2.

Components of Remote Sensing System

2.1 Remotesensing process: Energy sources
With the exception of objects at absolute zero, all objects emit electromagnetic
radiation. Objects also reflect radiation that has been emitted by other objects. By
recording emitted or reflected radiation and applying knowledge of its behavior as it
passes through the Earths atmosphere and interacts with objects, remote sensing
analysts develop knowledge of the character of features such as vegetation, structures,
soils, rock, or water bodies on the Earths surface. Interpretation of remote sensing
imagery depends on a sound understanding of electromagnetic radiation and its
interaction with surfaces and the atmosphere. The discussion of electromagnetic
radiation in this chapter builds a foundation that will permit development in
subsequent chapters of the many other important topics within the field of remote
sensing.
The most familiar form of electromagnetic radiation is visible light, which forms
only a small (but very important) portion of the full electromagnetic spectrum. The
large segments of this spectrum that lie outside the range of human vision require our
special attention because they may behave in ways that are quite foreign to our
everyday experience with visible radiation.
Summary of Electromagnetic Energy. Electromagnetic energy or radiation is derived
from the subatomic vibrations of matter and is measured in a quantity known as
wavelength. The units of wavelength are traditionally given as micrometers (m) or
nanometers (nm). Electromagnetic energy travels through space at the speed of light and
can be absorbed and reflected by objects. To understand electromagnetic energy, it is
necessary to discuss the origin of radiation, which is related to the temperature of the
matter from which it is emitted.

Figure 2-1. As an electron jumps from a higher to lower energy level, shown in top figure, a photon
of energy is released. The absorption of photon energy by an atom allows electrons to jump from a
lower to a higher energy state.
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The
origin
of
all
energy
(electromagnetic
energy
or
radiant
energy)
begins with the vibration of subatomic particles called photons (Figure 2-1). All objects
at a temperature above absolute zero vibrate and therefore emit some form of electromagnetic energy. Temperature is a measurement of this vibrational energy emitted from
an object. Humans are sensitive to the thermal aspects of temperature; the higher the
temperature is the greater is the sensation of heat. A hot object emits relatively large
amounts of energy. Conversely, a cold object emits relatively little energy.
Absolute Temperature Scale: The lowest possible temperature has been shown to
be -273.2oC and is the basis for the absolute temperature scale. The absolute
temperature scale, known as Kelvin, is adjusted by assigning -273.2oC to 0 K (zero
Kelvin; no degree sign). The Kelvin scale has the same temperature intervals as the
Celsius scale, so conversion between the two scales is simply a matter of adding or
subtracting 273. Because all objects with temperatures above, or higher than, zero
Kelvin emit electromagnetic radiation, it is possible to collect, measure, and distinguish
energy emitted from adjacent objects
Electromagnetic radiation consists of an electrical field (E) that varies in magnitude in
a direction perpendicular to the direction of propagation (Figure 2.2). In addition, a
magnetic field (M) oriented at right angles to the electrical field is propagated in phase
with the electrical field.

Figure 2.2: Electromagnetic wave. Components include a sinusoidal electric wave (E) and a
similar magnetic wave (M) at right angles, both being perpendicular to the direction of
propagation.

Electromagnetic energy can be characterized by several properties (Figure 2.3):

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1. Wavelength is the distance from one wave crest to the next. Wavelength can be
measured in everyday units of length, although very short wavelengths have

Figure 2.3-1

Figure 2.3-2

Amplitude, frequency, and wavelength. The second diagram represents high frequency, short
wavelength; the third, low frequency, long wavelength. The bottom diagram illustrates two
waveforms that are out of phase.

