Cape Physics

Unit 1
By: Science Decoder Author: A.Thompson 8/27/2011
Get more free notes at http://getyournotes.blogspot.com

Content
Topic About Sources Scalars and Vectors Vector Addition and Subtraction How to D
raw vectors Solving Vectors Resolving Vectors
Questions & Answers Newtons Laws of
Motion Reaction Force Problems Projectile Motion
Example Momentum & Collisions
Impulse Friction Moments Equilibrium Energy Centre of Mass & Gravity Circular Mo
tion Examples Simple Harmonic Motion
Examples Geostationary Orbit Wave
Types of W
aves Longitudinal and Transverse
In-phase and Out-of-phase
Progressive and Stand
ing Diffraction
Interference Refraction
Youngs Double Slit Lenses Page 2 3 4 5 6
7-8 9-10 11-12 13-14 15-19 20 21-22 23-24 25-27 28 29-30 31-33 34 35 36-37 38-42
43-44 45-47 48 49 50 51 52-53 54-55 56 57-60 61-62 63 64-68
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About
This e-book was created to give students a well-rounded understanding on difficu
lt topics in advanced level physics. It was created based on the CAPE syllabus w
hich is also compatible with other major syllabuses such as the A-Level syllabus
. It was created mainly for students doing physics in their first year of colleg
e.
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Sources
Most of the content present in this e-book was provided by Science Decoder, you
can find us as at: http://getyournotes.blogspot.com The following articles were
taken from the internet: Youngs Double Slit taken from: http://micro.magnet.fsu.e
du/primer/java/scienceopticsu/interference/doubleslit/index.html http://vsg.quas
ihome.com/interfer.htm
Recommended Sites: BiologyMad: - A very useful site containing a lot of biology
notes that are covered in higher level biology such as A-Level and CAPE. Chemgui
de: - Another useful site which covers the hardest and less recognized topics in
chemistry. In addition it has many other features and is highly recommended by
other sites. A-Level Physics Notes: - As the name suggests it covers allot of to
pics in a-level.Allot of these topic are difficult but by just using this site a
s reference can greatly help you. They have allot of diagrams and explanations a
long with these notes
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Scalars and Vectors

Scalars have magnitude only but Vectors have both magnitude and direction. The t
able below displays some of the most popular scalar and vector quantities.
S.I Units
Mass --> Grams (g), or Kilograms (Kg) Length --> Meter(m) Time --> Seconds(s)
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Addition and Subtraction Of Vectors

The sum of two or more vectors is called a resultant.
When vectors are in the same directions we add.
Example #1.

When vectors are in opposed directions we minus.

Example #2
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How to Draw Vectors

A Vector can be defined by capital letters at both ends or by one lower case let
ter.
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Solving Vectors
Here is an example on how to solve a vector question: Example #1: A force of 3N
acts at an angle of 90 degrees to a force of 4N. Find the magnitude and directio
n of their resultant R.
(Note: a line similar to the 3N was drawn on right to make the vector tail to he
ad. The resultant line R was then drawn from the tail of 4N line to Head of 3N l
ine on right. Also note that direction in this case is the unknown angle.)
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Answer Using Pythagoras

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theorem to find magnitude.

Resolving Vectors
Resolving vectors means splitting vectors into two perpendicular components. Res
olving vectors can be very easy if youre focused. Here Ill be showing you how to r
esolve a vector and then solve its horizontal and vertical components. Using the
vector below F it must first be split (resolved) into its vertical and horizont
al components before it can be solved.
Vector F
Vector when resolved
1. Identify the component (line) adjacent to the given angle A (here it is the hor
izontal component). 2. Label the adjacent component as F x COS A.
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3. Identify the component opposite to the given angle A (here it is the vertical c
omponent). 4. Label opposite component as F x SIN A.
The following formulas can then be used to solve the components: Horizontal comp
onent = F x COS A Vertical component = F x SIN A Note: When resolving vectors th
e component adjacent to the given angle is ALWAYS the vector multiplied by the c
osine (COS) of the angle while the component opposite the given angle is always
the vector multiplied by the sin (SIN) of the angle.
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Resolving Vectors Questions and Answers

