Secondary Oil Recovery

Prof. Attia M Attia

By Prof. Attia M. Attia

Reservoir Pressure can be Maintained

By;

1.Water Injection
2.Gas Injection
3.Miscible fluid injection
4.Combination of the above
By Prof. Attia M. Attia

Waterflooding is generally the dominating

pressure maintenance method ( preferably in
water wet rocks ) than gas flooding due to;
1. The general availability of water
2. The relative ease with which water is
injected
3. The ability of water spreads through an
oil bearing formation
4. Water efficiency in displacement oil
where viscosity of water greater than the
gas viscosity ( 50 times gas viscosity)

By Prof. Attia M. Attia

The distribution of oil ,gas and water in the pore

space at any set of fluid saturation is determined
by:

1.Wettability of rock
2.Surface or Inter facial tension
between immiscible phases at G/O
OR W/O contacts or interfaces
By Prof. Attia M. Attia

Fluid displacement by
describing
1.Fractional flow equation
2.Frontal advance equation
3.Prediction water injection rates
4.Oil producing water / oil ratios
5.Cumulative oil recovery calculations

By Prof. Attia M. Attia

Fractional flow equation

Assumptions for Buckley-leverette method as
follow:
1. Linear flow
2. Steady state
3. Immiscible fluids
4. Incompressible fluids
5. Homogeneous reservoir
By Prof. Attia M. Attia

Fractional flow equation;

In 1941 Buckely_leverette Analysis
Consider displacement of oil by water in a system of dip angle ()
We start with Darcys equations

KK ro A dpo

qo
o g sin

o dx

KK rw A dpw

qw
w g sin

w dx

And replace the water pressure by

By Prof. Attia M. Attia

Pw= Po - Pcow

KK rw A d ( po pcow )

qw
w g sin

w
dx

After rearranging, the equations may be written as :

qw
qo

dpcow
dpo

w g sin
KK rw A
dx
dx

o
dpo

o g sin
KK ro A
dx

Subtracting the first equation from the second one , we get

w
o dPcow
1

qo
g sin
qw

KA
K rw
K ro
dx
By Prof. Attia M. Attia

 Substituting for

q = qo+ qw

fw

And

qw
q

Solving for the fraction of water flowing , we obtain the following expression for
the fraction of water flowing:

fw

KK ro A dpcow

1
g sin

q o dx

K ro w
1
o K rw

For the simplest case of horizontal flow , with negligible capillary

pressure, the expansion reduces to:

fw

1
1

K ro

By Prof. Attia M. Attia

w
K rw

1 0.001127
fw

KK ro A dpcow

0
.
433

sin

q o dx
K
w
1 ro
o K rw

where
pcow Psi
dx

ft

grams / cc
K ro
A

md
ft 2

- Fw term is a function of water saturation . Also, Kro and Krw are themselves
function of saturation
- As Sw increases the value of Kro declines where that Krw rises

By Prof. Attia M. Attia

fw

K ro w
1
K rw o

The relative permeability ratio is usually plotted as a straight line versus

Sw on semilogarthemic graph paper
Kro

fw

Krw

w
1
ae bS
o

ae bS w

While the producing watercut at the surface is given by

f ws

1
Bw
1
1
(
1)
Bo
fw

qw
Bw
qw
qo

Bw
Bo

From the relation between Fw and Sw we can get .. The following:

By Prof. Attia M. Attia

Derivation of Buckley- Leverett equation

By Prof. Attia M. Attia

The Frontal Advance Equation

Consider an element
volume from a linear
porous media as shown
in this figure
Containing two fluids;
the displaced fluid (oil),
and the displacing fluid
(water

fw

(fw-dfw
dx

model

By Prof. Attia M. Attia

 For the steady state fluid flow case (p & t are constants)
then the entering and exiting flow rate q must be constant
The element has a constant cross section area A and
porosity
If the two flowing are flowing in the element , then the
displacing phase saturation in the element should be
increasing with the passing of time

By Prof. Attia M. Attia

fw

qw
qo q w

1
qo
1
qw

qw
qt

where qt q w qo
fw

Ko w
1
K w o

The net rate of gain of water in the element at any time

dw
f w qt ( f w df w ) qt df w qt
dt
By Prof. Attia M. Attia

 Let Sw be the water saturation in the element at time (t)

then as oil is being displaced from the element at time (t+dt)
the water saturation will be (sw+dsw)
The rate of increase of water in the element during dt

dw A dx dsw

(
)
dt
5.615 dt
Equating the last two equations

A dx dsw
qt df w
(
)
5.615 dt
By Prof. Attia M. Attia

dsw 5.615qt dfw

(
)
dt
A
dx
rearrang ......this..equation

5.615qt dfw t
dx
(
) dt
A dsw 0

5.615qt t dfw
X
(
)
A
dsw
By Prof. Attia M. Attia

Where X is the total

distance that the plane
of given Sw moves.
In this equation we
assume that :
1- there is no mass
transfer between phases
2- the equation
expresses in linear
advance of a surface of
constant saturation
during increment of time
t , under the application
of a constant displacing
fluid injection rate, qt

 Displacement of fluid by frontal advance creates

stabilized saturation distribution at the front and
unsterilized saturation distribution conditions behind the
front.