such small distances between wave crests that extremely short (and therefore less
familiar) measurement units are required (Figure 2.3.1).
2. Frequency is measured as the number of crests passing a fixed point in a given
period of time. Frequency is often measured in hertz, units each equivalent to one
cycle per second (Figure 2.3.2), and multiples of the hertz.
3. Amplitude is equivalent to the height of each peak (see Figure 2.3.1). Amplitude is
often measured as energy levels (formally known as spectral irradiance), expressed as
watts per square meter per micrometer (i.e., as energy level per wavelength interval).
4. In addition, the phase of a waveform specifies the extent to which the peaks of one
waveform align with those of another. Phase is measured in angular units, such as
degrees or radians. If two waves are aligned, they oscillate together and are said to be
in phase (a phase shift of 0 degrees). However, if a pair of waves are aligned such
that the crests match with the troughs, they are said to be out of phase (a phase
shift of 180 degrees).
The speed of electromagnetic energy (c) is constant at (3 X 108 m/sec) or 299,792
kilometers (km) per second.
Frequency (v) and wavelength (l) are related: c = lv

(Eq. 2.1)

Therefore, characteristics of electromagnetic energy can be specified using either

frequency or wavelength. Varied disciplines and varied applications follow different
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conventions for describing electromagnetic radiation, using either wavelength

(measured in Angstrom units [], microns, micrometers, nanometers, millimeters, etc.,
as appropriate) or frequency (using hertz, kilohertz, megahertz, etc., as appropriate).
Although there is no authoritative standard, a common practice in the field of remote
sensing is to define regions of the spectrum on the basis of wavelength, often using
micrometers (each equal to one one-millionth of a meter, symbolized as m),
millimeters (mm), and meters (m) as units of length. Departures from this practice are
common; for example, electrical engineers who work with microwave radiation
traditionally use frequency to designate subdivisions of the spectrum. In this book we
usually employ wavelength designations.
The student should, however, be prepared to encounter different usages in scientific
journals and in references.
Table.2.1: Units of Length Used in Remote Sensing

Table.2.2: Frequencies Used in Remote Sensing

Light can be classified according to the length of the wave

Since c is essentially a constant (3 X 108 m/sec), frequency v and
wavelength 2 for any given wave are related inversely, and either term can be
used to characterize a wave. In remote sensing, it is most common to
categorize electromagnetic waves by their wavelength location within
the electromagnetic spectrum (Figure 2.3). The most prevalent unit
used to measure wavelength along the spectrum is the micrometer
(/tm). A micrometer equals 1 X 10-6 m.

Components of Remote sensnig |Sri Chaitanya IAS Academy | Rajendra Prasad Sana

Figure 2.3: Electromagnetic spectrum

Regions of the Electromagnetic Spectrum. Different regions of the electromagnetic

spectrum can provide discrete information about an object. The categories of the
electromagnetic spectrum represent groups of measured electromagnetic radiation with
similar wavelength and frequency. Remote sensors are engineered to detect specific
spectrum wavelength and frequency ranges. Most sensors operate in the visible,
infrared, and microwave regions of the spectrum. The following paragraphs discuss the
electromagnetic spectrum regions and their general characteristics (Table 2.4). The
spectrum regions are discussed in order of increasing wavelength and decreasing
frequency.
(1) Ultraviolet: The ultraviolet (UV) portion of the spectrum contains radiation just
beyond the violet portion of the visible wavelengths. Radiation in this range has short
wavelengths (0.300 to 0.446 m) and high frequency. UV wavelengths are used in
geologic and atmospheric science applications. Materials, such as rocks and minerals,
fluoresce or emit visible light in the presence of UV radiation. The florescence associated
with natural hydrocarbon seeps is useful in monitoring oil fields at sea. In the upper
atmosphere, ultraviolet light is greatly absorbed by ozone (O 3) and becomes an
important tool in tracking changes in the ozone layer.
(2) Visible Light: The radiation detected by human eyes is in the spectrum range aptly
named the visible spectrum. Visible radiation or light is the only portion of the spectrum
that can be perceived as colors. These wavelengths span a very short portion of the
spectrum, ranging from approximately 0.4 to 0.7 m. Because of this short range, the
visible portion of the spectrum is plotted on a linear scale. This linear scale allows the
individual colors in the visible spectrum to be discretely depicted. The shortest visible
wavelength is violet and the longest is red.
(a) The visible colors and their corresponding wavelengths are listed below (Table 2-3) in
micrometers.
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Table 2-3: Wavelengths of the primary colors of the Visible Spectrum

