involves anodic reaction and cathodic reaction.
125
CORROSION CONTROL
Corrosion Control
Corrosion - A Natural But Controllable Process
Corrosion can be best controlled by manipulating Either:
The driving force of the metal to corrode, or
The reaction rate
126
CORROSION CONTROL
Controlling the Driving Force

We cannot control a metal's desire to return to its natural state .
In the presence of oxygen and water, a metal will want to return
to the way it naturally occurs.
But, what we can do is try to select a different metal

with a lower driving force for oxidation, or a special
alloy, Corrosion Resistant Alloy (CRA).
127
CORROSION CONTROL
Controlling the Reaction Rate
1. Anodic : by blocking the anodic reaction

2. Cathodic : by blocking the cathodic reaction
3. Mixed : by blocking both anodic & cathodic reactions
128
CORROSION CONTROL
Controlling the Reaction Rate
An army of corrosion control techniques is
deployed to fulfill this goal
Corrosion Control Use it or Lose it

129
CORROSION CONTROL
Significance of Corrosion Control
Economics
Safety
Environmental Concerns
130
CORROSION CONTROL
ECONOMICS
The true cost of protecting steelwork from corrosion has to take
into consideration two important elements:
The initial cost of protection

The lifetime cost, which includes the cost of maintenance.
This is the cost of ensuring that steelwork is protected from

corrosion throughout its service life.
Its time for decision making

131
Corrosion Control Techniques

1. Materials Selection
1. Improved design
1. Conditioning the Corrosive
Environment
4. Protective Coatings
5. Cathodic Protection
132

Cathodic Protection
133

Cathodic Protection
Idea of Cathodic Protection
Cathodic protection controls corrosion by making the whole
metal surface a cathode of an electrochemical cell
134

Cathodic Protection
Cathodic Protection Principle
a) Without Cathodic Protection
Steel pipe wall corrodes freely
Both anodic & cathodic
reactions occur
Sea Water
Fe2+
O2 + 2H2O
4OH-
e- e-
Pipe Wall
Pipe Inside
b) With Cathodic Protection

Sea Water
Anodic reaction stops

Cathodic reaction continues
External Supply of
Electrons
O2 + 2H2O
4OH-
e- e- e- e- e- e- e- e- e-
Pipe Wall
Pipe Inside
135

Cathodic Protection
Principles of Cathodic Protection
The CP electric circuit
involves Two halves:
Electronic movement in
conductor wire
e-
Electronic movement
Ionic migration
The portion of structure
surface that is included
in the CP electric circuit,
i.e. which sees the
umbrella, is ONLY under
cathodic protection
I
External supply
of electrons
Icp protective current

( Umbrella )
Ionic migration in
electrolyte
136

Cathodic Protection
Polarization of a Structure
Native
Potentials
Corrosion
Mitigated
-.5
-.6
-.65
-.6
-.7
-.58
-.58
-.6
-.65
-.6
-.7
-.58
-.6
-.6
-.65
-.6
-.7
-.6
-.65
-.65
-.65
-.65
-.7
-.65
-.7
-.7
-.7
-.7
-.7
-.7
137

Cathodic Protection
Application of CP Systems
On-Shore
138

Cathodic Protection
Application of CP Systems
Off-Shore
Jackets
Piles
Vessels
Subsea Pipelines
139

Cathodic Protection
Types of CP Systems
According to the source of external supply of electrons,
there are two types of CP systems:
1- Sacrificial (Galvanic) anode system
2 - Impressed current system
140

Cathodic Protection
Types of CP Systems
A galvanic cell: is an electrochemical cell in which a spontaneous
reaction occurs to produce electricity.
An electrolytic cell: is an electrochemical cell in which electricity is
used to bring about a chemical reaction that does not occur
spontaneously .
141

Cathodic Protection
1- Sacrificial anode system
Magnesium
ACTIVE
Zinc
Aluminum
Iron
e-
Tin
Nickel (Active)
Brass
Copper
Nickel (Passive)
Zn
410 Stainless
Titanium
304 Stainless
Silver
Fe
Simplified Galvanic
Series
Lead
Gold
Platinum
NOBLE
142

Cathodic Protection
1- Sacrificial anode system
143

Cathodic Protection
Galvanic Couples in Saline Water

Fe/Al
Fe Fe/Cu
Fe/Ag Cu/Ag
Without electrolyte
With electrolyte
144

Cathodic Protection
Arrangement of a Sacrificial CP System
Drain Point
Anode
e-
Fe
145

Cathodic Protection
Arrangement of a Sacrificial CP System
146

Cathodic Protection
Common Sacrificial Anodes
147

Cathodic Protection

Anode
Recommended Electrolyte
Magnesium (Mg)
Soils & hot water
Zinc (Zn)
Soils & fresh / sea water
Aluminum (Al)
Sea waters
At temp. > 600 C : Al & Zn oxidize leading to Reverse Polarity

148

Cathodic Protection

Indium is added to aluminum to avoid
its oxidation up to 900C
149

Cathodic Protection

Cast and extruded zinc anodes should not be used
in environments that consist of extremely alkaline
(above 9.2 pH), acidic (below 5 pH), or high
temperature (above 1400F / 600C) electrolytes.
Noranode is a zinc sacrificial anode alloy designed to meet

the demand for a sacrificial zinc anode for use at higher
temperatures up to 800C.
150

Cathodic Protection

Magnesium anodes
Available in a variety of shapes and sizes, bare or prepackaged
Acceptable where soil resistivities are between 1,000 ohm-cm and 5,000 ohm-cm.
Short chunky shapes are suitable for low resistivity areas, but long slender shapes
should be employed in higher resistivity areas.
Zinc anodes
Available in many shapes and sizes.
Appropriate in soils with very low resistivities (750 ohm-cm to 1500 ohm-cm).
Favorable environments are sea water and salt marshes.
Short chunky shapes are suitable for low resistivity areas, but long slender shapes
Aluminum anodes
Not commonly used in earth burial applications.
Some proprietary aluminum alloy anodes work well in a sea water environment.
151

Cathodic Protection
Generalization :
Aqueous media with low resistivity, Al anode are
preferred, e.g. seawater
Mg anodes are used in higher resistivity aqueous
media, e.g. wetted soils.
Water electric resistivity can be calculated using
this formula :
0.7
Rw =
X 1,000,000 ohm.cm
TDS (ppm)
152
TDS = Total Dissolved Solids

Cathodic Protection
Prepackaged Sacrificial Anode
For soil applications: prepackaged Mg & Zn anodes
Backfill:
Mg
GYPSUM
75%
BENTONITE
20%
SODIUM SULPHATE
5%
Zn
The backfill mixture completely surrounds the anode within a cotton bag.153

Cathodic Protection
Backfill Materials
Chemical backfills: The chemical backfill used with galvanic anodes provides an
environment which is conducive for anode dissolution. A typical mixture is 75%
powdered gypsum (calcium sulfate), 20% granular bentonite and 5% sodium sulfate.
This mixture has a resistivity of 50 cm and is suitable for use in high resistivity soils.
The function of the bentonite is to absorb water and expand, thus ensuring good
contact between anode and soil by lowering groundbed resistance.
A 75% bentonite 25 % gypsum mixture (250 cm) is recommended for low moisture
soils.
154

Cathodic Protection
Role of Backfill:
provides a reduced contact resistance to earth,
provides a uniform environment surrounding the
anode,
retains moisture around the anode so keeping
the anode in wet environment, and
prevents passivation of the anode.
155

Cathodic Protection
Standard Mg anodes
Restricted above a
resistivity of 3000 .cm
Typical Chemical Analysis

Aluminum
5.3 - 6.7%
Zinc
2.5 - 3.5%
Manganese
0.15 - 0.7%
Silicon
0.10% max
Copper
0.20% max
Nickel
0.002% max
Iron
0.003% max
Others
0.30% max
Magnesium
Remainder
156

Cathodic Protection
High potential Mg anodes
Used for higher resistivity
applications
Element
ASTM B843 Industry

Standard
for M1C High
Potential Anodes
Aluminum
0.01% max
Manganese
0.50 - 1.3%
Silicon
0.05% max
Copper
0.02% max
Nickel
0.001% max
Iron
0.03% max
Others, each
0.05
157

Cathodic Protection
Main types and shapes of Al & Zn anodes:

1. Slender ( stand-off )
2. Flush
3. Bracelet
4. Spherical
5. Ribbon
158

Cathodic Protection
159

Cathodic Protection
ANODE INSERT SELECTION
Anode material is cast
onto a variety of steel
insert types, depending
on the method of
attachment required.
160

Cathodic Protection
Cow horn
cores pipe
bending
161

Cathodic Protection
Straight flat bar
Double crank flat bar
162

Cathodic Protection
Goal post
Straight pipe
163

Cathodic Protection
2. Flush mounted
164

Cathodic Protection

3. Bracelet
Segmented Bracelet
Half-Shell Bracelet
165

Cathodic Protection
3. Bracelet
Segmented Bracelet
Segmented Bracelet Sacrificial Anode
166

Cathodic Protection
3. Bracelet
Half-Shell Bracelet
Pig Tail
167

Cathodic Protection
3. Bracelet
Half-Shell Bracelet
168

Cathodic Protection
4. Spherical
Recommended for internal protection of tanks and
vessels whose stream is rich in sludge, sand,
asphatenes, etc.
169

Cathodic Protection
5. Ribbon Anodes ( Zinc / Magnesium )
Zn
Mg
170

Cathodic Protection
5. Ribbon Anodes ( Zinc / Magnesium )
Extruded Zinc Anodes
171

Cathodic Protection
General Guidelines for Sacrificial Anode Materials
Magnesium anodes
available in a variety of shapes and sizes, bare or prepackaged.
acceptable where soil resistivities are between 1,000 ohm-cm and 5,000 ohm-cm.
short chunky shapes are suitable for low resistivity areas, but long slender shapes
Zinc anodes
available in many shapes and sizes.
appropriate in soils with very low resistivities (750 ohm-cm to 1500 ohm-cm).
favorable environments are sea water and salt marshes.
short chunky shapes are suitable for low resistivity areas, but long slender shapes
Aluminum anodes
are not commonly used in earth burial applications.
some proprietary aluminum alloy anodes work well in a sea water environment.
172