In previous articles we covered the topic of resolving vectors, how to resolve a
vector, definitions and a complete guide on how to go about splitting/resolving
a vector into its perpendicular components and how to label them, in this artic
le we will look at some examples on how to resolve vectors.
Question # 1 Calculate the horizontal and vertical components of a 50N force whi
ch is acting 40 degrees to the horizontal.
40
0
Answer: The question asked for the values of the horizontal and vertical compone
nts, so first you need to split the vector seen in the diagram above into its ho
rizontal and vertical components:
Vertical Component
40
0
Horizontal Component
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Now that you have identified both components the next thing that needs to be don
e is to label the components. Look at the diagram above and find out which of th
e components is adjacent to the given angle and label it Fcos, where F is the force
and is the given angle. Also find out which component is opposite to the given a
ngle and label it Fsin. In this example the component adjacent to the given angle is
the horizontal component so it is labeled 50cos 400. The component opposite to t
he given angle is the vertical component so it is labeled 50sin400.
50sin40
0
40
0
50cos40
0
Therefore your answer should be: Horizontal component = 50cos400 = 38.30N Vertica
l Component = 50sin400 = 32.14N
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Newtons Laws of Motion

Here are the three Newtons Laws of motion: 1. Newton s first(1st) law of motion,
2. Second(2nd) Law of motion 3. And Newton s third (3rd) Law of motion.
Newtons first law of motion
Newtons 1st law of motion states that everybody continues in its state of rest or
in constant velocity motion unless acted upon by an external force. Newtons firs
t law of motion simply means that no change in motion takes place unless an exte
rnal force acts on the body.
Newtons second law of motion The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly
proportional to the external force acting upon it. In its simplest form what ne
wtons second law of motion is saying the acceleration on a body is directly prop
ortional to the external force applied. The formulas relating to newtons second
law of motion is: Force = mv - mu / t Or can be simplified as: F = m (v - u) / t
but remember a = v - u / t Therefore F = ma Where F is force, m is mass, u and
v are initial and final velocity respectively, t is time and a is acceleration.
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Newtons third law motion Newtons 3rd law of motion states that if a body A exerts
a force on a body B, then Body B will exert an e
ual but opposite force on Body
A.
Applications of Newtons Laws of motion: 1st law: - When a car crashes the car sto
ps but the person on the inside continues to move because there is no external f
orce exerted on the person. 2nd Law: - Increase the force, by using gas, on the
car and the acceleration will also increase. 3rd Law: - A bouncing ball applies
a force to the ground and the ground applies an e
ual but opposite force on the
ball.
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Laws of Motion & Reaction Force Problems

In previous articles we discussed newtons laws of motion and how they apply to li
fe-like situations. In this article well be using formulas/e
uations from the law
s of motion and the laws themselves to solve various problems involving reaction
force. By the end of this tutorial you should be able to: 1. Find the reaction
force in a system 2. Apply newtons laws of motion to various
uestions 3. Find mi
ssing variables such as acceleration when given values for other variables.
Problem #1 A body of mass 7kg rest on a floor lift. Calculate the reaction force
R exerted by the floor of the lift on the body if: a) The lift has an upward ac
celeration of 2m/s2. b) The lift has a downward acceleration of 3m/s2. c) The li
ft is moving with constant velocity.
Answer: The first thing that needs to be done is to draw a diagram to represent
the information in the
uestion, doing this makes your calculations allot easier
and reduces risk of errors. In
uestions like these where theres a mass there is
always a weight acting downward from the body; so the first thing to be drawn o
n the diagram is the weight (W) acting downward. Next is the reaction force(R),
the reaction force always acts perpendicularly to the body. When done your diagr
am should look something like this:
Floor Lift
Body with mass 7kg
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a) This part of the
uestion asked for the reaction force when the lift has an u
pward acceleration of 2m/s2.
Floor Lift 2m/s2 Body with mass 7kg
When forces are moving in opposite directions you must subtract the smaller from
the larger. In this
uestion the reaction force is larger than the weight becau
se the lift is moving in the upward direction. Well use the formula derived from
newtons laws of motion:
Your answer should know look something like this: F = Mass acceleration R W = Ma
ss acceleration R 70 = 7 x 2 R = 14 + 70 R = 84N Weight = mass x gravity Weight
= 7 x 10 Weight = 70N
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b) This part of the
uestion is very similar to the one previously done. The
ue
stion asked for the reaction force when given a downward acceleration of 3m/s2.
In part a of the
uestion the reaction force was larger because the lift was movin
g in an upward direction; therefore it also follows that the opposite should hap
pen in this part of the
uestion since the lift is now moving in the downward di
rection. Therefore the weight is larger than the reaction force.
Floor Lift 3m/s2 Body with mass 7kg
F = mass x acceleration 70 R = Mass x acceleration 70 R= 7 x 3 70 R = 21 70 21 =
R 49N = R
c) In this part of the problem youre re
uired to find the reaction force given th
at the lift is moving at a constant velocity. Since it is moving at constant vel
ocity acceleration would be zero and no motion is taking place. F=0 RW=0 R 70 = 0
R = 70N Note: Here the reaction force is e
ual to the weight
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Problem # 2 A body of mass 5kg is pulled up a smooth plane inclined at 300 to th

