AER116

ROCKET PROPULSION

3 1 0 100

UNIT-3
SOLID PROPELLANT ROCKETS
Solid propellant rockets Selection criteria of solid propellants Important
hardware components of solid propellant rockets. Propellant grain design
considerations. Burn rate. Internal ballistics. Erosive burning, Rocket nozzle
classifications. Rocket performance considerations Staging of rockets.
Thrust vector control. Numerical problems.

SOLID ROCKETS
Specific Impulse: 100-400 sec
Thrust: 103-107 N
Solid rockets are the simplest and earliest types of rocket propulsion dating back to
the first rockets used by the Chinese.
Solid rockets are filled with a solid mixture of a propellant and an oxidizer. Little else
is actually required for these rockets.
The designs are very simple and therefore very reliable.
The main drawback of solid rockets is that once ignited, they burn until all of the fuel is
gone. Because of this, they aren't used often in space where propulsion systems
are usually required to be turned on and off many times. However, they are good for
getting things into space. In fact, the space shuttles use solid rocket boosters
(SRBs) during takeoff.

Quick Fact : The SRBs are the largest solid-propellant motors ever flown and the
first designed for reuse. Each is 149.16 feet long and 12.17 feet in diameter.
MONOPROPELLANT ROCKETS
Specific Impulse: 100-300 sec
Thrust: 0.1-100 N

 Monopropellant rockets are simple propulsion systems that rely on special

chemicals which, when energized, decompose. This decomposition creates both the
fuel and an oxidizer (which allows the fuel to burn), which then react with each other.
Because they only use a single propellant, monopropellant rockets are quite simple
and reliable. Unfortunately, they are not very efficient. They are mainly used to
make small adjustments such as attitude control. Main propulsion systems usually
use some other technology.

BIPROPELLANT ROCKETS
Specific Impulse: 100-400 sec
Thrust: 0.1-107 N
Bipropellant rockets separate the fuel and oxidizer and mix them in the chamber
where they burn. Bipropellant rockets are widely used and more efficient than
monopropellant rockets. The reaction given in the lesson on chemistry gives an
example of a fuel (H2) / oxidizer (O2) combination. It's actually a very good
combination in that it releases a large amount of energy. It's the combination used by
the space shuttle's main engines. Unfortunately, large tanks kept at extremely low
temperatures are required to carry them. In fact, the main purpose of the giant red
external tank attached to the space shuttle on take-off is to carry enough fuel to get the
space shuttle into space. The main drawback of bipropellant rockets is that they are
more complex than solid or monopropellant rockets. The fuel and oxidizer have to be
stored separately and fed together in exactly the right ratios to achieve maximum
efficiency. Despite the extra complexity, bipropellant rockets are still one of the
preferred systems for primary propulsion
Solid Propellant Burn Rate
Introduction
The burning surface of a rocket propellant grain recedes in a direction
perpendicular to this burning surface. The rate of regression, typically measured
in inches per second (or mm per second), is termed burning rate (or burn rate).
This rate can differ significantly for different propellants, or for one particular
propellant, depending on various operating conditions as well as formulation.
Knowing quantitatively the burning rate of a propellant, and how it changes
under various conditions, is of fundamental importance in the successful
design of a solid rocket motor. This chapter discusses the factors that influence
burn rate, how it may be modified, how the burn rate can be determined
experimentally, and the physical processes that occur at the burning surface of a
propellant that governs the burning rate.
What Influences Burning Rate?
An illustration of the concept of burning surface regression is given in Figure 1,
for a section of a hollow cylindrical grain, with an inhibited outer surface

("inhibited" means that the propellant surface is protected from the heat of
combustion and as such, burning does not occur). Burning commences along the
length of the central core, with the burning surface receding radially outward
(shown at arbitrary times t1, t2, t3). Note that the burning surface area
(represented by the arc length of the red lines in this figure) is continually
increasing. Also note that the surface regression rate (burn rate) is not constant.
These two events are, in fact, directly related, as will be discussed shortly.