Color

Wavelength

Violet

0.4-0.446 m

Blue

0.446-0.500 m

Green

0.500-0.578 m

Yellow

0.578-0.592 m

Orange

0.592-0.620 m

Red

0.620-0.7 m

b)
Visible light: detected by sensors depends greatly on the surface reflection
characteristics of objects. Urban feature identification, soil/vegetation discrimination,
ocean productivity, cloud cover, precipitation, snow, and ice cover are only a few examples of current applications that use the visible range of the electromagnetic spectrum.
(3) Infrared: The portion of the spectrum adjacent to the visible range is the infrared
(IR) region. The infrared region, plotted logarithmically, ranges from approximately
0.7 to 100 m, which is more than 100 times as wide as the visible portion. The infrared
region is divided into two categories, the reflected IR and the emitted or thermal IR; this
division is based on their radiation properties.
(a) Reflected Infrared: The reflected IR spans the 0.7- to 3.0-m wavelengths. Reflected
IR shares radiation properties exhibited by the visible portion and is thus used for
similar purposes. Reflected IR is valuable for delineating healthy verses unhealthy or
fallow vegetation, and for distinguishing among vegetation, soil, and rocks.
(b) Thermal Infrared: The thermal IR region represents the radiation that is emitted from
the Earths surface in the form of thermal energy. Thermal IR spans the 3.0 to 100-m
range. These wavelengths are useful for monitoring temperature variations in land, water,
and ice.
(4) Microwave: Beyond the infrared is the microwave region, ranging on the spectrum
from 1 m to 1 m. Microwave radiation is the longest wavelength used for remote
sensing. This region includes a broad range of wavelengths; on the short wavelength
end of the range, microwaves exhibit properties similar to the thermal IR radiation,
whereas the longer wavelengths maintain properties similar to those used for radio
broadcasts.
Regions of the Electromagnetic Spectrum (Table. 2.4)

Components of Remote sensnig |Sri Chaitanya IAS Academy | Rajendra Prasad Sana

Although many characteristics of electromagnetic radiation are most eas ily

described by wave theory, another theory offers useful insights into how
electromagnetic energy interacts with matter. This theory-the particle
theory-suggests that electromagnetic radiation is composed of
many discrete units called photons or quanta. The energy of a
quantum is given as
Q = hv
(1.2)
where
Q = energy of a quantum, joules (J)
34
h = Planck's, constant, 6.626 x 10
J sec v
= frequency
We can relate the wave and quantum models of electromagnetic radiation
behavior by solving Eq. 1.1 for v and substituting into Eq. 1.2 to
obtain
Q=
2

hc

(1.3)

