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Kohlberg
simplypsychology.org/kohlberg.html

LawrenceKohlberg(1958)agreedwithPiaget's(1932)theoryofmoraldevelopmentinprinciplebutwantedtodevelophisideasfurther.
HeusedPiagetsstorytellingtechniquetotellpeoplestoriesinvolvingmoraldilemmas.Ineachcasehepresentedachoicetobeconsidered,forexample,between
therightsofsomeauthorityandtheneedsofsomedeservingindividualwhoisbeingunfairlytreated.
OneofthebestknownofKohlbergs(1958)storiesconcernsamancalledHeinzwholivedsomewhereinEurope.

Heinzswifewasdyingfromaparticulartypeofcancer.Doctorssaidanewdrugmightsaveher.Thedrughadbeendiscoveredbyalocalchemist
andtheHeinztrieddesperatelytobuysome,butthechemistwaschargingtentimesthemoneyitcosttomakethedrugandthiswasmuchmore
thantheHeinzcouldafford.
Heinzcouldonlyraisehalfthemoney,evenafterhelpfromfamilyandfriends.Heexplainedtothechemistthathiswifewasdyingandaskedifhe
couldhavethedrugcheaperorpaytherestofthemoneylater.
Thechemistrefused,sayingthathehaddiscoveredthedrugandwasgoingtomakemoneyfromit.Thehusbandwasdesperatetosavehiswife,so
laterthatnighthebrokeintothechemistsandstolethedrug.

Kohlbergaskedaseriesofquestionssuchas:
1.ShouldHeinzhavestolenthedrug?
2.WoulditchangeanythingifHeinzdidnotlovehiswife?
3.Whatifthepersondyingwasastranger,woulditmakeanydifference?
4.Shouldthepolicearrestthechemistformurderifthewomandied?
BystudyingtheanswersfromchildrenofdifferentagestothesequestionsKohlberghopedtodiscoverthewaysinwhichmoralreasoningchangedaspeoplegrew
older.Thesamplecomprised72Chicagoboysaged1016years,58ofwhomwerefollowedupatthreeyearlyintervalsfor20years(Kohlberg,1984).
Eachboywasgivena2hourinterviewbasedonthetendilemmas.WhatKohlbergwasmainlyinterestedinwasnotwhethertheboysjudgedtheactionrightor
wrong,butthereasonsgivenforthedecision.Hefoundthatthesereasonstendedtochangeasthechildrengotolder.
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Heidentifiedthreedistinctlevelsofmoralreasoningeachwithtwosubstages.Peoplecanonlypassthroughtheselevelsintheorderlisted.Eachnewstage
replacesthereasoningtypicaloftheearlierstage.Noteveryoneachievesallthestages.

Kohlberg'sStagesofMoralDevelopment
Level1Preconventionalmorality
Atthepreconventionallevel(mostnineyearoldsandyounger,someovernine),wedonthaveapersonalcodeofmorality.Instead,ourmoralcodeisshapedby
thestandardsofadultsandtheconsequencesoffollowingorbreakingtheirrules.
Authorityisoutsidetheindividualandreasoningisbasedonthephysicalconsequencesofactions.
Stage1.ObedienceandPunishmentOrientation.Thechild/individualisgoodinordertoavoidbeingpunished.Ifapersonispunished,theymusthavedone
wrong.
Stage2.IndividualismandExchange.Atthisstagechildrenrecognizethatthereisnotjustonerightviewthatishandeddownbytheauthorities.Different
individualshavedifferentviewpoints.
>

Level2Conventionalmorality
Attheconventionallevel(mostadolescentsandadults),webegintointernalizethemoralstandardsofvaluedadultrolemodels.
Authorityisinternalizedbutnotquestionedandreasoningisbasedonthenormsofthegrouptowhichthepersonbelongs.
Stage3.GoodInterpersonalRelationships.Thechild/individualisgoodinordertobeseenasbeingagoodpersonbyothers.Therefore,answersrelatetothe
approvalofothers.
Stage4.MaintainingtheSocialOrder.Thechild/individualbecomesawareofthewiderrulesofsocietysojudgmentsconcernobeyingtherulesinorderto
upholdthelawandtoavoidguilt.