5.615qt t dfw
X
(
)
A
dsw

dfw
)
dsw

This equation is
used for drawing
the saturation
profile due to
displacement

The derivative of
in the a bove equation could be
determined accurately for any value of Sw from a plot of fw
versus Sw by drawing a tangent to the curve and graphically
taking slopes at values of Sw
By Prof. Attia M. Attia

The tangent to the fractional flow curve has the following

properties:
1.

2.
3.
4.
5.

Tangent to the fractional flow curve at connate water saturation ,

Swi ,and fw=0 , yields at the point of tangency the water saturation
at the front , Swf. Thus the stabilized zone includes all water
saturations from Sw to Swf
Extrapolating the tangent to fw =1 , yields the value of the
average water saturation at breakthrough, Swbt- = SwfThe value of fractional flow , fw corresponding to Swf at the point
of tangency is the producing watercut at breakthrough
The inverse of the slope of the tangent gives the cumulative
injected fluid in the pore volumes.
The value of the breakthrough saturation , Swf can be checked
by applying an overall material bal;ance . If the tangent
construction is correct , the value of Qibt from the following two
equations will be the same.
By Prof. Attia M. Attia

From Sw fw curve
Hydrocarbon displaced at Breakthrough
Np
volume of hydrocarbo n displaced
Np
Pore volume
N p @ Bth S wf S wi

By Prof. Attia M. Attia

Sw f Swi
fractional...re cov ery
...........at..break ..through
1 Swi
Displacement..efficiency..at..break ..through

bth

volume..of ..oil..displaced Sw f Swi

volume..of ..oil..in.. place

1 Swi

By Prof. Attia M. Attia

Displacement efficiency after breakthrough

S wx S wi
1 f wx
x

1 S wi
(1 S wi )(df w / dS w )@ x saturation
S wx S wi
1
x

1 S wi
bf w (1 S wi )
Hydrocarbon Displaced after breakthrough

N p @ S wx ( swx S wi )
N p @ S wx

1 f wf
(df w / dsw )@ S wx

1
( swx S wi )
By Prof. Attia M. Attia bf wx

dfw

dSw

( w

1 ( w

) bae

( w

bSw

)bae

bS w

1 (w

) b(

)(

Ko

Ko

Kw

)
)

b( f w fw2 )

K w

Before water breakthrough total of water injected Wi = qi x T@ bth =

constant
Np = Wi , qo = qi , qw=0 , Wp = 0 , WOR = 0
After water break through
Np= B.v x porosity x (Sw average - Swi)

t = Wi/ qi ,

the number pore volume of water injected Qi = Wi/ Axporosity x L

By Prof. Attia M. Attia

 There is a gas cap (fill uptime )

is the time required for the effect of

water flooding to be appeared when the
reservoir has a gas cap ( due to gas
compressibility)
Fill up volume
= gas saturation x porosity x bulk volume
Fill up time =
= fill-up volume / qi

By Prof. Attia M. Attia

Example

The following relative permeability data were measured on a sandstone

core as function of its water saturation.

Sw

0 10

20

30

40

50

60

Kro

1 1

0.94 0.80 0.44 0.16

0.045 0

krw

0 0

0.3

0.04 0.11 0.2

70

75

80

90

100

0.68

0.36 0.44

1. Plot the Kro and Krw versus Sw on Cartesian coordinate graph paper
2. Plot the relative permeability ratio versus Sw on semilogarthmic graph paper
and calculate the constant a and b.
3. If oil viscosity = 3.4 cp, water viscosity = 0.68 cp,Bo= 1.5 bbl/stb and, Bw=
1.05 bbl/stb, what is the surface water cut of the well completed in the
transition zone where the water saturation is 50%?
4. What is the reservoir water cut in part 3?
5. Calculate fw and plot versus Sw
6. Calculate dfw/dsw at several values of Sw and draw this relation.
7. Calculate the distance of advance of the constant saturation fronts at 100,200
and 400 days, plot on cartesian coordinate graph paper versus Sw assume
By Prof.
Attia
porosity = 25 % , A= 26400
ft2 Attia
and M.
q=
900 stb/d