e horizontal by a force of 40N acting parallel to the plane. Calculate the accel
eration of the body and the force exerted on it by the plane.
300 Answers
)
Before we begin calculating some other components must be added to the diagram.
Remember in the previous
uestion we said that where ever theres a mass there is
weight acting downwards. Also the weight must be resolved/split into its perpend
icular components with respect to the plane. One of the components of weight is
parallel to the plane while the other is perpendicular to the plane. Finally we
must now add the reaction force. Remember that the reaction force must be perpen
dicular to the plane of the body.
60
0
300
)
W = 5 x10 = 50N
You may have noticed that another angle was added to the diagram, 600, this was
needed in order to find the perpendicular components of the weight. If you look
at the diagram closely youll see that the line for the weight cuts the base of th
e triangle forming a 900 angle. Therefore the 60 degrees was found
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by subtracting the sum of the 90 degrees and 30 degrees from 180 giving 60 degre
es. Because all angles in a triangle add up to 180. Now that we have labeled our
diagram we can now begin answering the
uestion. The first part asked for the a
cceleration of the body.
Using newtons second law F = Mass x Acceleration (a) 40 W x cos60 = 5 x a 40 50 x
cos60 = 5 x a 40 50(0.5) = 5 x a 40 25 = 5 x a 15 = 5 x a 15/5 = a 3m/s2 = a
Note: Remember that forces in opposite direction must be subtracted.
The next part of the
uestion asked for the force exerted on the body by the pla
ne, the force exerted is the reaction force. No motion is taking place in this d
irection therefore:
Using Newtons first law: F=0 R W x Sin60 = 0 R = W x Sin60 R = 50(0.8660) R = 43.
30N
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Projectile Motion
What is the projectile motion of a body?
- A body in projectile motion will move in two dimensions simultaneously. Bodies
that are in projectile motion are resolved (divided) into two components. A ver
tical component (Vy) and an horizontal component (Vx). These components however
are dealt with simultaneously.
Please refer to the diagram below showing projectile motion.
Formulas associated with projectile motion include:
Vy = VsinA Vx = VcosA V = S
rt [Vy^2 + Vx^2] TanA = Vy / Vx => A = Tan^-1 A (Vy
/ Vx)
Where A is used as angle instead of theta in diagram
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Example calculation involving projectile motion: 1. A body is projected with a v

elocity of 200m/s at an angle of 30 C to the horizontal.
Calculate the time taken to reach its maximum height. Calculate its velocity aft
er 16 seconds.
Answers:
Finding the time for maximum height.
angle A = 30 C V = 200m/s Acceleration(a) = -10 m/s2 Vy = 0 m/s Therefore Uy = Vs
inA Uy = 200 x Sin 30 Uy = 100 m/s
Note:
Vy = Uy = at Vy - Uy = at a 0 - 100 = t - 10 10 sec = t Therefore Maximum Time (
t) = 10 seconds
Uy represents initial velocity

Finding the velocity after 16 seconds.

Vx = V cos A Vx = 200 x Cos 30 Vx = 173.2 m/s Vy = Uy + at Vy = 100 - 10 (16)
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Vy = -60 m/s Therefore V = [Vy^2 + Vx^2] = *(-60)^2 + (173.2)^2] = 33598 = 183.30

m/s
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Momentum and Types of Collision

