BASIC MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Lecture Notes 2

LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS

First Law:
The amount of energy added to a system is equal to the sum of its increase in
heat energy and the work done on the system.
Law of Conservation of Energy

Total Energy Entering the System=Total Energy Leavingthe System

E =Eout

Second Law:
Kelvin Planck statement applied to heat engine: It is impossible to construct a heat
engine which operates in a cycle and receives a given amount of heat from a high
temperature body and does an equal amount of work.
Rudolph Clausius statement applied to heat pump: It is impossible to construct a
heat pump that operates without an input work.

Third Law:
The entropy of a substance at absolute zero temperature is zero.

Zeroth Law:
If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with some third body, then they are also in
equilibrium with each other.

HEAT
Historical background on heat
Heat was always been perceived to be something that produces in us as a sensation
of warmth, and one would think that the nature of heat is one of the first things
understood by mankind. However, it was only in the middle of the nineteenth
century that we had a true physical understanding of the nature of heat, thanks to
the development at that time of the kinetic theory, which treats molecules as tiny
balls that are in motion and thus possess kinetic energy. Although it was suggested
in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries that the heat is the manifestation
of motion at the molecular level, the prevailing view of heat until the middle of the
nineteenth century was based on the caloric theory proposed by the French chemist
Antoine Lavoisier in 1789. The caloric theory asserts that the heat is fluid-like
substance called caloric that is a massless, colorless, odorless, and tasteless
substance that can be poured from one body to another. When caloric was added to
a body, its temperature increase; and when caloric was removed from a body, its
temperature decreased. When a body could not contain any more caloric, the body
was said to be saturated with caloric.
The caloric theory came under attack after soon after its introduction. It maintained
that heat is a substance that could not be created or destroyed. Yet it was known
that heat can be generated indefinitely by rubbing ones hands together or rubbing
two pieces of wood together. In 1798, the American Benjamin Thompson showed in
his papers that heat can be generated continuously through friction. The validity of
the caloric theory was also challenged by several others. But it was the careful
experiments of the Englishman James P. Joule published in 1843 that finally
convinced the skeptics that heat was not a substance after all, and thus put the
caloric theory into rest. Although the caloric theory was totally abandoned in the
middle of the nineteenth century, it contributed greatly to the development of
thermodynamics and heat transfer.

Heat a form of energy that is transferred between two systems (or a system and
its surroundings) by the virtue of a temperature difference.

Sensible Heat - energy required to change the temperature of a substance

with no phase change.
Amount of Heat:
where:

Q=m C p T
Q amount of heat (KJ)
m mass (kg)

Cp

specific heat capacity of the material

(KJ/kgK)

C p of water =4.186

KJ
=1 BTU / lb R
kg K

T temperature difference (K)

Latent Heat - energy absorbed by or released from a substance during a

phase change from a gas to a liquid or a solid or vice versa.
o

Heat of Fusion energy required to change the phase of a substance

from solid to liquid or vice versa without changing its temperature.
Amount of Heat:
where:

Q=m Lf
Q amount of heat (KJ)
m mass (kg)

Lf

heat of fusion (J/kg)

Lf of water =3.34 105

J
cal
BTU
=79.6
=143
kg
g
lb

Heat of Evaporation - energy required to change the phase of a

substance from liquid to gas or vice versa without changing its
temperature.
Amount of Heat:
where:

Q=m Lv
Q amount of heat (KJ)
m mass (kg)

Lv

Lv of water=2.256 106

Unit Conversions:

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

heat of vaporization (J/kg)

J
cal
BTU
=539
=970
kg
g
lb

1 BTU = 1.055 KJ = 778.169 ft-lb = 252 cal

1 cal = 4.186 J
1 J = 1 Nm

1. During a bout with a flu an 80-kg man ran a fever of 39.0C (102.2F) instead of a
normal body temperature of 37C (98.6F). Assuming that the human body is mostly
water, how much heat is required to raise his temperature by that amount?
2. You are designing an electronic circuit element made of 23 mg of silicon. The
electric current through it adds energy at the rate of

7.4 mW =7.4 103 J /s . If your

design doesnt allow any heat transfer out of the element, at what rate does its
temperature increase? The specific heat of silicon is 705 J/kgK.
3. A student wants to cool 0.25 kg of Diet Omni-Cola (mostly water), initially at
25C, by adding ice initially at -20C. How much ice should he add so that the final
temperature will be 0C with all the ice melted if the heat capacity of the container
may be neglected?
4. 2 tons of water with initial temperature of 20C is to be use in producing ice in an
ice plant. If ice to be maintained at -15C, what is the total amount of heat removed
from water?
5. A fisherman was able to caught 45 kg of salmon. He wishes to store those fishes
in a container maintained at -5C to keep its freshness. If the initial temperature of
the salmon is 15C, determine the total heat to be removed from those fishes.
Salmon has a specific heat of 2.98 kJ/kg*C if above freezing and 1.65 kJ/kg*C if below freezing. Freezing
point of salmon is at -2C and

Lf =101 BTU /lb