1.Plot of Kro and Krw versus Sw as shown in this Figure

2. Plot of relative permeability ratio versus Sw is shown in Figure

The constants a and b are calculated from two points

on the curve as follows:
(Ko/Kw)1=20 @ Sw1 = 40 % ,(Ko/Kw)2=0.80 @ Sw2 = 60 %
b

(Ko
ln
(Ko
S w2

K w )2
K w )1
S w1

0.8
)
20
b
16.094
0.6 0.4
Ko
(
)2
Kw
a
e bS w 2
0.78
a
12, 497 12500
x 0.6
e 16.094
By Prof. Attia M. Attia
ln(

3.Surface water cut

From figure @ Sw=50 % , Kro=0.44 and Krw =0.11 using
this equation ;
fw

fw

1
1

K ro

K rw

0.556
0.44 0.68
1 (
)(
)
0.11
3.4
By Prof. Attia M. Attia

f ws

f ws

1
Bw 1
1
( 1)
Bo f w

qw
Bw
q w qo

Bw Bo

1
1.05 1
1
(
1)
1.5 0.556

By Prof. Attia M. Attia

0.641

4. Reservoir water cut fw is 0.556 as

calculated in part 3.
5. Calculate fw and plot versus Sw.
6. Calculate dfw/dsw at several values of Sw
6.

By Prof. Attia M. Attia

7. Calculate the distance of advance of the constant saturation fronts at

100,200 and 400 days, plot on cartesian coordinate graph paper versus
Sw assume porosity = 25 % , A= 26400 ft2 and q = 600 stb/d

5.615qt t dfw
X
(
)
A
dsw

By Prof. Attia M. Attia

fw

Ko
Kw

1
w
1
o
( w

fw

)bae bsw

dfw
o

dsw [1 ( w )ae bsw ]2

o
bf w (1 f w )
By Prof. Attia M. Attia

Note :
the slope values
obtained from the plot
isn't accurate , so the
following equation can
used to calculate
(dfw/dsw)

Mobility Ratio
Displacement efficiency of a linear process is
dependent upon fluid and rock properties
The concept of mobility ratio is used to correlate
displacement data. Where one fluid displaces another.

D : mobility of the displacing fluid behind the front

d : mobility of the displaced phase ahead of the front
D
M
d

By Prof. Attia M. Attia

For waterflood under piston like

displacement
D w (
d o (

(
M
(

Kw

Ko

Kw

Ko

) sor
) siw

) sor

) siw

K rw

K ro

w
o

) sor
) siw

The oil and water permeabilities are the end points of permeabilitysaturation curves for a waterflood.
Note that the water permeability is the one in the water contacted
portion of the reservoir , and the oil permeability is the one in the oil
By Prof. Attia M. Attia
tank.

 Mobility ratio based on average saturation behind the flood front (not
endpoint), also referred to as the shock front mobility ratio, is
computed from the relative permeability at Swf

(
MS

K ro

o ) swf (
(

K ro

K rw

o ) siw

By Prof. Attia M. Attia

w ) swf

 M = 1 indicates that both oil and water are moving at the same
relative rate
M < 1 indicates that water moves slower than the oil , resulting in
higher displacement efficiency and higher water saturations at break
through
M> 1 indicates that water behind the front is moving faster than
theoil ahead of the front , resulting in reduce displacement
efficiency.
When the mobility ratio increases the large volumes of fluid must be
injected resulting in higher produced water/oil ratio while retaining
the same displacement efficiency.

By Prof. Attia M. Attia

Assignment

A sandstone reservoir exhibits the following relative permeability

characteristics:
Sw
0.2
Ko/Kw

infi

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

17

5.5

1.7

0.55

0.17

0.0055 0

Other reservoir and fluid properties are as follows: oil viscosity =1.2 cp, water
viscosity = 0.6 cp, oil FVF=1.5 bbl/STB, WFVF=1, flow rate q=600 STB/day,
Swi= 0.2, Sor=0.1, Length = 600 ft , Area A= 26400 ft2, porosity =0.25 and the
average pressure of the system is held constant above the saturation
pressure.
1. Develop a graph showing the fractional flow of water as a function of
the water saturation
2. Prepare a graph of the producing water oil ratio in the surface units
as a function of the system water saturation
3. Determine and draw the water saturation profile after 60, 120, and 240
days
4. Determine the oil recovery to breakthrough of injected water at the
producing end of the system as fraction of the recoverable oil, OOIP
both in reservoir volume basis and if the abandonment water oil ratio is
8.25 STB/STB
By Prof. Attia M. Attia
5. Time of breakthrough of injected fluid at the producing end