What is momentum?
Momentum can be defined as the product of mass and velocity (m x v). Principle o
f conservation of momentum: The principle of conservation of momentum states tha
t the total linear momentum of a system of interacting (colliding) bodies, on wh
ich no external force is acting remains constant. This principle is basically sa
ying momentum before collision is e
ual to momentum after collision.
Types of collisions:
There are two types of collisions covered in physics they are Elastic and Inelas
tic collisions. Elastic collisions are those formed when the colliding bodies se
parate after collision, hence its name. When elastic collisions take place two t
hings are conserved, Momentum and Kinetic Energy (K.E.), meaning none is lost fr
om the system. Therefore in elastic collisions momentum before collision is e
ua
l to momentum after collision, and similarly Kinetic energy before collision is
e
ual to kinetic energy after collision.
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In-elastic collisions refer to collisions in which the objects remain or stick t

ogether after collision. Seeing that the objects remain together after collision
Kinetic energy is therefore not conserved only momentum is conserved.
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Impulse
What is Impulse?
Impulse can be defined as the force per unit time or change in momentum. Momentu
m is changed whenever a force is applied to a body. From these definitions one c
an already see what formulas are in relation to impulse.
Formulas associated with Impulse:
Impulse = Force x Time Or Impulse = Change in momentum= mV mU Where m is Mass and
V, U is final and initial velocity respectively. Below are some calculations inv
olving impulse. Here youll be using the formulas above to find the missing variab
le. Example 1. A force of 100 N is applied for 8 seconds. What is the impulse? A
nswer: Right away you can easily solve for impulse using the first formula above
because all other variables are given. Therefore Impulse = Force x Time = 100N
x 8sec = 800Ns
Example 2. An impulse of 250Ns is applied for 10 seconds. What is the applied fo
rce. Answer: Again you can see that you have to use the first formula above, but
in this case they gave values for impulse and time, therefore all you have to d
o is transpose the formula to make Force the subject and then solve for Force.
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Therefore Impulse = Force x Time

Force = 25 N
Example 3. A body of 4kg is moving at 5m/s when it is given an impulse of 8Ns in
the direction of the motion. a) What is the Velocity of the body immediately af
ter the impulse? b) If the impulse acts for 0.02 seconds. What is the average va
lue of the force exerted? Answers: a) Here they gave you mass (4kg), initial vel
ocity (5m/s) and impulse (8Ns). Therefore all you need to do is transpose the se
cond formula, which relates impulse to momentum, to make the final velocity(V) t
he subject of the formula and then solve. Therefore Impulse = mV - mU Impulse +
mU = mV mU + mU Impulse + mU = mV
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b) All you need to do is transpose for force and then solve. When done transposi
ng you should get:
Therefore Force = 400N
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Friction
What is Friction?
Friction can be defined as a resistance force formed from the rubbing between tw
o surfaces. Friction is a form of force that slows down motion and dampens energ
y. There are two types of friction:
Static/Moving Friction Sliding/Dynamic(movin
g) Friction
Static Friction
Static friction is the friction caused between objects that are not moving relat
ive to each other. Limiting friction is the maximum value of static friction jus
t before the object begins moving. Therefore it can also be concluded that the v
alue of the re
uired force to just begin moving the object is e
ual to the Limit
ing Friction.
Sliding (Dynamic) Friction
Sliding friction is the friction formed between objects that are moving relative
to each other. It is important to note that static friction is always greater t
han sliding/dynamic friction.
Laws of Friction
1. The frictional force between two surfaces opposes their relative or attempted
motion in other words friction is a resistance force. 2. Frictional forces are
independent of the area of contact of the surfaces. 3. For two surfaces which ha
ve no relative motion the limiting frictional force is directly proportional to
the normal reaction force. Formula: FR F = KR R Therefore F = uR F Where
K = u =
Coefficient of sliding friction. F = Pull force
= Frictional force R = Normal re
action force Science Decoder
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Moments
What is Moments?
By definition Moments, also known as tor
ue, is the turning effect of a force. M
oments can either be in a clockwise or anti-clockwise direction. The unit of mom
ents is the Newton Meter (Nm).
Formula for Moments of a force
Moments (tor
ue) = Force Perpendicular distance from the pivot
How to calculate Moments?
Example 1
Find the total moments of the system below:
4m
6m
80N Pivot Step 1
50N
Identify which force in the system is moving in the clockwise direction and whic
h is moving in an anticlockwise direction. The 50N force is the one moving in th
e clockwise direction (the same direction a clocks pointer would move) while the
80N is moving in the opposite direction (anti-clockwise direction).
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4m
6m
80N
50N
Anti-Clockwise
Clockwise
Step 2 Use the formula given above to calculate the clockwise and anti-clockwise
moments separately. Moments = Force Perpendicular distance Clockwise Moments =
Force Perpendicular Distance = 50N 6m = 300Nm
Anti-Clockwise Moments = Force Perpendicular Distance = 80N 4m = 320Nm
Step 3 Now that you have calculated both clockwise and anti-clockwise moments yo
u can now find the total moments of the system. This is found by subtracting the
smaller moments from the larger, in this case the smaller of the two is the clo
ckwise while the larger is the anti-clockwise. Total Moments = 320Nm 300Nm = 20N
m in the anti-clockwise direction Because anticlockwise is larger Science Decoder
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E
uilibrium
What is E
uilibrium?
When a system is said to be in e
uilibrium this means it is in balance and is ei
ther moving at constant velocity motion or is at rest. Situations that must exis
t for a system to be at e
uilibrium: 1. The resultant force in any direction mus
t be zero. 2. The total moments of the system must be zero. Meaning: Clockwise M
oments = Anti- Clockwise Moments
How to calculate e
uilibrium?
Example 1 If the system below is in e
uilibrium find the unknown force F.
6m
8m
120N
F
Step 1 In the
uestion they stated that the system is in e
uilibrium, therefore
you can go ahead and use the e
uation: Clockwise Moments = Anti-Clockwise Moment
s
But remember that formula for moments is: Force Perpendicular distance from pivo
t
Therefore: Clockwise Force Perpendicular distance = Anti-clockwise Force Perpend
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Step 2 Identify the forces in the system that are moving clockwise and anti-cloc
kwise with their respective perpendicular distances, and then substitute those v
alues in the above e
uation:
6m
8m
120N
F
Anti-Clockwise
Clockwise
After substituting the values above into the formula you should get:
Clockwise Moments = Anti-Clockwise Moments Clockwise Force Perpendicular distanc
e = Anti-clockwise Force Perpendicular Distance
F 8m = 120N 6m
Step 3 After placing the values into the formula all that is left to do is trans
pose the formula to make F the subject then solve for F. The overall calculation wou
ld then be:
Clockwise Moments = Anti-Clockwise Moments Clockwise Force Perpendicular distanc
e = Anti-clockwise Force Perpendicular Distance
F 8m = 120N 6m
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F = 90N
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Energy
What is Energy?
Energy can be defined as the capacity to do work.
Types of Energy
Mechanical Energy: - By definition mechanical energy is the sum of Kinetic energ
y(K.E) and Potential energy(P.E). Mechanical energy = Kinetic Energy + Potential
Energy
Kinetic Energy: - Kinetic energy is the energy due to a bodys motion.
K.E = mass velocity2
Potential Energy: - Potential Energy is energy due to a bodys position or conditi
on.
P.E = mass gravity height
Law of Conservation of mechanical energy
In a system where only forces associated with potential energy are acting (gravi
tational/ elastic), the sum of the Kinetic and Potential energies is constant. K
.E + P.E = Constant These conditions exist for any object rising of falling abov
e the earths surface: a) For a body that is rising Loss in K.E = Gain in P.E b) F
or a boy falling towards the earth Loss in P.E = Gain in K.E
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Centre of Mass and Centre of Gravity