Cathodic Protection
Applications of sacrificial cathodic protection system:

Buried / sub sea pipelines
Buried piping
Platforms & rigs
Marine piles
Tank internals
173

Cathodic Protection
Sacrificial anodes for
underground piping
174

Cathodic Protection
underground piping
Direct connection type
Test
Station
Header cable type
175

Cathodic Protection
Typical CP of a buried
pipeline with prepackaged
sacrificial anodes
1.5m min
176

Cathodic Protection
Sacrificial Aluminum Alloy Anode for Pipe Frame of Drilling Platform Offshore
177

Cathodic Protection
platform jackets
178

Cathodic Protection
platform jackets
179

Cathodic Protection

offshore pipeline
180

Cathodic Protection
Sacrificial Anodes for
Subsea Pipelines
Typical concrete Field Joint where

Sacrificial Bracelet Anodes are installed
FLUSH with the concrete
181

Cathodic Protection
Subsea pipeline laying
Bracelet anode FLUSH with

182
cement coating

Cathodic Protection
offshore pipeline
Pigtail
Segmented Bracelet
Half-Shell Bracelet
183

Cathodic Protection
Bracelet Anode Top-of-Line Installation of

Submarine Pipeline without concrete
coating
Bracelet Anode can be Installed onto

concrete coating of a Submarine Pipeline
184

Cathodic Protection
Tank
Sacrificial Anode Cathodic

Protection for External Side
of Tank Bottom
Sacrificial Anode
+ Backfill
CP
Current
185

Cathodic Protection
Sacrificial Anode Cathodic
Protection for Pipeline Internal
186

Cathodic Protection
Corroded Piles due to absence of CP

System
187

Cathodic Protection
188

Cathodic Protection
189

Cathodic Protection
Sacrificial anodes for vessel internals
Mist Eliminator
Sacrificial Anode
190

Cathodic Protection
Sacrificial anodes for tank internals
Coal Tar onto Anode surface

facing Tanks shell
191

Cathodic Protection
Anodes Distribution on
Tank Shell Internals
N
N
HH Level
SEC A-A
SEC A-A
EL +7500
SEC B-B
EL +5500
SEC A-A
EL +3500
SEC B-B
EL +1500
LL Level
SEC A-A
SEC B-B
EL +500
192

Cathodic Protection
Sacrificial Anodes
Layout on Tank
Bottom
193

Cathodic Protection
Anode Fixation of Sacrificial anodes for tank internals

1. Weld-On Type:
Direct Welding
Welding via Brackets
2. Bolt-On Type
194

Cathodic Protection
Anode Fixation
(Weld-On Type)
Tack weld
Full felet
weld
Bracket
Anode Alloy
Welding via Brackets
Direct Welding
weldment
Anode Insert
Anode Insert
Anode Alloy
Suitable for Bottom.

Assured electric continuity.
Suitable for Shell and Bottom.

Dose NOT damage the lining
during anode replacement.
Assured electric continuity.
195

Cathodic Protection
Anode Fixation
(Bolt-On Type)
Up-Stand
(Bracket)
U-Bolt
U-Bolt
Nuts
Anode Alloy
Anode Insert
Require Grinding to Bright

Metal Finish
Steel Bar
Anode Insert
Tank Floor
Bracket
Suitable for Shell and Bottom.

Dose NOT damage the lining during
anode replacement.
Easier anode replacement.
196

Cathodic Protection
(Bolt-On Type)
Different arrangements for Bolt-On
type anode fixation
197

Cathodic Protection
Sacrificial Anodes for Ship Hulls
198

Cathodic Protection
Sacrificial Anodes for Ship Hulls
Without Cathodic Protection

Underwater welding of
a sacrificial hull anode
With Cathodic Protection
199

Cathodic Protection
Flush Sacrificial Anodes for Ship Hulls internals
200

Cathodic Protection
Sacrificial Anodes Retrofitting for Sub-Sea Pipelines
CP-Mat
201

Cathodic Protection
Sacrificial Anodes Retrofitting
for Sub-Sea Pipelines
Anode Sleds
202

Cathodic Protection
Sacrificial Anodes Retrofitting for Sub-Sea Pipelines
Anode Sleds
203

Cathodic Protection
Sacrificial Anodes Sled Retrofitting for Sub-Sea Structures
204

Cathodic Protection
Sacrificial Hanging Anodes Retrofitting for Sub-Sea Structures
205

Cathodic Protection
Sacrificial Anodes Retrofitting for Sub-Sea Structures
Under-Water Divers
206

Cathodic Protection
Galvanization hot-dip galvanizing
Galvanizing - the act of coating steel with zinc.
The article is immersed in a bath of
molten zinc at between 435-455 0C.
During galvanizing, the zinc
metallurgically bonds to the steel,
creating a series of highly
abrasion-resistant zinc-iron alloy
layers, commonly topped by a
layer of impact-resistant pure zinc .
207

Cathodic Protection
Galvanization hot-dip galvanizing
During galvanizing, the zinc metallurgically bonds to the steel,
creating a series of highly abrasion-resistant zinc-iron alloy
layers, commonly topped by a layer of impact-resistant pure
zinc.
208

Cathodic Protection
Galvanization
The layer zinc provides protection for the steel structure
against corrosion by means of:
barrier effect, and
sacrificial cathodic protection
Zinc has a self-healing
mechanism in it.
The
zinc
coating
sacrifices itself slowly
by galvanic action to
protect the base steel .
209

Cathodic Protection
Galvanization
210

Cathodic Protection
Galvanization
211

Cathodic Protection
Galvanization
Protecting steel from corrosion involves either
the use of hot-dip galvanizing or some type of
paint system.
Corrosion specialists are now using both
methods of corrosion protection in what is
referred to as a Duplex System .
The metallurgically bonded galvanized coating
serves as an ideal primer providing an
impervious barrier for the base steel.
212

Cathodic Protection
Galvanization
Duplex Coating System
Duplex coatings are commonly used when the
environment of use is too corrosive for the galvanized
coating alone throughout its design life.
This protective system is ideally suitable against
atmospheric corrosion for marine environments and
off-shore installations.
Inter coat
213

Cathodic Protection
Galvanization
The Synergistic Effect of Duplex System
(galvanizing-plus-paint systems)
The corrosion protection is superior to either protection
system used alone and can last from 1.5 to 2.5 times
the combined lifetimes of both systems.
214

Cathodic Protection
2- Impressed current system
DC source
Ground bed
Drain Point
215

Cathodic Protection
Basics of Impressed current system
Steel nails fixed to

dry battery terminals
The steel nails

immersed in saline
water
Results:
1- The nail at +ve
terminal Corrodes
2- The nail at ve
terminal remains
Uncorroded 216

Cathodic Protection
Impressed current system
Nothing happens since

the nails are in different
electrolytes
217

Cathodic Protection
e-
Drain Point
Drain Point:
Location of negative cable connection to the structure to be protected.
It is the ENTRY POINT of electrons, or the Current drain.
218

Cathodic Protection
Transformer Rectifiers (T/R)
AC input
Voltage, Single/ three phase, Frequency
DC maximum output
Air Cooled:
Oil Cooled:
Location: according to area classification

Explosion proof (hazardous area)
Non-explosion proof (non-hazardous area)
Maximum ambient temperature
Amp, Volt
with Sun-shade
with Thermometer &
Level indicator
219

Cathodic Protection
Transformer Rectifiers
Explosion-proof
T/R with sun-shade

220

Cathodic Protection
Transformer Rectifiers
indoors
outdoors
T/R on a Concrete Slab
Pole-mounted
Wall-mounted
221

Cathodic Protection
Transformer Rectifier
Internals of an Air cooled T/R
Internals of an Oil cooled T/R

222

Cathodic Protection
Heat (Dry) Run Test for T/Rs
223

Cathodic Protection
Rectifier
Transformer
224

Cathodic Protection
Common Impressed Current Anodes:
Consumable Anodes
Non Consumable Anodes
Si Fe
Mixed Metal Oxide (MMO)
Si Cr Fe
Platinized
Magnetite
Graphite
225

Cathodic Protection
Consumable Impressed Current Anodes:
The anode is deliberately forced, i.e. impressed,
to dissolved to provide the electrons required to
cathodically protect the structure .
Fe
Fe2+ + 2e-
226

Cathodic Protection
Consumable Impressed Current Anodes:
Si Fe
Si Cr Fe
Rods
Tubular
227

Cathodic Protection
Fe - Si Anodes
Are the most common impressed current anodes
Are used in soil, water or sea water
Come in two grades; FeSi and FeSiCr for sea water

applications
228

Cathodic Protection
Fe - Si Anodes
Cable connection to anode shall be

handled with great care.
Major Failure of Cathodic Protection systems are due to the break down
of the electrical connection between the cable joints and anodes. These
failures take place, since the anodes connections are jointed by resin
based seals.
229

Cathodic Protection
Fe - Si Anodes
ITEM DESCRIPTION
1 Anode
2 Double insulation electrical cable
3 Steel core
4 Tin-lead solder alloy
5 Epoxy resin
6 Heat shrink cap
CABLE-ANODE JUNCTION DETAIL
230

Cathodic Protection
Fe - Si Anodes
Cable connection to anode shall be handled with great

care.
Anode Caps seal and protect the critical connection between the lead wire
and anode. The tight fitting, heat-shrinkable anode cap provides moisture
proofs and electrically insulates the end of the anode at the lead wire exit
point .
Heat-shrinkable
anode cap
231

Cathodic Protection
New Si Fe Anode, 44 lb
As recovered anode after

20 years of service showing
80% utilization appox.
232

Cathodic Protection
Relative Impact Strength

The test anode is centered in a steel
frame, and the end is raised as
illustrated.
The anode is then dropped to impact
against a fixed steel anvil .
Test Span
Scale
Anode
Drop
Height
Anvil
233

Cathodic Protection
Non Consumable Impressed Current Anodes:
This type of anodes supports other anodic reactions
on their surfaces.
In environments where water and chloride ions are
present, chlorine evolution or oxidation of water are
possible.
Anodic reaction in sea water (Chlorine evolution)
2Cl-
Cl2 (gas) + 2e-
Anodic reaction in fresh water (Water oxidation)
2 H2O
O2 + 4H+
+ 4e-
234