Components of Remote sensnig |Sri Chaitanya IAS Academy | Rajendra Prasad Sana

Thus, we see that the energy of a quantum i s inversely

proportional to its wavelength. The longer the wavelength involved, the
lower its energy content. This has important implications in remote sensing
from the standpoint that naturally emitted long wavelength radiation,
such as microwave emission from terrain features, is more difficult t o
sense than radiation of shorter wavelengths, such as emitted thermal
IR energy. The low energy content of long wavelength radiation
means that, in general, systems operating at long wavelengths must
"view" large areas of the earth at any given time in order to obtain a detectable
energy signal.
The sun is the most obvious source of electromagnetic radiation for
remote sensing. However, all matter at temperatures above absolute
zero (0 K, or -273C) continuously emits electromagnetic radiation. Thus,
terrestrial objects are also sources of radiation, though it is of considerably
different magnitude and spectral composition than that of the sun. How
much energy any object radiates is, among other things, a function of the
surface temperature of the object. This property is expressed by the Stefan
Boltzmann law, which states that
M= T 4
(1.4)
where
M = total radiant exitance from the surface of a material, watts (W) m 2
= Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 5.6697 x 108 W m2 K 4
T = absolute temperature (K) of the emitting material
The particular units and the value of the constant are not critical or the
student to remember, yet it is important to note that the total energy
emitted from an object varies as T4 and therefore increases very rapidly
with increases in temperature. Also, it should be noted that this law is
expressed for an energy source that behaves as a blackbody. A blackbody is
a hypothetical, ideal radiator that totally absorbs and reemits all energy
incident upon it.
Actual objects only approach this ideal. The energy emitted from an object
is primarily a function of its temperature, as given by Eq. 1.4.
Just as the total energy emitted by an object varies with
temperature, the spectral distribution of the emitted energy also
varies. Figure 2.4 shows energy distribution curves for blackbodies at
temperatures ranging from 200 to 6000 K. The, units on the ordinate scale
2
(W m m1 ) express the radiant power coming from a blackbody per
1- m spectral interval. Hence, the area under these curves equals the
total radiant exitance, M, and the curves illustrate graphically what the
Stefan-Boltzmann
law
expresses
mathematically:
the higher the temperature of the radiator, the greater the total amount
of radiation it emits. The curves also show that there is a shift toward
shorter wavelengths in the peak of a blackbody radiation distribution as
temperature increases. The dominant wavelength, or wavelength at which
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a blackbody radiation curve reaches a maximum, is related to its

temperature by Wien's displacement law,

m =

A
T

where
m = wavelength of maximum spectral radiant exitance, m
A = 2898 pm K
T = temperature, K
Thus, for a blackbody, the wavelength at which the maximum spectral
radiant existence occurs varies inversely with the blackbody's absolute
temperature.

Figure 2.4: Spectral distribution of energy radiated from blackbodies of various temperatures.
(Note that spectral radiant exitance M is the energy emitted per unit wavelength interval. Total
radiant exitance M is given by the area under the spectral radiant exitance curves.)

We observe this phenomenon when a metal body such as a piece of iron is

heated. As the object becomes progressively hotter, it begins to glow and
its color changes successively to shorter wavelengths-from dull red, to
orange, to yellow, and eventually to white. The sun emits radiation in
the same manner as a blackbody radiator whose temperature is
about 6000 K (Figure 2.4). Many incandescent lamps emit radiation
typified by a 3000 K blackbody radiation curve. Consequently,
incandescent lamps have a relatively low output of blue energy, and they do
not have the same spectral constituency as sunlight.
The earth's ambient temperature (i.e., the temperature of surface materials
such as soil, water, and vegetation) is about 300 K (27C). From
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(1.5)

Wien's displacement law, this means the maximum spectral radiant

exitance from earth features occurs at a wavelength of about 9.7 m.
Because this radiation correlates with terrestrial heat, it is termed "thermal
infrared" energy. This energy can neither be seen nor photographed, but it
can be sensed with such thermal devices as radiometers and scanners. By
comparison, the sun has a much higher energy peak that occurs at about
0.5 m, as indicated in Figure 2.4. Our eyes-and photographic film are
sensitive to energy of this magnitude and wavelength. Thus, when the sun is
present, we can observe earth features by virtue of reflected solar energy.
Once again, the longer wavelength energy emitted by ambient earth features
can be observed only with a nonphotographic sensing system. The general
dividing line between reflected and emitted IR wavelengths is approximately
3m. Below this wavelength, reflected energy predominates; above it, emitted
energy prevails.
Certain sensors, such as radar systems, supply their own source of
energy to illuminate features of interest. These systems are termed "active"
systems, in contrast to "passive" systems that sense naturally
available energy. A very common example of an active system is a camera
utilizing a flash. The same camera used in sunlight becomes a passive
sensor.

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