Are they the same?
Many persons get confused when they hear about center of mass and center of grav
ity because they both sound the same. However the truth is they may and may not
coincide depending on certain conditions. These conditions include whether or no
t they are in a uniform or non-uniform gravitational field. When in a uniform gr
avitational field they do coincide but when they are not in a uniform gravitatio
nal field they are treated differently
Centre of Mass:
The center of mass is that point of an object where all its mass appears to be l
ocated.
Centre of Gravity:
The center of gravity of an object is that point at which all the gravity force
appears to be acting, but in reality gravity acts on all points of the object.
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Circular Motion
What is Circular Motion?
Circular motion refers to motion along a circular path or circular orbit. Two ty
pes of velocities take place when an object is moving in circular motion these i
nclude Scalar velocity and Angular Velocity
Scalar Velocity
Scalar velocity can be defined as the velocity occurring around the circumferenc
e of the circle formed by the path.
Angular Velocity
Angular velocity can be defined as the rate of turn of the angle present at the
center of the circle.
The formula below shows the relationship between angular and scalar velocity:
Period (T)
Period can be defined as the time taken for an object to complete one revolution
. The formula below shows the relationship between angular velocity and period:
Fre
uency
Fre
uency can be defined as the number of revolutions per second. It is said to
be the inverse of period
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Calculations Involving Circular Motion