Propellant burning rate is influenced by certain factors, the most significant being:
Combustion chamber pressure
Initial temperature of the propellant grain
Velocity of the combustion gases flowing parallel to the burning surface
Local static pressure
Motor acceleration and spin
The usual representation of the pressure dependence on burn rate is the Saint Robert's
Law (a.k.a. Vieille's Law):
r = ro + a Pcn

Selection of Solid Propellant (Ref: NASA Report)

Effect of various pressure exponents on burning rate sensitivity to pressure

IMPORTANT HARDWARE COMPONENTS OF SOLID ROCKETS

Solid rockets are rockets with a motor that uses

solid propellants (fuel/ oxidizer). The Chinese
invented solid rockets and were using them in
warfare by the 13th century. All rockets used
some form of solid or powdered propellant up
until the 20th century. Solid rockets are
considered to be safe and reliable due to the long
engineering history and simple design.

Design

Basic Concepts
A simple solid rocket motor consists of a casing,
nozzle, grain (propellant charge), and igniter.
The grain behaves like a solid mass, burning in a
predictable fashion and producing exhaust gases.
The nozzle dimensions are calculated to
maintain a design chamber pressure, while
producing thrust from the exhaust gases.
Once ignited, a solid rocket motor cannot
(practically) be shut off.
Modern designs may also include; steer-able
nozzle for guidance, avionics, recovery
hardware (parachutes), self destruct
mechanisms, and thermal management
materials.

Design begins with the total impulse required,

this determines the fuel/oxidizer mass. Grain
geometry and chemistry are then chosen to
satisfy the required motor characteristics.
The following are chosen or solved
simultaneously. The results are exact dimensions
for grain, nozzle and case geometries;

The grain burns at a predictable rate, given

its surface area and chamber pressure.
The chamber pressure is determined by
the nozzle orifice diameter and grain
burn rate.
Allowable chamber pressure is a function of
casing design.
The length of burn time is determined by the
grain 'web thickness'.

The grain may be bonded to the casing, or not.

Case bonded motors are much more difficult to
design, since deformation of both the case and
grain, under operating conditions, must be
compatible.

Common modes of failure in solid rocket motors

are; fracture of the grain, failure of case
bonding, and air pockets in the grain. All of
these produce an instantaneous increase in burn
surface area, and a corresponding increase in
exhaust gas and pressure, and rupture of the
casing.
Another failure mode is casing seal design. Seals
are required in casings that have to be opened to
load the grain. Once a seal fails, hot gas will
erode the escape path and result in failure. This
was the cause of the Space Shuttle Challenger
disaster.

Grain
Solid fuel grains are usually molded from a
thermoset elastomer (which doubles as fuel),
additional fuel, oxidizer, and catalyst. HTPB is
commonly used for this purpose.
Ammonium perchlorate is the most common
oxidizer used today.
The fuel is cast in different forms for different
purposes. Slow, long burning rockets have a

cylinder shaped grain, burning from one end to

the other. Most grains, however, are cast with a
hollow cross section, burning from the inside out
(and outside in, if not case bonded), as well as
from the ends.
The thrust profile over time can be controlled by
grain geometry. For example, a star shaped hole
down the center of the grain will have greater
initial thrust because of the additional surface
area. As the star points are burned up, the
surface area and thrust are reduced.
Solid Fuel Geometry

Solid Fuel Geometry Dependent Thrust-Time Curve

Typical solid propellant grain configurations and the corresponding

thrust-time curves

Casing
The casing may be constructed from a range of
materials. Cardboard is used for model engines.
Steel is used for the space shuttle boosters.
Filament wound graphite epoxy casings are used
for high performance motors.

Nozzle
A Convergent Divergent design accelerates the
exhaust gas out of the nozzle to produce thrust.
Sophisticated solid rocket motors use steerable
nozzles for rocket control.

Performance
Solid fuel rocket motors have a typical specific
impulse. The specific impulse of a rocket
(commonly abbreviated Isp is the impulse
(change in momentum) per unit mass of its fuel.
It is a measure of how much push can be
obtained from a fixed mass of fuel. Essentially it
is simply the exhaust velocity. A solid rocket