Cathodic Protection
Example
Due to the high currents involved in many
seawater systems it is not uncommon to use
impressed current systems.
Impressed current systems use anodes of a
type that are not easily dissolved into metallic
ions, but rather sustain an alternative anodic
reaction, oxidization of the dissolved chloride
ions.
2Cl-
Non Consumable
Cl2 (gas) + 2e-
While the cathodic reaction is the reduction of

dissolved oxygen
235

Cathodic Protection
Mixed Metal Oxide (MMO) Anodes
MMO is an electrically conductive coating
that is applied onto a Titanium substrate in
order to make it act as an Anode
The coating has an extremely low
consumption rate. As a result, the metal
dimensions remain nearly constant during
the design life of the anode.
Titanium MMO coated anodes have proven
superior to other mixed metal oxide coatings
currently being used .
236

Cathodic Protection
MMO [Mixed Metal Oxide] Coating consists of IrO2 / Ta2O5, suitable for use in soils,
carbonaceous backfill, fresh and brackish water, seawater and concrete.
Coating of IrO2 / RuO is preferred for use in sea water.
Mixed metal oxide coating is generally satisfactory for both chlorine and oxygen evolving
electrolytes .
Strict quality control procedures are followed throughout the coating process to insure
proper coating adhesion and loading.
Ir = Iridium , Ta = Tantalum, Ru = Ruthenium
237

Cathodic Protection
Titanium
Copper Core
MMO Coating
Rods
MMO coated anodes have excellent chemical stability,

consequently do not contaminate the electrolyte.
238

Cathodic Protection
Plug
Ribbon
Tubular 239
Cannistered

Cathodic Protection
Lida Anodes String type
The anode is composed of an
inert metal oxide , ruthenium
oxide coated titanium .
240

Cathodic Protection
Titanium Anodes
241

Cathodic Protection
Anodeflex
(-)
T/R
(+)
242

Cathodic Protection
Non Consumable Impressed current anodes:
Platinized Anodes
243

Cathodic Protection
MAGNETITE ANODE
Due to its brittleness, the anode is cast as a hollow
cylinder and closed at one end. The inner surface is
then copper/lead plated and the cylinder is filled with
polystyrene
244

Cathodic Protection
Non Consumable Impressed current anodes:
Graphite Anodes
Disadvantages:
Low operating current densities, and
Inferior mechanical strength, highly brittle
245

Cathodic Protection
Sacrificial CP Systems
Impressed Current CP Systems
246

Cathodic Protection
Definition of Groundbed:
One or more anodes installed below the earth's surface for the purpose of
supplying cathodic protection.
Types of ground beds:
Deep-well GB
Horizontal shallow GB
Distributed Anodes
247

Cathodic Protection
Groundbed Location should be determined early in the design process

because its location may affect the choice of groundbed type.
The following factors should be considered when choosing a groundbed
location:
Soil Resistivity
Soil Moisture
Interference with other Structures
Availability of Power Supply
Accessibility
Vandalism or other Damage
Availability of Right of Way
248

Cathodic Protection
Deep Well Groundbeds:

Deep anode groundbeds are remote to the structure.
These are frequently called remote groundbeds because the structure is
outside the anodic gradient of the groundbed caused by the discharge of
current from the anodes to the surrounding soil.
A deep anode groundbed is an appealing choice:
when space is not available for a shallow horizontal groundbed, or
when surface soil has high resistivity
Remote Earth:
Part of electrolyte where no voltage difference due to
current flow is recorded between two points.
249

Cathodic Protection
Shallow Horizontal Groundbeds:

Normally used to distribute protective current over a broad area of the
structure to be protected. They are remote groundbeds.
Shallow Vertical Groundbeds are commonly used where space is limited .
Distributed Anode Groundbeds:

They are used:
To reduce the potential for interference effects on neighboring structures.
To protect sections of bare or poorly coated structure.
In congested areas where electrical shielding might occur with other
types of groundbeds.
250

Cathodic Protection
Deep-well ground beds
Junction
Box
Sand topping
Carbonaceous backfill
for anodes section
Non-metallic
perforated
vent tube
251

Cathodic Protection
Non-metallic Perforated Casing

252

Cathodic Protection
Temporary Well Casing: Drilling of the holes
may require the installation of temporary well
casings.
Remove all temporary casings by the end of
the job.
253

Cathodic Protection
Vent Tube
Vent tube has openings placed in a strategic
pattern to allow 360 venting ability without a
loss of pipe strength.
Vent Tube
Vertical slits placed with precision cutting

wire. With proper installation, the tube will
vent throughout the life of the deep
groundbed.
In addition to venting, the vent tube can also
be utilized as a conduit for adding water
should the system require it.
254

Cathodic Protection
Shallow Bed
Depth
3-5m
255

Cathodic Protection
Shallow Bed
Depth
3-5m
256

Cathodic Protection
257

Cathodic Protection
Distributed Impressed Current Anodes Arrangement
258

Cathodic Protection
T/R Connections :
Do 1:
Ensure that the AC input wiring (Power Feed Cable) is connected
to the correct AC input terminal of the T/R.
Do 2:
Connect the cable(s) from the anode bed to the rectifier DC positive
terminal(s), and
The cable(s) from the structure to the T/R DC negative terminal(s)
259

Cathodic Protection
T/R Connections :
Do 3:
Supply the rectifier with a proper ground
connection .
Mounting
Post
T/R
Copper
Rod
Conductive
Backfill
260

Cathodic Protection
T/R Connections :
Do 3:
Supply the rectifier with a proper ground
connection .
conductive
cementitious
product
261

Cathodic Protection
Anode Connection :
Anodes cables are connected to anode / positive junction box
Each anode can be connected via a variable resistance to
control the current output
A header cable connects the PJB to e +ve terminal of T/R
262

Cathodic Protection
Anode Connection :
Connection via
variable resistance
Direct connection
to +ve buss bar
263

Cathodic Protection
Anode Cables from GB
Anode Connection :
Positive Junction Box
Main Cable to +ve

Terminal of T/R
Direct connection to +ve buss bar

264

Cathodic Protection
Anode Connection :
265

Cathodic Protection
Anode Cables from GB
Anode Connection :
Main Cable to +ve

Terminal of T/R
Connection via
variable resistance
Positive Junction Box
266

Cathodic Protection
Anode Connection :
267

Cathodic Protection
Impressed current anodes are some times

cannistered with the Carbonaceous backfill.
268

Cathodic Protection
Deep-well ground bed installation
Using cannistered anodes
269

Cathodic Protection
conductive backfill should be used

to lower the total resistance of the groundbed,
to improve current flow & distribution,
to prolong anode life, and
to provide a permeable medium
for migration of gases...
270

Cathodic Protection
Carbonaceous Backfill
The carbonaceous backfill
improves anode performance
because it provides an
electronic path for current flow.
Therefore,
Resistivity, Particle Size, and Specific Gravity
are important backfill properties.
271

Cathodic Protection
Low resistivity favors electronic

current flow to the backfill/ground
interface.
Small particle size and high density
favor electronic current flow between
the anode material and backfill by
improving contact between the anode
material and the backfill.
i.e. Earth Contact Backfill

272

Cathodic Protection
273

Cathodic Protection
Types of Carbonaceous Backfill
274

Cathodic Protection
Backfill Selection should be based on a consideration of the following
coke characteristics :
Resistivity determines how well the objective of the carbon backfill is
achieved .
Specific Gravity affects compact settling. A high specific gravity helps to
insure compact settling .
Carbon Content of the backfill material determines the anode system life .
Particle Sizing determines the amount of contact between anode and
backfill. For optimum contact, particle size should be small relative to the
anode diameter. Very small (less than 7.5 microns) particles should be
avoided because they are high in ash content .
Particle Shape affects how well the backfill settles and the tendency for
the backfill to trap gases. A spherical shape is preferred over flat,
irregularly shaped particles .
275

Cathodic Protection
Notes:
1) Reference to the previous table
Metallurgical Coke has a relatively high resistivity because it is:
low in carbon content,
porous and therefore low in specific gravity, and
high in ash content.

Therefore,
Metallurgical coke is not suitable for deep anode groundbed installations .
2) Petroleum Coke must be calcined (heat treated). Prior to calcination, petroleum
coke is non conductive and is therefore not suitable for backfilling.
276

Cathodic Protection
In high resistivity soils, Sodium
Chloride (commercial grade salt)
is mixed with the carbonaceous
backfill in order to lower the GB
resistance
277

Cathodic Protection
Ground Bed
Typical Impressed Current System Arrangement
278

Cathodic Protection
Positive current flux through soil to buried pipeline and

resulting distribution of current density on pipe wall
279
V vs CSE
Cathodic Protection
GB1
GB2
GB3
Distance
Pipeline attenuation and multiple ground beds
280

Cathodic Protection
Cathodic Protection Criteria
2.0
1.6
1.2 Fe
Passivity
0.8
0.4
Anodic Protection
Fe2+
0.0
pH
-0.4 Corrosion
Adjustment
-0.8
Cathodic Protection
-1.2
Immunity
-1.6
0
7
14
pH
Pourbaix diagram showing

the theoretical conditions for
corrosion, passivation, and
immunity of iron in water and
dilute aqueous solutions
Potential
3+
281

Cathodic Protection
Fe-to-Soil Potential in
Low Resistivity Soils
showing the degree of
corrosion
Potential vs Cu/CuSO4
Description
mV
-500
Intense Corrosion
-600
Free Corrosion
-700
Some Protection
-800
Zone of Cathodic Protection
The value 850 mV

is the CP criterion for
protecting steel in
aggressive soils, i.e.
the steel structure
acts as a CATHODE
-900
Some Over-Protection
-1000
Increased Over-Protection
-1100
-1200
Sever Over-Protection
Problems
282

Cathodic Protection
Excessive negative potentials
can cause :
Cathodic Disbonding : i.e.
loss of adhesion between
the coating and the metal
surface
Hydrogen Damage : due
hydrogen evolution at ve
potentials
283

Cathodic Protection
V vs. CSE
Time
284

Cathodic Protection
285

Cathodic Protection
Potential criteria for cathodic protection of some
metals and alloys at 25 C (1)
Metal/ Alloy
Potential criterion (mV)

vs Cu/ Cu SO4
Iron, steel, stainless

steel:
Aerobic conditions
Anaerobic conditions
-850
-950
Lead
-600
Copper
-500
Aluminum
-950
(2)
(1) According to British code of practice No. CP 1021, August 1973.