From the previous article we looked at circular motion, its definition, formulas
involved, types of velocities etc. Now we will look at different calculations i
nvolving circular motion. This tutorial is intended to give you a well-rounded u
nderstanding on how to calculate different variables involved in circular motion

uestions namely: a) b) c) d) e) Calculating Tension. Calculating Centripetal f
orce. Calculating centripetal acceleration. Calculating scalar and angular veloc
ities. And calculating period and fre
uency.
Lets first begin with some short descriptions and formulas. When an object is tra
velling in a circular motion its direction is changing continually, this results
in a change in velocity it also follows that any change in velocity causes acce
leration and for an acceleration to take place a force is needed. The force pres
ent when a body is moving in a circular motion is known as centripetal force, th
is force acts towards the center of motion.
Centripetal Force F
It is also said that the centripetal acceleration must move in the same directio
n as the centripetal force, therefore it also acts toward the center of motion.
The formulas below show the relationship between centripetal acceleration and an
gular and scalar velocity:
Where: a is acceleration "" is angular velocity v is scalar velocity r is radius
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To read more about angular and scalar velocity click here (ctrl + click .
Example #1
30o
1.2m T
The pendulum above has a mass of 2kg. The pendulum is moving in a horizontal cir
cle. The string is inclined at 30o to the vertical. a) b) c) d) e) Calculate the
tension in the string Calculate the centripetal force. Calculate the centripeta
l acceleration. Calculate Scalar & angular velocities. Calculate period & freque
ncy of centripetal motion.
Ansers: First before e begin ansering the question e need to make some addit
ions to the draing above. We ant to ork ith an angle besides the 30o if you
look at the diagram youll realize theres a triangle but one of the angles are miss
ing, this is the angle e ant to use. You can easily find this angle because yo
u are already given one angle (30o) and since it is a right angled triangle (ind
icated by the box formed beteen the vertical and horizontal line)it also has 90
o, therefore the remaining angle must be 60o, if e ere to add them all up e 
ould get a total of 180o. So place the 60o in the missing position. The question
also stated that you ould need to calculate tension, so you ould need to spli
t the T in its horizontal and perpendicular components. This ould give T sin 60o fo
r the vertical component and T cos 60o for the horizontal component. No place the
se components in the diagram. The next thing to note is that the pendulum has a
mass 2kg therefore a donard force of eight must be acting on the body, add th
is as ell to the diagram.
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The resulting diagram ould be:

30o
1.2m T T Sin 60
60o T cos 60o W = 2 10
a) To anser the first question hich asked for the tension in the string e use
the vertical component but if you look closely you ill see that there is eigh
t also acting donard against the vertical component so e use the rule. Upard
Forces = Donard forces T sin 60o = eight sin
b) Calculating centripetal force. Remember as stated above that this is the forc
e acting toard the center. Therefore if you look at the diagram you ill realiz
e that the horizontal component ( T cos 60o)is the one acting toard the center.
This ould give: Centripetal force = T cos 60o = 23.9 0.5 = 11.55N
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c) Calculating centripetal acceleration. Remember this moves in the same directi

on of the force and youre also given mass so all you have to do is transpose this
formula to find acceleration: Force = Mass Acceleration
Therefore Acceleration = 5.775 ms-2
d) In this question they asked for the scalar and angular velocities. The formul
a that relates these to centripetal acceleration as given above:
Where r is the radius. Since e erent given the value of the radius e ould hav
e to find it first before e can find either scalar or angular velocity. Assumin
g e all can identify the radius on the diagram lets use the formula
os If you look at the triangle formed on the circle you ould notice that the ad
jacent ould be the radius and the hypotenuse ould be the 1.2m. Therefore:
r = 0.6m
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Calculating scalar velocity:

=v
v = 1.86 ms Calculating angular velocity:
rads-1
e) Calculating period:
Calculating frequency:
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Simple harmonic Motion

What is Simple Harmonic Motion?
Simple Harmonic Motion can be defined as the motion of an object here its accel
eration is directly proportional to its distance from a fixed point along a path
. The acceleration is said to alays be directed toards the fixed point. This f
ixed point is knon as the equilibrium position; this is because this is here t
he object that is singing freely to come to rest given that it has lost all its
energy. The diagram belo shos a pendulum in simple harmonic motion:
R
Q
x
P
x
Where: P is the equilibrium position (here the body ould come to rest) PQ & PR
gives the amplitude position hich is the greatest displacement from equilibriu
m position. X is the position from the equilibrium position.
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When the object is singing freely youll probably realize that it moves faster h
en passing through its equilibrium position P, this is because the bodys accelera
tion and velocity is greatest as it passes through the equilibrium position. Als
o the opposite happens as the body leaves the equilibrium position, the accelera
tion and velocity lessens as the bodys position, x, moves further aay from the e
quilibrium position. Formulas involved in simple harmonic motion: a = -2 x her
e a is acceleration,  is angular velocity and x is distance from equilibrium po
sition. Where v is velocity, A is amplitude.
X = A sin t here t is period
Where
The diagram belo shos a spring in simple harmonic motion:
R P P x P
x
Q
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Calculating Simple Harmonic Motion Questions