motor is typically having an Isp of 250s. This

compares to 350s for kerosene or paraffin is a
colorless flammable hydrocarbon liquid.
It is obtained from the fractional distillation
of petroleum at 150C and 275C (the to range).
At one time it was widely used in kerosene
lamps but it is now mainly used as a fuel for jet/
Lox Liquid oxygen (also LOx LOX or Lox in
the aerospace industry) is the liquid form of
oxygen. It has a pale blue colour and is strongly
paramagnetic. Liquid oxygen has a density of
1140 kg/m and is moderately cryogenic
(Freezing Point: -219 deg C. Boiling and 450s
for liquid hydrogen/Lox. For this reason solids
are generally used as initial stages in a rocket,
with better performing liquid engines reserved
for final stages. However, the venerable Star line
motors manufactured by Thiokol have a long
history as the final boost stage for satellites. This
is due to their simplicity, compactness and high
mass fraction. In aerospace engineering, for any
given target orbit, the mass fraction of a rocket
is an important measure of its efficiency. The
mass fraction is one minus the total amount of

mass delivered to orbit, divided by the mass of

the fully-fueled vehicle prio.
The ability of solid rockets to remain in
storage for long periods, and then reliably
launch at a moments notice, makes them the
design of choice for military applications.

Critical Ratios for Choking to Occur

Once the choking condition is prescribed, the evaluation of
various characteristic parameters becomes so simple that we
do not need the differential form of the equations (in
particular, the momentum equations) to obtain the desired
result.

We have the energy equation for steady onedimensional flow

Assuming no heat addition, this becomes

By definition of total conditions, u2 = 0 and T2 =

To Hence, the above equation becomes

The above equation can be written in the

following form.

Hence

By applying the energy equation to the nozzle throat,

2
t

u
ht +
2

= hc

u t2
Cp Tt +
= Cp Tc
2
t

Pt
=
; ut =
RTt

Tc k + 1 Pc k + 1
kRTt ;
=
=
;

Tt
Pt 2
2

k 1

Mass flow through nozzle at the choked flow

condition may be written as,

m n = t ut At
We have

Pt
=
RTt

ut =
Pt
mn =
RTt

kRTt
kRTt At

Rearranging the above equation we get,

mn =

k Pt
RTc Pc

Tc
Pc At
Tt

At the chocked flow condition we have,

Tc
k +1
=
2
Tt

Pc k + 1
=

Pt 2

k 1

Substituting we get

mn =

m n = Pc At

m n = Pc At

k Pt
RTc Pc
k
RTc

Tc
Pc At
Tt

k
+
1

k +1

2 ( k 1)

k 2

RTc k + 1

k +1

( k 1)

Mass flow coefficient,

Cd =

k
RTc

k +1

k 2

RTc k + 1

Cd =

k +1

k +1

2 ( k 1)

( k 1)

The reciprocal of mass flow coefficient, Cd has

dimensions of velocity and is termed as characteristic
velocity, C*
Basic Performance Relations
The

basic

performance

relation is derived

from

the

principle

of

conservation of matter. The propellant mass burned per unit time has to
equal the sum of the change in gas mass per unit time in the combustion
chamber grain cavity and the mass flowing out through the exhaust nozzle
per unit time (Assuming negligible / nil igniter mass flow).

p Ab r =

d ( g Vc )
dt

+ Pc At

k 2

RTc k + 1

k +1

( k 1)

n
c

p Ab aP =

d ( gVc )
dt

+ Cd Pc At

At steady state condition the above equation

reduced to,
n
c

p Ab aP = Cd Pc At
Solving for Pc we get,

Cd At

Pc =
A a
p b

n 1

Or

p Ab a

Pc =

C d At

1
1 n

Rocket motor chamber pressure during the burning time can be

evaluated approximately using the following equation.

p Ab a c
Pc =

At

1
1 n

where,

= density of the propellant

Ab = Burning surface area of the grain
p

a = Constant obtained from the burn rate

n
(
r
=
a
P
law
c )
n = Burn rate index obtained from the burn rate
n
(
r
=
a
P
law
c )

c* = Characteristic velocity (1/Cd)

At = Nozzle throat area
ROCKET STAGING

Multi-stage booster is cheaper than single stage rocket for inserting a given
payload into orbit
Discard empty tanks and extra structure as rocket travels, so that mass is not
subjected to gravity losses
Large engines used for initial high thrust phase, may produce excessive
accelerations when propellant is nearly consumed
Multistage rocket is a series of individual vehicles or stages, each with its own
structure, tanks and engines.
Each stage accelerates payload before being detached