(2) But not more negative than about -1.2 Volts.
286

Cathodic Protection
Protective potential measured against various standard electrodes

Reference electrode
Criteria
Environment
Copper/copper sulphate
Silver/silver chloride
- 0.85 (V)
- 0.80 (V)
Soil
Sea water
Zinc
- 0.25 (V)
Sea Water
At potentials more negative than given values, steel structure is

protected from corrosion.
287

Cathodic Protection
According to ISO 15589-1 Part 1, 2003 concerning the
CP protection criteria of On-Land Pipelines :
The CP system shall be capable of :
polarizing all parts of the buried pipeline to potentials
more negative than 850 mV referred to CSE,
&
to maintain such potentials throughout the design life of
the pipeline.
288

Cathodic Protection
According to ISO 15589-1 Part 1, 2003 concerning the
CP protection criteria of On-Land Pipelines :
For pipelines operating in soils with very high resistivity,
a protection potential more positive than 850 mV referred
to CSE may be considered, e.g. as follows:
- 750 mV for 10,000 < < 100,000 ohm.cm
- 650 mV for > 100,000 ohm.cm
= Soil Resistivity
i.e., the value of 850 mV is only for soils with < 10,000 ohm.cm
289

Cathodic Protection
CP Permanent Monitoring ( Test ) Point

consists of :Permanent Reference Electrode ( or Portable type )
Test Post :
for pipelines : @ every 1- 2 Km intervals
for tanks
: near the tank
290

Cathodic Protection
Cathodic protection monitoring
Potential Measurement
Structure/Electrolyte Potential is measure by means of a
reference electrode :
Copper / Copper Sulfate . Soil
Silver / Silver Chloride
. Sea Water
291

Cathodic Protection
Understanding the idea behind the reference electrode
Although we can't
measure their absolute
heights, what we can
do is to measure their
heights relative to a
convenient post .
Although we don't know any of their absolute heights, we
can usefully rank them in order.
It is enough to compare their heights with a standard
height.
Similarly, it is enough to compare the potential of a
structure with a standardized system called a
reference electrode.
person
height relative to post (cm)
+20
+15
-15
292

Cathodic Protection
Understanding the idea behind the reference electrode
Reference Electrodes
must have a CONSTANT electrode potential which can be taken as a
Reference Point for comparison.
metal / metal ion combination
E (volts)
H2/H+
Zn / Zn2+
-0.76
Cu / Cu2+
+0.34
Ag / Ag+
+0.80
293

Cathodic Protection
Copper / Copper Sulfate
reference electrode
Portable Type
294

Cathodic Protection
Copper / Copper Sulfate
reference electrode
In order to measure the structure to soil potential,

the CSE must become part of the soil
This is fulfilled by inter-mixing of the CSE content with
the soil content due to diffusion down a concentration
gradient
295

Cathodic Protection
Typical Arrangement for Pipe
to Soil Measurement
Copper Rod
CuSO4 Saturated
Solution
HIGH SO42- IONS
CONTENT
AVO meter
Cu
Cu2+
SO42-
Water
Porous Disc
SO42-
H2O (Soil) HIGH WATER CONTENT
Sulfate ions migrate
Water molecules
from CSE to soil
migrate into CSE
Pipe
296

Cathodic Protection
Important Instructions
The copper-sulfate solution inside the reference electrode should be
clear and free of contamination . Otherwise, errors will be
introduced in the readings.
The porous ceramic tip must be maintained moist at all times.
Otherwise, it will lose its porosity.
The copper rod inside the reference electrode should periodically be
cleaned with nonmetallic sandpaper.
The reference electrode that is used in the field must be periodically
calibrated.
297

Cathodic Protection
Calibration of the Reference Electrode

As a general rule, calibration should be checked once every
week if the reference electrode is used daily.
Calibration of the reference electrode is accomplished by
comparing it with another reference electrode that has never
been used.
The potential difference should NOT exceed 10 mV.
298

Cathodic Protection
A 10 mV or less potential difference

299

Cathodic Protection
Maintenance of the
Reference Electrode
Copper Sulphate
Crystals & Solution
300

Cathodic Protection
Maintenance of the
Reference Electrode
For cold weather add

ANTI-FREEZE SOLUTION
to prevent freezing of electrodes
down to -10F (-23C) 301

Cathodic Protection
302

Cathodic Protection
Structure Potential is the

Variable
Pipe
303

Cathodic Protection
Pipe to Soil Potential
Pipe
304

Cathodic Protection
The reference electrode could be connected either to the Negative or the Positive
of the voltmeter Either way, always take the potential reading as ve.
305

Cathodic Protection
Typical Arrangement for Pipe to Soil Measurement
306

Cathodic Protection
Pre-packaged Copper / Copper Sulfate
reference electrode
Prepackaged CSE
Backfill :
Gypsum +
Bentonite clay +
Sodium sulfate
For soils with low water

content
307

Cathodic Protection
Permanent Copper / Copper Sulfate
reference electrode
308

Cathodic Protection
Titanium Anode Ribbon and

Pre-packaged Permanent Reference
Cells
309

Cathodic Protection
Voltmeter
On-Potential
Eon Reading
Eon = Ep + IR error
CSE @ soil
surface
IR error
CP current
Coating
Ep
310

Cathodic Protection
Voltmeter
Voltmeter
Off-Potential
Eoff Reading , instantaneous

Eoff = Ep
CSE @ soil
surface
Coating
Ep
311

Cathodic Protection
Potential decay curve
Off Potential
312

Cathodic Protection
Test Posts for CP Monitoring
313

Cathodic Protection
Test Posts for CP Monitoring
314

Cathodic Protection
Flush to Ground
315

Cathodic Protection
Structure-to-Soil potential measurement using Voltmeter
& Permanent Reference Electrode
Test Post
Pipeline
Permanent
Reference electrode
316

Cathodic Protection
Structure-to-Soil potential measurement using Voltmeter
& Portable Reference Electrode
317

Cathodic Protection
Above-ground pipe, NO CP
Electrical insulation
Vm
Riser pipe + CP
Reference Electrode Placed Close to a Bare Riser Pipe
318

Cathodic Protection
Structure-to-Soil potential measurement using Voltmeter.
Flush Type Test

Station
319

Cathodic Protection
320

Cathodic Protection
Permanently Installed Reference Electrode & Test Post
321

Cathodic Protection
Permanent Monitoring for

Under Tank Cathodic
Protection
Tank Diameter (m)
No. of Electrodes
Required
5-10
10-23
23-36
45 and above
322

Cathodic Protection
Reference Electrodes Locations for
Under - Tank CP Systems
1/8D
1/6D
1/4D
3/8D
2/8D
D=45m and above
2/6D
D=23-36m
D=10.5-22.5m
Key :
D=5-10m
Reference Electrode
323

Cathodic Protection
For monitoring tanks internal CP system use:
Hanging RE ( from roof )
Plug RE ( fixed on shell )
Plug RE
Hanging Reference Electrodes
RE
RE
324

Cathodic Protection
Tank
PVC pipe installed through the

concrete ring @ different locations
for CSE placement.
PVC Pipe See Details
PVC Pipe
Under Tank Soil
Under Tank Soil
Top View
Concrete Ring
Concrete Ring
325

Cathodic Protection
Perforated PVC Pipe Installed for Reference
Electrode Placement
AVO
Tank
CSE
Perforated PVC Pipe

Filled with Water
326

Cathodic Protection
Concrete or asphalt paved areas:
Contact resistance may be reduced by drilling through the paving to
permit electrode contact with the soil.
CSE in Wet Soil
AVO
Concrete / Asphalt
Buried Pipe
Correct method for measuring structure potentials
when surface is covered with concrete or asphalt.
327

Cathodic Protection
Measuring underground structure potentials

when structure is covered with concrete.
328

Cathodic Protection
Cathodic Protection Remote Monitoring Radio
329

Cathodic Protection
Potential Measurement of jackets / platform legs
Hanging portable Ag/AgCl reference
electrode
330

Cathodic Protection
Cable to surface
meter
Diver with portable reference electrode
331

Cathodic Protection
Transponder CP
monitoring
332

Cathodic Protection
Potential plot after data

analysis
333

Cathodic Protection
Potential Measurement of subsea pipelines
Trailing-wire potential survey
334

Cathodic Protection
335

Cathodic Protection
Current
Potential
336

Cathodic Protection
Schematic of Automated Cathodic Protection system
337

Cathodic Protection
338

Cathodic Protection
339

Cathodic Protection
Shallow Anode Groundbed
340

Cathodic Protection
341

Cathodic Protection
Tanks Bottom External Side
Corrosion
Above-Ground Tank on
Concrete Ring
342

Cathodic Protection
Typical Under-Tank Cathodic Protection
System for New Tanks
343

Cathodic Protection
The Grid Impressed Current System
Protection For Aboveground Storage Tank Bottoms
The system is composed of:
Parallel thin multiple Ti strips acting as distributor
(conductor) bars.
Ribbon anodes spaced apart in a parallel
configuration.
Anode ribbon
Ti conductor bar
Reference anode
Through resistance (Spot) welding, the anodes

are attached to Ti bars to create a grid shaped
pattern.
The drain cable is welded to the Ti-bars at
multiple drain points.
This design ensures uniform current distribution
to all areas of the tank bottom.
Drain point
welded to
Ti bar
344
Junction box

Cathodic Protection
Under tank cathodic protection MMO anode grid
Ti strips acting as distributor (conductor) bars.
345

Cathodic Protection
MMO ribbon
346

Cathodic Protection
Spot-welding machine
MMO Ribbon Anode Installation

Spot-welding of MMO Ribbon
to Ti conductor bar
347

Cathodic Protection
Electric-supply Point in Outer Bottom of Tank

348

Cathodic Protection
Permanent Reference Electrode Installation in Outer Bottom of Tank

349

Cathodic Protection
350

Cathodic Protection
351

Cathodic Protection
ICCP Ribbon Anode configured in concentric rings to protect the external side of a
crude oil storage tank bottom
RE
352