Level3Postconventionalmorality
Individualjudgmentisbasedonselfchosenprinciples,andmoralreasoningisbasedonindividualrightsandjustice.AccordingtoKohlbergthislevelofmoral
reasoningisasfarasmostpeopleget.

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Only1015%arecapableofthekindofabstractthinkingnecessaryforstage5or6(postconventionalmorality).Thatistosaymostpeopletaketheirmoralviews
fromthosearoundthemandonlyaminoritythinkthroughethicalprinciplesforthemselves.
Stage5.SocialContractandIndividualRights.Thechild/individualbecomesawarethatwhilerules/lawsmightexistforthegoodofthegreatestnumber,there
aretimeswhentheywillworkagainsttheinterestofparticularindividuals.
Theissuesarenotalwaysclearcut.Forexample,inHeinzsdilemmatheprotectionoflifeismoreimportantthanbreakingthelawagainststealing.
Stage6.UniversalPrinciples.Peopleatthisstagehavedevelopedtheirownsetofmoralguidelineswhichmayormaynotfitthelaw.Theprinciplesapplyto
everyone.
E.g.humanrights,justiceandequality.Thepersonwillbepreparedtoacttodefendtheseprinciplesevenifitmeansgoingagainsttherestofsocietyintheprocess
andhavingtopaytheconsequencesofdisapprovalandorimprisonment.Kohlbergdoubtedfewpeoplereachedthisstage.

ProblemswithKohlberg'sMethods
1.Thedilemmasareartificial(i.e.theylackecologicalvalidity)
Mostofthedilemmasareunfamiliartomostpeople(Rosen,1980).Forexample,itisallverywellintheHeinzdilemmaaskingsubjectswhetherHeinzshouldsteal
thedrugtosavehiswife.
HoweverKohlbergssubjectswereagedbetween10and16.Theyhaveneverbeenmarried,andneverbeenplacedinasituationremotelyliketheoneinthestory.
HowshouldtheyknowwhetherHeinzshouldstealthedrug?
2.Thesampleisbiased
AccordingtoGilligan(1977),becauseKohlbergstheorywasbasedonanallmalesample,thestagesreflectamaledefinitionofmorality(itsandrocentric).Mens'
moralityisbasedonabstractprinciplesoflawandjustice,whilewomens'isbasedonprinciplesofcompassionandcare.
Further,thegenderbiasissueraisedbyGilliganisaremindedofthesignificantgenderdebatestillpresentinpsychology,whichwhenignored,canhavealarge
impactontheresultsobtainedthroughpsychologicalresearch.
3.Thedilemmasarehypothetical(i.e.theyarenotreal)
Inarealsituation,whatcourseofactionapersontakeswillhaverealconsequencesandsometimesveryunpleasantonesforthemselves.Wouldsubjectsreason
inthesamewayiftheywereplacedinarealsituation?Wejustdontknow.
ThefactthatKohlbergstheoryisheavilydependentonanindividualsresponsetoanartificialdilemmabringsquestiontothevalidityoftheresultsobtainedthrough
thisresearch.Peoplemayrespondverydifferentlytoreallifesituationsthattheyfindthemselvesinthantheydowithanartificialdilemmapresentedtotheminthe
comfortofaresearchenvironment.
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4.Poorresearchdesign
ThewayinwhichKohlbergcarriedouthisresearchwhenconstructingthistheorymaynothavebeenthebestwaytotestwhetherallchildrenfollowthesame
sequenceofstageprogression.Hisresearchwascrosssectional,meaningthatheinterviewedchildrenofdifferentagestoseewhatlevelofmoraldevelopment
theywereat.
Abetterwaytoseeifallchildrenfollowthesameorderthroughthestageswouldhavebeentocarryoutlongitudinalresearchonthesamechildren.
However,longitudinalresearchonKohlbergstheoryhassincebeencarriedoutbyColbyetal.(1983)whotested58maleparticipantsofKohlbergsoriginalstudy.
Shetestedthem6timesinthespanof27yearsandfoundsupportforKohlbergsoriginalconclusion,thatweallpassthroughthestagesofmoraldevelopmentin
thesameorder.