Multistage rockets allow improved payload capability for vehicles with a

high V requirement such as launch vehicles or interplanetary spacecraft.
In a multistage rocket, propellant is stored in smaller, separate tanks rather
than a larger single tank as in a single-stage rocket.
Since each tank is discarded when empty, energy is not expended to
accelerate the empty tanks, so a higher total V is obtained.
Alternatively, a larger payload mass can be accelerated to the same total V.
For convenience, the separate tanks are usually bundled with their own
engines, with each discardable unit called a stage.
Multistage rocket performance is described by the same rocket equation as
single-stage rockets, but must be determined on a stage-by-stage basis.
The velocity increment, Vi, for each stage is calculated as before,

where moi represents the total vehicle mass when stage i is ignited, and mfi is
the total vehicle mass when stage i is burned out but not yet discarded.
It is important to realize that the payload mass for any stage consists of the
mass of all subsequent stages plus the ultimate payload itself.
The velocity increment for the vehicle is then the sum of those for the
individual stages where n is the total number of stages

We define the payload fraction as the ratio of payload mass to initial mass, or
mpl/mo.

For a multistage vehicle with dissimilar stages, the overall vehicle payload
fraction depends on how the V requirement is partitioned among stages.

Payload fractions will be reduced if the V is partitioned sub optimally.

The optimal distribution may be determined by trial and error. A V
distribution is postulated and the resulting payload fraction calculated.

The V distribution is varied until the payload fraction is maximized.

Once the V distribution is selected, vehicle sizing is accomplished by

starting with the uppermost or final stage (whose payload is the actual
deliverable payload) and calculating the initial mass of this assembly.

This assembly then forms the payload for the previous stage and the process
repeats until all stages are sized.

Results reveal that to maximize payload fraction

for a given V requirement:
1. Stages with higher Isp should be above
stages with lower Isp.

2. More V should be provided by the stages

with the higher Isp.
3. Each succeeding stage should be smaller
than its predecessor.
4. Similar stages should provide the same V.

Numerical Problem:
A two-stage rocket has the following masses: 1st-stage propellant mass
120,000 kg, 1st-stage dry mass 9,000 kg, 2nd-stage propellant mass 30,000
kg, 2nd-stage dry mass 3,000 kg, and payload mass 3,000 kg. The specific
impulses of the 1st and 2nd stages are 260s and 320s respectively. Calculate
the rocket's total V.

Soln:
Given:
Mo1 = 120,000 + 9,000 + 30,000 + 3,000 + 3,000
= 165,000 kg
Mf1 = 9,000 + 30,000 + 3,000 + 3,000
= 45,000 kg
Isp1 = 260 s
Mo2 = 30,000 + 3,000 + 3,000
= 36,000 kg
Mf2 = 3,000 + 3,000
= 6,000 kg

Isp2 = 320 s
Equation (2.24)
C1 = Isp1g
C1 = 260 x 9.80665 = 2,550 m/s
C2 = Isp2g
C2 = 320 x 9.80665 = 3,138 m/s
Equation (2.33)
V1 = C1 x LN[ Mo1 / Mf1 ]
V1 = 2,550 x LN[ 165,000 / 45,000 ]
V1 = 3,313 m/s
V2 = C2 x LN[ Mo2 / Mf2 ]
V2 = 3,138 x LN[ 36,000 / 6,000 ]
V2 = 5,623 m/s
Equation (2.34)
VTotal = V1 + V2
VTotal = 3,313 + 5,623
VTotal = 8,936 m/s

THRUST VECTOR CONTROL

It is well known that in addition to providing a propulsive force to a flying vehicle, a
rocket propulsion system can provide moments to rotate the flying vehicle and thus
provide control of the vehicles attitude and flight path. And it is possible to control a
vehicles pitch, yaw, and roll motions using appropriate Trust Vector Control (TVC)
mechanisms. Pitch moments are those that raise or lower the nose of a vehicle; yaw
moments turn the nose sideways; and roll moments are applied about the main axis of the
flying vehicle.