Cathodic Protection
ICCP Ribbon Anode configured in concentric rings to protect the external
side of a crude oil storage tank bottom
ring wall
T/R
+
-
to tank shell
353

Cathodic Protection
For Under tank
CP Systems:
PE Liner or
Bituminous
Layer should
be avoided not
to obstacle the
protective CP
current umbrella
X
354

Cathodic Protection
Arrangement of Under-Tank ICCP System

355

Cathodic Protection
Advantages of the 'Grid' system:

9 provides excellent current distribution due to the system's
mixed metal oxide anode network layout.
9 the system has compact geometry since it is installed in
an extremely limited area underneath the tank bottom.
356

Cathodic Protection
Main Problem with Under-Tank CP Systems

The protective +ve CP current
causes decomposition of water
Since water content of the soil
underneath the tank is very
limited
Oxygen Evolution
2H2O
O2+ 4H+ + 4eOxygen is Stable
Water Thermodynamically
Stable
Hydrogen Evolution
As a result, the GB dries up ;

i.e. no electrolyte
Therefore,
the CP system is aborted
2H+ +2eH2
Hydrogen is Stable
357

Cathodic Protection
Solution
Installation of Under-Tank Watering System

Concrete Ring
Compacted
Soil
Laser Slotted PVC Tubes

358
Slotted PVC Pipes

Cathodic Protection
PVC special slotted tube:
Laser Slotted PVC Tube
The slotted tubing has a special permeability

designed to retain moisture around the tube.
End Caps
359

Cathodic Protection
PVC Watering Pipe
Tank
(-)
T/R
(+)
Compacted Soil
ICCP Anode Grit

360
Always make sure that the watering slotted tubes are above the ICCP anode grid

Cathodic Protection
Cathodic Protection of Steel Rebars of

Concrete Ring of Above-Ground
Storage Tanks.
361

Cathodic Protection
Installation of
Peripheral ICCP for
Existing Aboveground Tanks
Existing Tank
Protecting outermost bottom
Horizontal GB
MMO strip
anode
362

Cathodic Protection
Installation of Peripheral ICCP for Existing

Above-ground Tanks
363

Cathodic Protection
Installation of ICCP for Existing Above-ground
Tank Farm
364

Cathodic Protection
365

Cathodic Protection
366

Cathodic Protection
Distributed Anode
Cathodic Protection
System
367

Cathodic Protection
Cathodic protection installation for a well casing
368

Cathodic Protection
369

Cathodic Protection
Impact of Anode Proximity
370

Cathodic Protection
Impact of Anode Groundbed Depth
Shielding effect
No shielding effect
The Anode Groundbed must be Deep enough below the high

resistance strata to avoid the shielding effect.
371

Cathodic Protection
Impressed Current Cathodic
Protection for Tank Internals
Hanging
ICCP
anode
372

Cathodic Protection
Vertically Suspended High Silicon Cast Iron

Anode String
373

Cathodic Protection
PVC Support
ICCP anode
Anode Cable extended to
outside along vent tube
374

Cathodic Protection
RE
Side View
T/R
Suspended Horizontal Impressed Current Anode
System
375

Cathodic Protection
T/R
Suspended Vertical Impressed
Current Anode System
376

Cathodic Protection
T/R
Internal IC cathodic protection using Plug Type anodes

377

Cathodic Protection
ICCP for jackets
1- Hanging Anodes
378

Cathodic Protection
ICCP for jackets
1- Hanging Anodes
379

Cathodic Protection
ICCP for jackets
2- Sub-sea Sleds
380

Cathodic Protection
381

Cathodic Protection
Sea Floor ICCP Anode for Piles
382

Cathodic Protection
ICCP for Ships Hulls

ICCP system consists of :
ICCP non-consumable anodes,
e.g. Ti / MMO
+ Reference Electrodes
+ Power supply
Anodes come in different shapes
Anodes are Flush mounted
383

Cathodic Protection
ICCP Anodes for Ships Hulls
Disc (Circular) anodes
Linear Loop Anodes
Elliptical (Oval) Anodes
Linear Anodes
384

Cathodic Protection
ICCP for Ships Hulls .
System Arrangement
To Power Supply Unit
SHIP
Anodes
Icp Current
Power
Supply
(+)
Controller
(-)
Reference Cell
385

Cathodic Protection
Put on your
thinking cap !!!386

Cathodic Protection
There are many important codes and references that shall
be referred to when dealing with cathodic protection design;
among these are:
NACE RP 0169
NACE RP 0176
NACE RP 177
NACE RP 575
ISO 15589-1, PART I 2003, On-land Pipelines
ISO 15589-2, PART II 2004, Offshore Pipelines
DnV RP B 401
API 651
J. Morgan, Cathodic Protection
A.W. Peabody, Control of Pipeline Corrosion
387

Cathodic Protection
Steps Of Cathodic Protection Management
388

Cathodic Protection
CP System Design :
Basic information for design considerations
1. Type of electrolyte (environment)
Soil
Fresh/ saline water.
2. Temperature
3. Type of coating
4. Structure size
5. System Lifetime (years)
6. Availability of power supply
7. For pipelines:
Pipeline route
Crossings (foreign pipeline, roads, rivers, etc.)
Presence of high transmission power lines
Presence of foreign metallic structures.
389

Cathodic Protection
CP System Design :
Significance of Design Criteria:
Type of electrolyte
Temperature
Type of coating
Structure size
Current Demand
Current Demand
Type of electrolyte
Structure size
Type of CP system
Current Demand
Type of electrolyte
System Lifetime
Number of Anodes
Type & number of GBs
390

Cathodic Protection
CP System Design :
Significance of Design Criteria:
Availability of power
supply (ICCP)
Use of:
Rectifiers, or
Solar units
Pipeline route
Special Design Precautions

391

Cathodic Protection
Soil resistivity
Soil represents the electrolyte
Soils with low resistivity have high conductivity; i.e.
corrosive
NACE ranking
Soil resistivity (ohm. m)
Corrosivity
up to 10
Severely corrosive
10-50
Corrosive
50-100
Moderately corrosive
100-200
Slightly corrosive
200 and above
Non-corrosive
392

Cathodic Protection
Soil resistivity
Soil electrical resistivity indicates the relative capability of the soil to conduct electrical
current and it is a main indicator in determining corrosiveness of the soil. This is
generally recognized as the most significant soil characteristic with regard to
corrosivity of the soil. Soil resistivity can change dramatically with moisture content.
Soil, which has a high resistivity when it is dry, can have substantially lower resistivity
when it is wet or saturated depending on factors such as pH and chemical content.
393
Distance

Cathodic Protection
Four-Terminals (Wenner)
Measurement of Soil Resistivity.
Cables
Power Unit
Kit
Stainless Steel Pins

394

Cathodic Protection
Four-Terminals (Wenner)
Measurement of Soil Resistivity.
Survey procedure
1- Four pins are placed in the ground in a straight line, the distance
between each pin being equal and equivalent to the depth of soil to
be measured.
C
P
1
1
C
P2
2
a
C1
Resistance Test
Instrument
P1
a
P2
Depth = a
C2
395

Cathodic Protection
4-Terminals Arrangement
Survey procedure
2- Current is applied to the outer pins by the instrument and a voltage is
measured between the two inner pins.
3- The instrument
displays average
resistance of the
soil.
396

Cathodic Protection
4-Terminals (Wenner)
Ohms Low :
R = V/I
R
V
I
: Resistance (ohm)
: Applied Voltage
: Recorded Amperage
397
Soil box procedure

Cathodic Protection
Soil Resistivity vs Recommended CP System

Mean Soil Resistivity
(Ohm.cm)
Rating of Soil
Possible Method of Protection
25,000 - 100,000
not corrosive
CP not necessary with uniform soils
10,000 - 25,000
hardly corrosive
CP may become necessary: impressed

current
5,000 - 10,000
slightly corrosive
impressed current
2,000 - 5,000
moderately
corrosive
Mg-anodes / impressed current
1,000 - 2,000
highly corrosive
Mg-anodes / impressed current
under 1,000
very highly
corrosive
impressed current / Mg & Zn anodes
398

Cathodic Protection
Current demand for CP:

Current density : it is the current required to cathodically protect
1 meter2 of bare steel in a given electrolyte.
Temperature : current demand shall be increased by 25% per
every 10 C incremental rise above 30 C. This requirement is
described by the following equation:
i = i0 + [i0 x 0.25 (t-t0)] / 10
Where,
i = current density at operating temperature, Amp/m2
i0 = base current density at standard temperature, Amp/m2
t = operating temperature C
t0 = standard temperature (30C)
399

Cathodic Protection
Current density determined in mA/m2 is dependant on the
media aggressivity.
Therefore if soil resistivity is low then current density shall be
high
Current density increases with increasing temperature
Media
Current Density
mA/m2
Aggressive Soil
10
Normal soil
Sea water
90
Fresh water
30
400

Cathodic Protection
Current Requirement:
Current Drain Test
Whenever possible, a trial and error process using a temporary groundbed and a
portable power supply should be used to determine the current required to protect
the structure .
1) Set up a temporary groundbed with ground rods and a temporary power supply .
2) Energize the system
3) Perform an on-off survey over the structure to be protected .
4) Increase the current and repeat the survey .
5) Repeat Steps 3 and 4 until the structure is protected according to established
criteria .
401

Cathodic Protection
Current Requirement:
DC power supply :
T/R, Battery, or
Welding machine
Variable resistor
Pipe
Temporary
groundbed
Current drain test for determining CP current requirement
402

Cathodic Protection
3.5
3.0
2.5
Impressed Current
2.0
1.5
1.0
Galvanic
0.5
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Soil Resistivity ( in ohm-m)
Relative Economic Range for Galvanic and Impressed Current

Systems as a Function of Current Required and Soil Resistivity
403

Cathodic Protection
Power Supply :
The T/R is fed with AC current from the nearest power
supply.
If there is no power supply available, Solar Units to be
used instead of T/R.
404

Cathodic Protection
240 Watt Solar Array
0-24 Volt
405

Cathodic Protection
Batteries
Basic Requirements:
Long life reliability (25 years or more)
Simple maintenance
Corrosion resistance in harsh atmospheres
Alcad nickel-cadmium battery :
The heart of the cell is a series of steel pockets which are
made from finely perforated steel strip filled with active
materials - nickel in the positive plate and cadmium in the
negative. The plates are immersed in an electrolyte.
406

Cathodic Protection
Regulator
Sun
Junction Box
Converter
(+)
Structure
(-)
Batteries
Solar Modules
Typical Arrangement for ICCP Using Solar Energy
GB
Pipe to be protected
407

Cathodic Protection
Metal protection
Passive protection
A passive protection is offered by paints. Paints form an
insulation layer or barrier on top of the metal. That is why
it is also called a barrier protection.
Active protection
An active protection is also called cathodic protection.
408

Cathodic Protection
Underground coated pipe without cathodic protection

409

Cathodic Protection
Underground Coated Structures

New structures are generally provided with a good, high resistivity coating
that is applied with techniques that leave almost negligible amounts of the
surface exposed to the soil.
However, it is recognized that a coating, no matter how good or

how well applied, is never perfect.
It is important to understand that coated structures develop leaks within a shorter
period of time than do uncoated structures.
This is true even though the total metal loss on a coated structure is appreciably
less than on a bare structure.
All of the corrosion activity is concentrated at the holidays or breaks in the coating
rather than evenly dispersed over the entire surface, thus accelerating the corrosion
410
rate at the holiday locations.