In previous lessons e spoke about simple harmonic motion, its definition, syste
ms that engage in simple harmonic motion and formulas involved. No ell be looki
ng at calculating Simple harmonic motion questions.
Example # 1 4m A O 2m 3m 3.5m C 4m D E B
In the diagram above a particle is moving ith S.H.M ith a period of 24 seconds
beteen to points A and B. Find the time taken to travel from: a) b) c) d) A t
o B O to B O to C D to E
Ansers: Note that the period is the time taken to complete one revolution in th
is case the period is the time taken for the particle to travel from A to B and
then to A again (24 seconds as stated in the question above). a) A to B A to B i
s half a period hich ould be = 12 second
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If you ant to ork this question in a more detailed ay, you can do this: Dista
nce from A to B to A again = 16m Distance from A to B = 8m Period (A to B to A a
gain) = 24 seconds Time (t) from A to B =???
16 = 24 8=t 824 = 16t
Cross Multiply
b) O to B O to B is quarter of the period so the anser ould be = 6 sec Or you
can follo the above pattern: Distance from A to B to A again = 16m Distance fro
m O to B = 4m Period (A to B to A again) = 24 seconds Time (t) from O to B =???
16m = 24s 4m = t 424 = 16t
6sec = t
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c) O to C This is one eight of the period hich ould be = 3 seconds Or by detai

led calculation: Distance from A to B to A again = 16m Distance from O to C = 2m
Period (A to B to A again) = 24 seconds Time (t) from O to C =???
16m = 24sec 2m = t 224 = 16t
3sec = t
d) D to E Note ith this question, if you observe the diagram carefully you ill
see that you erent given the distance beteen D to E directly. Hoever this can
easily be found by subtracting the distance O to D from the distance O to E and
this ould give you the distance from D to E. Distance from A to B to A again =
16m Distance from D to E = 3.5 3 = 0.5m Period (A to B to A again) = 24 seconds
Time (t) from D to E =???
16m = 24sec 0.5m = t 0.524 = 16t
0.75sec = t
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Gravitational Field Strength, Geostationary Orbit & Escape velocity

What is Gravitational Field Strength?
The gravitational field strength at any point can be defined as the force per un
it mass placed at the point in the field. Formula for Gravitational field streng
th:
What is Geostationary Orbit?
Geostationary orbit refers to a body orbiting a fixed position above the earth.
For example a satellite moving ith geostationary orbit around the earth has to
have the same period of rotation as the earth (24hrs) therefore alloing it to r
emain above the same geographic area on the earth.
What is Escape Velocity?
Escape velocity refers to the minimum velocity a body needs to escape the gravit
ational puul of the earth. Formula for escape velocity:
Where: V is escape velocity G is universal gravitational constant me is mass of
the earth re is radius of the earth
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What is a Wave?
A ave is a means of transferring energy from one point to another ithout the t
ransfer of particles.
Waves can come in to forms, they can either be vibrating perpendicular to the d
irection in hich the energy is floing (transverse aves), or they can move par
allel to the direction of energy flo (longitudinal aves).
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Types of Waves: Mechanical Vs Electromagnetic Waves

In previous lessens e looked at hat is a ave. If youre unclear on this topic c
lick here to read more about aves. In physics there are to knon types of ave
s, these are: 1. Mechanical Wave 2. Electromagnetic ave The differences beteen
these to lie in their means of transferring energy. One may not see the differ
ence beteen sound aves and light rays because as humans e arent capable of see
ing such things ith our naked eyes but thanks to human intelligence and through
many research scientists ere able to detect movement of energy in aves and th
us differentiate the means by hich they are transferred.
What are Mechanical Waves?
Mechanical aves are those that need a material medium ith particles to enable
them to move. Therefore these aves cant travel on their on. Examples of mechanica
l aves:
Sound Waves Water Waves Waves in springs
What is Electromagnetic ave?
Electromagnetic aves are those that do not need any material medium to enable t
hem to move. Therefore these aves can travel on their on. These aves can trav
el through a vacuum. Examples of electromagnetic aves:
Visible light X-rays Inf
rared rays Ultraviolet rays Radio aves
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Longitudinal and Transverse Waves