All chemical propulsion systems can provide with one of several types of TVC
mechanisms. Most of the TVC mechanisms are specific to certain propulsion categories
such as, solid, hybrid or liquid propulsion systems. There are two types of popular
thrust vector control concept viz., for an engine or a motor with a single nozzle; and
those that have two or more nozzles. Note that thrust vector control is effective only
while the propulsion system is operating and creating an exhaust jet. Therefore during
coasting time a separate mechanism needs to be provided to the flying vehicle for
achieving control over its attitude or flight path.
Aerodynamic fins (fixed and movable) continue to be very effective for
controlling vehicle path within the earths atmosphere, and almost all whether rockets,
antiaircraft missiles, and air-to-surface missiles use them. Even though aerodynamic
control surfaces provide some additional drag, their effectiveness in terms of vehicle
weight, turning moment, and actuating power consumption is difficult to surpass with any
other flight control method. Vehicle flight control can also be achieved by a separate

attitude control propulsion system. Here six or more small liquid propellant thrusters
(with separate feed system and a separate control) provide small moments to the vehicle
in flight during, before, or after the operation of the main rocket propulsion system.
The reasons for TVC are: (1) to willfully change a flight path or trajectory (i.e.,
changing the direction of the flight path of a target-seeking missile); (2) to rotate the
vehicle or change its attitude during powered flight; (3) to correct for deviation from the
intended trajectory or the attitude during powered flight; or (4) to correct for thrust
misalignment of a fixed nozzle in the propulsion system during its operation, when the
main thrust vector misses the vehicles center of gravity.
Usually, the thrust vector of the main rocket nozzle is in the direction of the
vehicle axis and goes through the vehicles center of gravity. Thus it is possible to obtain
pitch and yaw control moments by the simple deflection of the main rocket thrust vector;
however, roll control usually requires the use of two or more rotary vanes or two or more
separately hinged propulsion system nozzles.

Thrust vectoring is the ability of an

aircraft, rocket or other vehicle to deflect the angle of its thrust away from the vehicles
longitudinal axis.
The criteria governing the selection and design of a TVC system stem from
vehicle needs and include the steering-force moments, force rates of change, flight
accelerations, duration, performance losses, dimensional and weight limitations, available
vehicle power, reliability, delivery schedules, and cost.

Thrust vectoring
Thrust vectoring is the ability of an aircraft or rocket or other vehicle to deflect the
angle of its thrust away from the vehicles longitudinal axis.

The advantages of thrust vectoring systems on aircraft include improved post stall
performance, the ability (ability to change the body's position, and requires a combination
of balance, coordination, speed, strength, endurance etc.) to operate on damaged airfields
due to reduced takeoff distances and overall enhanced agility.

These factors can provide substantial benefits for military aircraft, which are primarily
concerned with manoeuvrability and control.
The concept of thrust vectoring is not a new one. The Germans used graphite control
vanes in the exhaust stream of their V-2 ballistic missile in World War II for some
directional control.

Thrust vectoring in aircraft though is a relatively new practice and the concept came
under widespread consideration during the cold war.
There are several methods employed to produce thrust vectoring.
Most current production aircraft with thrust vectoring use turbofan engines with rotating
nozzles or turning vanes to deflect the exhaust stream. This method can deflect thrust to
as much as 90 degrees providing a vertical take off and landing capability. However for
vertical thrust the engine has to be more powerful to overcome the weight of the aircraft,
this means the aircraft requires a bigger heavier engine. As a result of the increased
overall weight of the aircraft the manoeuvrability and agility are reduced in normal
horizontal flight.
Another method to produce thrust vectoring is through fluidic thrust vector control. This
is achieved using a static nozzle and a secondary flow between the primary jet and the
nozzle. This method is desirable for its lower weight, mechanical simplicity and lower
radar cross section.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Thrust Vector Control

Thrust-vectoring research to date has successfully identified and demonstrated many

potential benefits to high-performance aircraft.

 These include enhanced aircraft manoeuvrability, performance, survivability, and

stealth.
The full extent of these benefits, however, has yet to be realized even with new
generation aircraft because current mechanical thrust-vectoring configurations are heavy,
complex, and expensive.
Thrust Vector Control or Thrust Vectoring is a technology that deflects the mean flow of
an engine jet from the centerline in order to transfer some force to the aimed axis. By that
imbalance, a momentum is created and used to control the change of attitude of the
aircraft.
Among other things, thrust vectoring greatly improves maneuverability, even at high
angles of attack or low speeds where conventional aerodynamic control surfaces lose all
effectiveness.
Thrust Vector Control is currently achieved by complex arrays of mechanical actuators
capable of modifying the geometry of the nozzle and thus defect the flow.
This variable geometry greatly increases weight and maintenance to the engine, and
therefore limits the benefits from vectoring the thrust.
Fluidic Thrust Vector Control is a technology aiming at the above listed benefits by the
use of fluidic means, implying less complexity and faster dynamic responses.