Cathodic Protection
The corrosion protection afforded by the coating must be

supplemented with cathodic protection in order to achieve
complete mitigation of corrosion.
Fortunately, coating and cathodic protection work very well together.
Coating being the 1st line of defense, whereas CP the 2nd line.
In USA, The Department of Transportation has passed Federal

legislation requiring that all oil, gas and gas products pipelines
be cathodically protected
411

Cathodic Protection
The economics favoring cathodic protection of coated

cross-country pipelines are so overwhelming.
The problems presented in attempting to provide cathodic protection for

bare structures are cost-ineffective and much more difficult than those
on coated structures.
The major difficulty arises because of the much greater magnitude of
current required.
412

Cathodic Protection
Comparison of Breaks Before and After

Cathodic Protection
413

Cathodic Protection
Coating Quality
Coating Resistance
Coating Breakdown Factor
414

Cathodic Protection
Coating Quality:
Coating quality is a function of its leakage resistance (RLC )

The coating leakage resistance is a function of its:
Electrical resistivity
Thickness
Surface area exposed to electrolyte
RL,C = RC * t/A
Where,
RC : coating electrical resistivity (ohm. cm)

t : coating thickness (cm)
A : surface area (cm2)
415

Cathodic Protection
(RL,S) = (RL,C) + (RL,E)
The structures leakage resistance (RL,S) is the sum of the coatings leakage
resistance (RL,C) and the leakage resistance to remote earth (RL,E).
416

Cathodic Protection
Typical Coating Leakage Resistances for various coating qualities
Coating quality
Range of coating
leakage resistance
(RL,C), ohm.m2
Poor
1,000 - 2,500
Fair
5,000 - 10,000
good
25,000 - 50,000
Excellent
100,000 - 500,000
417

Cathodic Protection
Typical Coating Breakdown Values
Coating type
% breakdown
Initial
Mean
Final
Thick coating
10
Epoxy coal tar
5-10
10-20
Fusion bonded
epoxy
1-2
5-10
5-20
Polypropylene (25
yrs)
0.5
Polyethylene (25 yrs)
0.5
Electrolyte
(Soil)
Protective
Coating
Protective
Coating
Pipe Wall
A Coating Breakdown
exposing bare steel to
electrolyte
CP Current
418

Cathodic Protection
groundbed
power
source
pipe shown in
cross-section
coating material
Impressed Current Cathodic Protection
419

Cathodic Protection
Coating Breakdown values can be reduced by:
Proper handling of the coated pipes
Holiday detection and coating repair before burial
Using fine backfilling

Coating Break-down Factor:
Is the ratio between the current density required to polarize a
coated metal surface and current density required to polarize
the same area of surface but bare.
420

Cathodic Protection
Handling of the Coated Pipes during:
Lifting
Lowering in the Pipe inside the trench
421

Cathodic Protection
Handling of the Coated Pipes
Lifting Pipes With Electromagnets

422

Cathodic Protection
Lowering in the Pipe inside
the trench
Using Non-metallic
Padded Slings
Rolli Cradles
Padded Slings
Non-metallic
Rolli Cradles
423

Cathodic Protection
Lowering in the Pipe inside the
trench Using Non-metallic
Padded Slings
424

Cathodic Protection
Lowering in the Pipe inside
the trench Using Non-metallic
Rolli Cradles
425

Cathodic Protection
Holiday Detection and Repairing the damages before burring
the pipe
426

Cathodic Protection
Backfilling
Once the pipe has been placed in the trench,
the trench can be backfilled.
The backfilling crew takes care to protect the
pipe and coating as the soil is returned to the
trench.
The soil is returned to the trench in reverse
order, with the fine subsoil put back first,
followed by the coarse topsoil .
This ensures the topsoil is returned to its original position.
In areas where the ground is rocky and coarse, crews screen the backfill
material to remove rocks, or bring in clean fill to cover the pipe to protect it
from sharp rocks.
Once the pipe is sufficiently covered, the coarser soil and rock can be used to427
complete the backfill .

Cathodic Protection
Topsoil Backfill:
Coarse
Subsoil Backfill
covering the pipe:
Pipe
Compacted, Fine,
Rock-free
428

Cathodic Protection
Steps of Pipeline Laying & Backfilling
Subsoil
Trench
Topsoil
Pipe
Preparation
Subsoil
Topsoil
Prepared
Pipe
Trenching
Subsoil
Lowering In
Topsoil
Backfilling
429

Cathodic Protection
Trench
Prepared
Pipe
Subsoil
430

Cathodic Protection
Recommended potential limits for different coatings
to avoid coating disbondment
Coating type
Volt (vs Cu/ CuSO4)
Asphalt Enamel
-2
Epoxy coal tar
-1.5
Fusion bonded epoxy
-1.5
Tape wrap
-1.5
Polyethylene
-1.0
431

Cathodic Protection
432

Cathodic Protection
Pipeline Route
Cross-country P/Ls pass through different types of soils,
i.e. different electrolytes
Presence of high voltage power transmission lines
433

Cathodic Protection
Pipeline Route
434

Cathodic Protection
Pipeline Route
Pipeline in Sandy Soil
Pipeline Submerged
Pipeline in Rocky Soil
435

Cathodic Protection
Stray Current Interference (Corrosion)
Definitions:
Stray current refers to current flowing through paths
other than the intended circuit(s).
Stray current corrosion refers to corrosion damage
resulting from current flow other than in the intended
circuit(s). For larger structures this term usually alludes
to corrosion damage caused by extraneous current(s)
flowing through soil and / or water.
436

Cathodic Protection
Types of stray current corrosion :

Stray current corrosion has been classified into the following types :
1- Direct stray current corrosion ,originating from direct current sources
such as dc rail transit systems, dc welding equipment and cathodic
protection systems.
In general, direct stray current corrosion is considered the most severe form
of these problems.
The flow of direct stray current is not necessarily steady with time, in terms
of magnitude and current path(s). This has led to a further distinction
between :
dynamic stray currents (unsteady state), and
static stray currents (steady state).

437

Cathodic Protection
Types of stray current corrosion :

2- Alternating stray current corrosion ,originating from alternating current
sources such as overhead ac power lines.
3- Telluric effects ,a "natural" form of dynamic stray currents induced by
transient geomagnetic activity (disturbances in the earth's magnetic field) .
438

Cathodic Protection
Pipeline AC interference
from electromagnetic field
439

Cathodic Protection
When underground pipelines share a common right-of-way with parallel high voltage
AC (HVAC) transmission power lines , an electromagnetic field is created and AC
voltages are induced on pipelines by interference.
Types of interference:
Inductive an indirect electrical coupling of a power line to the pipeline that
results in voltages being induced onto the pipeline
Conductive a direct resistive coupling between a power system facility and the
pipeline, typically the result of line-to-ground fault current
Such interfering electromagnetic fields may result in :1. Danger to the safety of personnel under normal operation (15 Volt limit)
2. Danger to the safety of personnel under fault conditions
3. Danger to the pipeline integrity under fault conditions
4. Risk of AC-enhanced corrosion under normal operation
5. Risk of damage to the coating from electrical stress under fault conditions
440

Cathodic Protection
Electromagnetic field Expands and

Collapses at a rate which is a function of
the AC frequency
Examples of field lines produced by AC

transmission lines
441

Cathodic Protection
442

Cathodic Protection
AC Mitigation Devices
Act as blocking devices to DC voltages but allow the discharge of AC
current through the earths connected to them.
Thereby reducing AC interference effects without compromising the
pipeline's cathodic protection system.
443

Cathodic Protection
For protection against stray current

from high tension lines, zinc ribbon
and polarization cells are used
Polarization cell
Zn ribbon
Zn ribbon
Pipeline
Solid State Type

444

Cathodic Protection
445

Cathodic Protection
Polarization cells
The polarization cell is considered as a

DC DECOUPLING DEVICE: i.e.
A device used in electrical circuits that allows the flow of alternating current
(AC) in both directions and stops or substantially reduces the flow of direct
current (DC).
446

Cathodic Protection
Polarization cells
Electrochemical devices which are able to resist the flow of DC
current to a few milli amperes whilst allowing AC currents and high
DC surges to pass .
They can be :
Fitted across isolating joints,
or
Used in their own right to provide isolation, i.e. to separate an
area of an earthing system which would cause excessive current
drain, whilst maintaining a fault current path .
447

Cathodic Protection
Polarization cells
Consist of stainless steel or nickel plates in a
potassium hydroxide electrolyte.
Fill Hole
Cell Terminals
Potassium
Hydroxide
Solution
Stainless
Steel
Plates
448

Cathodic Protection
Polarization cells How it works??
Passage of DC current causes polarization due to
the build up of hydrogen gas on the cathode plates
and oxygen on the electrode plates.
449

Cathodic Protection
Polarization cells
These films are dissipated when an AC or high DC
voltage is seen across the cell.
When the fault current subsides, the cell returns to
steady state characteristics .
POLARIZATION CELL WITH