ProblemswithKohlberg'sTheory
1.Aretheredistinctstagesofmoraldevelopment?
Kohlbergclaimsthattherearebuttheevidencedoesnotalwayssupportthisconclusion.Forexampleapersonwhojustifiedadecisiononthebasisofprincipled
reasoninginonesituation(postconventionalmoralitystage5or6)wouldfrequentlyfallbackonconventionalreasoning(stage3or4)withanotherstory.Inpractice
itseemsthatreasoningaboutrightandwrongdependsmoreuponthesituationthanupongeneralrules.
WhatismoreindividualsdonotalwaysprogressthroughthestagesandRest(1979)foundthatoneinfourteenactuallyslippedbackwards.Theevidencefordistinct
stagesofmoraldevelopmentlooksveryweakandsomewouldarguethatbehindthetheoryisaculturallybiasedbeliefinthesuperiorityofAmericanvaluesover
thoseofotherculturesandsocieties.
2.Doesmoraljudgementmatchmoralbehavior?
Kohlbergneverclaimedthattherewouldbeaonetoonecorrespondencebetweenthinkingandacting(whatwesayandwhatwedo)buthedoessuggestthatthe
twoarelinked.However,Bee(1994)suggeststhatwealsoneedtotakeaccountof:
a)habitsthatpeoplehavedevelopedovertime.
b)whetherpeopleseesituationsasdemandingtheirparticipation.
c)thecostsandbenefitsofbehavinginaparticularway.
d)competingmotivesuchaspeerpressure,selfinterestandsoon.
OverallBeepointsoutthatmoralbehaviorisonlypartlyaquestionofmoralreasoning.Itisalsotodowithsocialfactors.
3.Isjusticethemostfundamentalmoralprinciple?
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ThisisKohlbergsview.However,Gilligan(1977)suggeststhattheprincipleofcaringforothersisequallyimportant.FurthermoreKohlbergclaimsthatthemoral
reasoningofmaleshasbeenofteninadvanceofthatoffemales.
Girlsareoftenfoundtobeatstage3inKohlbergssystem(goodboynicegirlorientation)whereasboysaremoreoftenfoundtobeatstage4(LawandOrder
orientation).Gilliganreplies:
Theverytraitsthathavetraditionallydefinedthegoodnessofwomen,theircareforandsensitivitytotheneedsofothers,arethosethatmarkthemoutasdeficient
inmoraldevelopment.
InotherwordsGilliganisclaimingthatthereisasexbiasinKohlbergstheory.Heneglectsthefemininevoiceofcompassion,loveandnonviolence,whichis
associatedwiththesocializationofgirls.
GilliganreachedtheconclusionthatKohlbergstheorydidnotaccountforthefactthatwomenapproachmoralproblemsfromanethicsofcare,ratherthanan
ethicsofjusticeperspective,whichchallengessomeofthefundamentalassumptionsofKohlbergstheory.

References
Bee,H.L.(1994).Lifespandevelopment.HarperCollinsCollegePublishers.
Colby,A.,Kohlberg,L.,Gibbs,J.,&Lieberman,M.(1983).Alongitudinalstudyofmoraljudgment. MonographsoftheSocietyforResearchinChildDevelopment,48
(12,SerialNo.200).Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.
Gilligan,C.(1977).Inadifferentvoice:Women'sconceptionsofselfandofmorality.HarvardEducationalReview,47(4),481517.
Kohlberg,L.(1958).TheDevelopmentofModesofThinkingandChoicesinYears10to16.Ph.D.Dissertation,UniversityofChicago.
Kohlberg,L.(1984).ThePsychologyofMoralDevelopment:TheNatureandValidityofMoralStages(EssaysonMoralDevelopment,Volume2).Harper&Row
Piaget,J.(1932).Themoraljudgmentofthechild.London:KeganPaul,Trench,Trubner&Co.
Rest,J.R.(1979).Developmentinjudgingmoralissues.UniversityofMinnesotaPress.
Rosen,B.(1980).Moraldilemmasandtheirtreatment.In,Moraldevelopment,moraleducation,andKohlberg.B.Munsey(Ed).(1980),pp.232263.Birmingham,
Alabama:ReligiousEducationPress.

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