Different concepts have been developed in the last decade to redirect the thrust without
mechanical actuators.

Induction to flow separation, countercurrent shear layer, synthetic pulses or skewing of

the sonic line are some of the proven concepts.

Countercurrent shear flow control has been established as an effective method for
fluidic thrust vector control.

However, hardware integration issues exist and must be overcome in order to make a
viable technology for future aircraft.

 Recent developments in fluidic thrust vector control have focused on nozzle interior
methods that skew the throat of the nozzle using multiple transverse jets.

TVC Mechanisms with a single nozzle

Mechanical deflection of the nozzle or thrust chamber.

Insertion of heat-resistant movable bodies into the exhaust jet; these experience
aerodynamic forces and cause a deflection of a part of the exhaust gas flow.
Injection of fluid into the side of the diverging nozzle section, causing an asymmetrical
distortion of the supersonic exhaust flow.
Separate thrust-producing devices that are not part of the main flow through nozzle.

TVC Mechanisms
Gimbal or hinge - Liquid rockets
Movable nozzle (flexible bearing) Solid rockets
Movable nozzle (rotary ball with gas seal) Solid rocket
Jet vanes - Liqid/Solid
Jet tabs - Solid
Jetavator - Solid
Liquid-side injection - Solid/Liquid
Hot gas side injection Solid/Liquid
Hinged auxiliary thrust chambers for high thrust engine Liquid
Turbine exhaust gas swivel for large engine - Liquid

Differential throttling with four fixed position thrust chambers can provide flight
maneuvers. In this simple diagram the shaded nozzle exits indicate a throttled condition
or reduced thrust. The larger forces from the unthrottled engines impose turning moments
on the vehicle. For roll control the nozzles are slightly inclined and their individual thrust
vectors do not go through the center of gravity of the vehicle.

Thrust Vector Control Mechanisms - continued

Mechanical deflection of the nozzle or Thrust Chamber

Insertion of heat resistant movable bodies into the exhaust jet; these experience
aerodynamic forces and a deflection of a part of the exhaust flow

Injection of fluid into the side of the diverging nozzle section, causing an
asymmetrical distortion of the supersonic exhaust flow

Separate thrust producing devices that are not part of the main flow through the
nozzle

Unconventional control technologies

These techniques are most often applied to high off-boresight air-to-air missiles like
AIM-9X Sidewinder and IRIS-T to provide exceptional maneuverability. The greatest
advantage of such controls is that they can function at very low speeds or in a vacuum
where there is little or no airflow to act on conventional fins. The primary drawback,
however, is that they will not function once the fuel supply is exhausted.

Secondary Injection Thrust vector Control (SITVC)

SITVC is particularly attractive for thrust vectoring in large boosters (especially solid
propellant rocket) where large side thrust can be generated. Injection ports are provided at
a particular axial station around the periferi in the divergent cone. The injectant can be
liquids (Ferons, Strontium perchlorate solution) or gases (eg. Bleed from combustion
chamber) and these can be inert or reactive.
Fluid injection induces a bow shock in the supersonic stream followed by a deflection
of the flow and high pressure on the downstream side of the shock. This influence over a

segment of the nozzle drastically alters the pressure distribution on the nozzle surface in
an unsymmetrical way about the nozzle axis. This produces the necessary moments to the
vehicle (pitch, yaw and certain extent to roll also).

The magnitude of the side force increases as the injection port is moved towards the
throat as also when the injectant mass flow rate increases both being in the nominal
working range. With the side injectant, the axial thrust level also increases to certain
extent because of enhanced mass flow. But at higher injection rates the shocks affect the
bulk of the flow, thus bringing down the axial thrust values. At still higher injection rates,
the interaction with the opposite walls tends to lower the side force also.

The maximum vector deflection angle (or Fs/F) occurs at mass flow rate ratios
(minj/mnozzle) in the range of 0.05-0.08. The deflection angles can be as high as 7o with
liquid injection and upto 12o with hot gas injection.