OUTDOOR CABIN
450

Cathodic Protection
DC Stray current interference
DC interference between cathodically protected buried structures, e.g.
pipelines, is due to the presence of potential difference whether the
pipes are crossing or closely parallel.
451

Cathodic Protection
DC Stray-Current Corrosion
This is a simple experiment that demonstrates and explains the DC stray
current corrosion
452

Cathodic Protection
This is a simple experiment that demonstrates and explains the DC stray
current corrosion
CP umbrella
453

Cathodic Protection
In
I4
I3
I2
I1
Rn
R4
R3
R2
R1
The current takes all paths the path with the lowest
resistance passes more current
454

Cathodic Protection
Current pickup
Current discharge
455

Cathodic Protection
The mechanics of cathodic interference are relatively simple :
Cathodic current emanates in all directions from the rectifier
and associated anode bed on a given structure.
Eventually, the current so discharged will return to the
rectifier unit.
If a foreign structure lies within the region of current
discharge from the rectifier system anodes, it may provide a
low resistant path for current return: current collects on the
foreign structure (pick-up area), follows the foreign structure
to a point where it returns to the given structure (discharge
area), flows along the given structure to the negative
connection and back to the rectifier, thus completing the
circuit.
The pick-up area is cathodic and hence, no detrimental
effects will occur here.
The "discharge" area is intensely anodic and severe
corrosion damage will take place at this point.
456

Cathodic Protection
457

Cathodic Protection

In case of pipe-crossing of cathodically protected
pipelines, BONDING is required by means of :
Solid (Direct, Continuity) boning,
or
Resistance bonding
458

Cathodic Protection
In case of parallel pipelines, the
pipelines are solid-bonded by means
of:
Equi-potential jumpers
Bonding Box
AUTOBOND
459

Cathodic Protection
Bonding Box
Bonding Box
Electrical Continuity Bonding

(jumpers)
Foreign Pipe
Protected Pipe
Foreign
Pipe
Protected
Pipe
460

Cathodic Protection
Buss Bar
(Copper)
Bonding Box
Foreign
Pipe
Protected
Solid Bonding
461

Cathodic Protection
Resistance Bonding
Bonding Box
with Variable
Resistor
Foreign
Pipe
Protected
462

Cathodic Protection
463

Cathodic Protection
Solid Bonding
Correction of interference Direct (Solid) Bonding
464

Cathodic Protection
Variable Resistance
Bonding
Correction of interference Resistance Bonding
465

Cathodic Protection
Before Bonding
After Bonding
Effect of Resistance-Bonding on Interference Test Potentials

466

Cathodic Protection
Control of Interference using Sacrificial Anodes

467

Cathodic Protection
Stray Current
Pick-Up
Electrolyte
(Soil)
Stray Current
Discharge
Pipeline
Pipeline potential shifts in cathodic

direction ( more negative values )
Possibility of coating disbondment
and hydrogen damage
Pipeline potential shifts in anodic

direction ( more positive values )
Possibility of high anodic current
densities , i.e. high corrosion rates
468

Cathodic Protection
Large rounded holes are typical of stray current corrosion
469

Cathodic Protection
DC Stray-current corrosion
470

Cathodic Protection
471

Cathodic Protection
INT
ERF
CUR ERAN
REN CE
T
472

Cathodic Protection
Cables Connections
Cable to - cable connection
Cable to - pipe connection
Cable to - structure connection
473

Cathodic Protection
Cables for laying in Soils
1
2
1. Conductor: Soft stranded Copper Wire

2.Insulation: KYNAR
3.Sheath: HMWPE
HMWPE = High Molecular Weight Poly-Ethylene
474

Cathodic Protection
5 1 2 3
4
Cables for laying in Soils, and Water
4.Armour: Steel Wire

Armoured
5.Sheath: HMWPE
1.Conductor: Soft stranded

Copper Wire
2.Insulation: KYNAR
3.Bedding: PVC
475

Cathodic Protection
Cables Core (Conductor)
Single Stranded Cable
Multi Stranded Cable

Better Flexibility
476

Cathodic Protection
Cables Core (Conductor)
XLPE Insulated Single Core

Non Armoured Cable
XLPE Armoured Cable for

Cathodic Protection
477

Cathodic Protection
Cable Connections
Splice Kit : for cable-to-cable connection
1
Araldite is poured
& let to dry 478

Cathodic Protection
Cable Connections
For cable-to-pipe connection :
1- Thermite ( Cad / Exothermic ) Welding
2- Pin Brazing
3- Mechanical connection ( for gas pipelines )
479

Cathodic Protection
Spark Gun
Cable Connections
Crucible
(Mold)
For cable-to-pipe connection

1- Thermite Welding :
Disks
Cartridge
Spark Flint
480

Cathodic Protection
Insert the steel disk into the mold.

Ensure that the steel disk is properly
seated.
Quickly pour the loose

welding material powder
into the mold.
481

Cathodic Protection
The bottom of the cartridge

contains compressed
material (starting material).
Squeeze the bottom of the cartridge to

loosen the starting material and pour it over
the welding material in the mold crucible.
482

Cathodic Protection
Close the lid and aim the flint igniter

to ignite the starting material
Avoid direct eye contact with the flash of

light from ignition of starting material.
Wear dark safety glasses
Avoid inhalation of smoke/fumes.
483

Cathodic Protection
Thermite Weldment
Allow approximately 30 seconds for completion of the

reaction and solidification of the molten material.
484

Cathodic Protection
Prior to welding :
The coating must be removed at
welding point ( 5x5 cm square )
Metal surface to be polished and
cleaned
485

Cathodic Protection
Protecting the Thermite Weldment
2
Primer
Self-adhesive
Handy Cap
486

Cathodic Protection
The CADWELD PLUS system:
Consists of a tamper proof, disposable,
moisture-resistant weld metal cup.
The weld metal, disk and ignition source
are incorporated into the self-contained
package
igniter
cable
487

Cathodic Protection
1-Insert CADWELD PLUS

package into Mold
2-Attach control unit

termination clip to
ignition strip
3-Press and hold control unit switch

and wait for the ignition
4-Open the mold and remove

the expended steel cup
4
488

Cathodic Protection
Thermite welding ?
Disadvantages
Thermite usage is hazardous due to the extremely high

temperatures produced once the reaction is initiated.
The thermite reaction releases dangerous ultra-violet (UV)
light requiring that the reaction not be viewed directly, or that
special eye protection (for example, a welder's mask) be
worn.
489

Cathodic Protection
Cable Connections
2- Pin Brazing : emits less heat output
Pins & Ferrules

Pin Brazing Unit
Lug
Pistol / Gun
490
Grinder

Cathodic Protection
Cable Connections
2- Pin Brazing
Silver ferrule
The silver is melted around the wire in

the cable itself and the working material .
491

Cathodic Protection
Cable Connections
2- Pin Brazing
1 Clean the surface
2 Load gun with

pin & ferrule
4 Test connection
3 Pin braze
492

Cathodic Protection
Cable Connections
3- Mechanical Connection : recommended for drain point
connection of gas pipelines
493

Cathodic Protection
Why Pin brazing instead of thermite welding?
Works in any weather condition
Rain and snow is no more a problem. You know for sure that the job will be done.
Fast & Easy - Automated process
The pin brazing process takes only a second and the whole preparation takes less
than a minute.
Does not affect internal coatings
It's a brazing method which means much less temperature than thermite welding. Pin
brazing uses a 3rd material(silver) with less melting temperature (1100-1200F) than
the other involved metals.
No need for special moulds
Economical
Safe for the operator, battery driven 36V DC system
Unlike thermite welding ,Pin Brazing is safe no explosive material & UV
All weather system.
Can be used in rain and snow.
Safe for the material
It is a Silver Brazing Method. Does not melt the work material down as the
exothermic methods (thermite) does. Just a thin layer of silver is applied between the
pipe and the cable wires.
494

Cathodic Protection
Cable Connections
Terminal Lugs :
for cable-to-structure ( tank )
connection
495

Cathodic Protection
Cable Connections
Clamps
Brass Ground Clamp with Brass Screws
to connect copper conductors to pipe
and rods
496

Cathodic Protection
Electrical Isolation
Structures to be protected shall be electrically isolated
from portions which do not require protection.
No CP
CP
Electrical isolation is made by :

Isolating flange kit ( IFK )
IFK is installed @ Aboveground / Underground interface
497

Cathodic Protection
Point of Electrical
Isolation
Cathodically
Protected Tank
CP umbrella
498

Cathodic Protection
Try to avoid burying the IFK
Not Acceptable
May Be Accepted
499

Cathodic Protection
It is preferred to install the IFK above-ground.
Otherwise, IFK to be located inside underground pit or
valve pit
500

Cathodic Protection
501

Cathodic Protection
E type Full Face
F type
IFK is installed in Underground Pit
502

Cathodic Protection
Insulation Checker
Dielectric Strength "
503

Cathodic Protection
Sealing Gaskets
504

Cathodic Protection
Sealing Gasket
Flange Isolation Kits
Before
Tightening
After
Tightening

Cathodic Protection
Insulating Unions (Couplings)
Greater separation
between pipe
ends minimizes
"bridging"
506

Cathodic Protection
Insulation Checker
No CP
CP
507

Cathodic Protection
Isolating flange kits
In hazardous areas , IFKs are
protected by means of Spark Gaps or
Surge Arresters or polarization cells
Surge Arrester
508

Cathodic Protection
Lightening Spark Gaps
509

Cathodic Protection
Polarization
cells
510

Cathodic Protection
Monolithic Blocks
511

Cathodic Protection
The monolithic blocks are protected against

electrostatic charges and lightening by
polarization cell or cathodic isolator
512

Cathodic Protection
Unprotected
Unprotected
Protected
Protected
Polarization Cell
Polarization Cell
Copper Earthing Rod

513

Cathodic Protection
Cathodically
Protected Tanks
shall be electrically
earthed separately
or connected to the
earthing network via
Polarization Cell
Copper
Earthing
Rod
Cathodically
Protected Tank
CP umbrella
Polarization Cell
514

Cathodic Protection
Monolithic Blocks
Polarization cell provides continuous AC grounding for pipelines with induced
voltage, while leaving the cathodic protection voltage unaffected. The device
presents low impedance to alternating current and high impedance to direct
current, and connects between the pipeline and a grounding system.
515

Cathodic Protection
Monolithic Blocks
Kirk Cell for Hazardous

Area
516

Cathodic Protection
Monolithic Blocks
Cathodic Isolators
Cathodic Isolators are

used to mitigate
induced AC on
pipelines
Cathodic Isolator
517

Cathodic Protection
Monolithic Blocks
Zinc Grounding Cell
518

Cathodic Protection
Monolithic Blocks
Monolithic Block is being

hydrostatically tested as
a pressure vessel
519

Cathodic Protection
Casings for Road Crossings
520

Cathodic Protection
Pull-on End Seals
Wrap Around End Seals
521

Cathodic Protection
There should NOT be any contact
between the pipe & casing
Test posts usually installed @

crossings to monitor the potential
of pipe and casing separately
522

Cathodic Protection
Reference
Electrode
Vent Pipe
Carrier Pipe
V
+c-
V
p +
Casing
Shorted
Isolated
Casing
0.900 VCSE
0.750 VCSE
Pipe
0.900 VCSE
0.910 VCSE
523

Cathodic Protection
Clamp Meter
Clamp Meters are used to check:
electric cables integrity
current output of each anode
Using a Clamp-on Ammeter

to Measure Current
524

Cathodic Protection
Pipeline & Cable Warning Markers
Flexible Flat Markers
Dome Marker
CP Test Station
& Marker
Flat Markers
525

Cathodic Protection
526

Cathodic Protection
Headers include:
Danger - If not avoided will result in death or serious injury
Warning - If not avoided could result in death or serious injury
Caution - If not avoided may result in minor or moderate injury
Notice - Usually used to indicate a statement of company policy
527

Cathodic Protection
Detectable and Non-Detectable
Underground Buried Pipe and Cable Tape
To alert unsuspecting construction workers to
the presence of these system.
non-detectable tape
The non-detectable tape is made from a lowdensity polyethylene plastic formulated for
extended underground use. It is acid and
alkali resistant and exhibits superior tensile
strength.
The detectable tape is manufactured with a
solid aluminum core which is sealed between
durable Mylar.
The underground warning tape is an alert to
excavators, and is typically the last item to be
installed in the trench.
detectable tape
Legend:
Buried Cathodic Protection Line Below
or
Cathodic Protection Cable Buried Below
528

Cathodic Protection
Basic cathodic protection

calculations
529

Cathodic Protection
Basic Cathodic Protection Calculations

CP Current Requirement
CD= S x A x CBDC
CD
: Current Demand (A)
S
: Design Current Density (A/m2)
A
: Surface Area (m2)
CBDF : Coating Break-down Factor
530

Cathodic Protection
Anodes Weight Requirement
W= (CD x C x t) / u
W
C
t
u
: Total Anodes Weight (kg)

: Anodes Consumption Rate (kg/A. year)
: Lifetime (year)
: Anode Utilization Factor
531

Cathodic Protection
Number of anode = total weight required

individual anode net weight
Number of anode = total current required
individual anode current output
Always choose the GREATER anode number
P.S. the anode net weight & current output are available
in suppliers catalogues
532

Cathodic Protection
CP Circuit Resistance
Rt= Rc + RGB + Rs
: required only for ICCP systems

must be <(2) ohm.
Rt : Total Circuit Resistance

Rc : Circuit Cables Resistance ( e.g. 0.1~ 0.2 ohm)
RGB : Anodes (Groundbed)-to- Soil Resistance (ohm)
Rs : Pipeline-to-Soil resistance (approx. negligible)
RGB is the only variable and hence can be manipulated and altered
533

Cathodic Protection
Ground bed-to-Soil Resistance (Dwight Eqs.)
For Multiple-anodes Horizontal Shallow GB
The GB is considered as a horizontal pipe
where:
p = average soil resistivity (ohm-m)
L = length of groundbed (meters)
d = diameter of groundbed (m)
h = depth to center of groundbed (m)
534

Cathodic Protection
Ground bed-to-Soil Resistance
For Multiple-anodes Vertical Shallow GB
If the groundbed consists of a group of short vertical anodes in a row,
the Sunde equation provides a good approximation of the resistance
to remote earth.
where:
RN = groundbed resistance (ohm)
p = average soil resistivity (ohm-m)
N = number of anodes in parallel
L = length of an anode (m)
d = anode diameter (m)
s = spacing of anodes in groundbed (m)
535

Cathodic Protection
For Single Vertical Shallow GB
If the groundbed consists of one vertical anode or pipe,
the Sunde equation becomes
Notes:
1) This equation assumes that L >> d
2) L, represents the length of active anode
536

Cathodic Protection
For Deep-Well GB
Use Dwight's formula for

a single vertical rod
(pipe)
in earth
L & d, represent dimensions
of the active part of the
groundbed
L, active part
of groundbedd
d
537

Cathodic Protection
CP Cables Resistance :
Cable Resistance
R CABLE = Resistance per km

L CABLE = Length in meters (sum of positive and negative cables)
R C = Cable resistance
RC = ( Rcable X Lcable ) / 1000

538

Cathodic Protection
CP Driving Voltage : (ICCP systems)
Driving Voltage = I required (amp) X Rt (ohm)
539

Cathodic Protection
Transformer/Rectifier (T/R) Rating:
If,
Max. current (A)

Driving Voltage (v)
13.0
13.3
T/R Output Rating:

Select near standard T/R rating:
(e.g. 12V, 24V, 36V, 48V, 5A, 10A, 15A, 20Aetc)
T/R output: 15A/24V DC

T/R Input Characteristics:
Check available electrical power characteristics:
Either 3PH, 400V AC, 50Hz
Or 1PH, 230V AC, 50Hz
T/R Input: 3PH, 400V AC, 50Hz

540

Cathodic Protection
CP Current Attenuation
541

Cathodic Protection
CP Current Attenuation Check
Ea/Em = Cosh(L)
Ea = Ea - En
Em = Em - En
= (Rs/Rlf)
Rlf = Rf/( * D)
Rs = s/ ( * D * t)
En (v)
Ea (v)
Ea (v)
Em (v)
Em (v)
(m-1)
Rlf (ohm.m)
Rf (ohm.m2)
Rs (ohm/m)
s (ohm.m)
D (m)
t (m)
L (Km)
Pipeline Natural Potential

Pipeline Protective Potential at Drain Point
-0.55
-1.3
Pipeline Potential Shift at Drain Point

-0.75
Pipeline Protective Potential at Distance (L)
-0.95
Pipeline Potential Shift at Distance (L)
-0.4
Attenuation Constant
3.1623E-05
Linear Coating Insulation Resistivity (final)
15664.8566
Coating Insualtion Resistivity (final)

Linear Pipeline Steel Conductivity
20000
1.5665E-05
Pipeline Steel Specific Resistivity
0.00000019
Pipeline Diameter
Pipeline Wall Thickness
Attenuation Distance
0.4064
0.0095
39.26
542

Cathodic Protection
Sacrificial VS Impressed Current CP
543

Cathodic Protection
COMPARISON OF CP SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS
Sacrificial CP
Impressed Current CP
NO External Power required
External Power Required
Fixed driving voltage
Adjustable Voltage
Fixed Current
Adjustable Current
Limited Current (10 to 50 Milli-amperes

Typical)
Unlimited Current (10 to 100 Amperes

Typical)
Usually used in lower resistivity

electrolytes
Can be Used in almost Any Resistivity

Environment
Usually used with small or very well

coated structures
Can be Used on Any Size Structure
Low $/Unit Cost
High $/Unit Cost
High $/Sq. Ft. of Metal Protected
Low $/Sq. Ft. of Metal Protected
Low Maintenance
Higher Maintenance
Does NOT cause Stray Current Corrosion
Stray DC Currents Can be Generated
544
545

(Enppi) Corrosion & Cathodic Protection in Petroleum Industry Course (Yasser Tawfik)

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(Enppi) Corrosion & Cathodic Protection in Petroleum Industry Course (Yasser Tawfik)

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18-21 June, 2012

Corrosion is derived from

low cryogenic temp.

Wet / Aqueous Corrosion of Metals

Electrochemical Nature of Corrosion

Electrolytic reduction of Al oxide to Al

Corrosion is governed by the Law of

When man makes metals there is a varying degree of

Practically Corrosion Can be Defined as:

Slip bands, with:

Anodes and cathodes co-exist on the same metal

Oxidation can't occur without Reduction.

The corrosion process occurs in 3 sequential

Metal dissolution starts at the defect

Fe 2+(solution) + 2e- (surface)

The flow of electrons represents

Due to V, the electrons liberated

Remember! The direction of electric current

1. Oxygen reduction reaction

Predominates in aerated Near-Neutral solutions pH > 5

The Corrosion Cell : in Aerated Natural Water

i.e. NO solid products

The Corrosion Cell : in Acidic Water Solutions

Possible Cathodic Reactions Cathodic Depolarization

SO42- + 8H+ + 8e-

Fe 2+(solution) + 2e- (surface)

The circuit is close by

The Corrosion Cell

(Metals have reasonably Low Rm)

= resistance of electrolytic path between anode

(Affected by presence of Salts)

Accordingly, there are TWO types of Aqueous Corrosion:

Deaerated acidified saline

Pourbaix Diagram for Iron

Pourbaix Diagram for Iron

Will iron corrode

Will iron corrode

Will iron corrode

Corrosion Rate (Kinetics of Corrosion)

milli- inch per year

milli- meter per year

1 milli-inch = 1/1000 inch

NACE= National Association for Corrosion Engineers

Corroded rotor leading

Condensate Tank on Fire

Corrosion of a municipal water

Soil collapse due corrosion of a municipal

Corrosion of Under-ground Tank Leading to

Oil & Gas Production

Replacement of corroded components

Global Indirect Cost of Corrosion:

Cost of corrosion is expressed in terms of Asset Loss Risk:

Risk = probability of failure X consequence

Assets Environ- Repument tation

Multiple fatalities Extensive

To reduce risk of equipment failures, corrosion

Materials & Corrosion

Past experience, case

Relative Cost Of Maintenance

A Proper Maintenance program lowers Asset Loss Risk

A Poor design/ wrong

Results: significant reduction in maintenance

2 Farsighted - long term planning No vision- out of sight, out of