What is Longitudinal Wave?
A longitudinal ave is one in hich the particles in the ave vibrate parallel t
o the direction in hich the ave is moving. That is the particles can only move
in a back or forth movement in the same direction as the ave. Examples of Long
itudinal Waves: 1. 2. 3. 4. Sound Waves Waves in Springs Vibrations in Gases Wav
es in Tsunami
Particle Vibration
Wave Direction
What is Transverse Wave?
A transverse ave is one in hich the particle vibrates perpendicularly to the d
irection in hich the ave is moving. Such aves can only move in an up or don
direction ith respect to the direction of the ave. Examples of Transverse Wave
s? 1. 2. 3. 4. Water Waves Waves in Ropes Electromagnetic aves Guitar string th
at is Vibrating
Particle Vibration
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In-Phase & Out of Phase Points

What are In-Phase Points?
Inphase points are points of a ave that are located at the same position in the
ave cycle. Waves that are inphase are separated by an even multiple of half a
velength ().Such waves will undergo constructive interference.
x
x
x
x
The xs in the diagram above marks oints that are in-hase in the wave cycle.
What are Out of Phase Points?
Out of hase oints are oints that are not located in the same osition in the
wave cycle. Waves that are out of hase are usually searated by an odd multile
of half wavelengths (). These waves undergo destructive interference.
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2
3
4
5
6
Looking at the diagram above we are going to determine which are in hase agains
t those that are out of hase. 1. 2. 3. 4. to 3 would be inhase because the diff
erence is an even number 2. 2 to 4 would be inhase because the difference is also
an even number 2. 2 to 6 would be inhase because the difference is an even number
4. 1 to 4 would be out of hase because it is searated by an odd number 3.
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Progressive and Standing Waves

In some waves the vibrations can be observed moving throughout the material but
in others the vibrations/ disturbances can aear to be still or not resent in
the material; with these facts scientists were able to categorize waves based on
these differing characteristics. These are: 1. Progressive Waves 2. Standing Wa
ves
Progressive Waves
Progressive waves are those waves having visible disturbances meaning the vibrat
ions can be seen moving throughout the material.
Standing/Stationary Waves
Standing waves are roduced when two waves interfere this results in an invisibl
e disturbance though the wave is moving throughout the material. Standing waves
consist of two different oints known as nodes and antinodes. Nodes: These are 
oints in the wave that have zero energy and dislacement. Anti-Nodes: These are
oints in the wave that have the highest energy or amlitude.
The distance between two consecutive nodes or antinodes makes half a wavelength.
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Waves formed from stringed and wind instruments are stationary waves. Oen ends
always have an antinode while closed ends have a node.
Anti-node Node Anti-node Node Anti-node Node Anti-node Node
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Diffraction
What is Diffraction?
By definition diffraction is the sreading out or scattering of waves as they a
ss through gas. However certain conditions must be resent for a wave to be dif
fracted when assing through a ga, the length of the wave and the size of the g
a has to be the same or almost the same.

In this examle the wavelength

fore diffraction takes lace.

of the wave is similar to the size of the ga

In this examle the wavelength

herefore no diffraction occurs.

of the wave is different from the size of the ga

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Interference
What is Interference?
Interference is what occurs when two or more waves interact with each other rod
ucing another wave.
Tyes of Interference?
There are two tyes of interference these are: 1. Constructive Interference 2. D
estructive Interference
Constructive Interference
In constructive interference, when the waves interfere a larger wave is roduced
, this is as a result of the waves meeting at in-hase oints such as a crest me
eting a crest or a trough meeting a trough.
Larger Wave Produced in constructive Interference
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Destructive Interference
In destructive interference the two original waves will meet to roduce a smalle
r wave. The final wave roduced is as a result of the original waves meeting at
out of hase oints such as a crest meeting a trough. The resulting wave can als
o be non-existent.
Smaller Wave Produced in Destructive Interference
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Diffraction Interference Fringes

s1
Bright Bands / Fringes form on screen
s2
In the diagram above
then interfere. The
he diagram above the
ng bright fringes or
e.
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diffraction occurs at slits s1 and s2, the diffracted waves

solid lines in the diagram reresent crests; therefore in t
waves interfere at in-hase oints (crest to crest) roduci
bands. In this diagram constructive interference takes lac

s1
Dark Bands / Fringes form on screen
s2
In the diagram above diffraction occurs at slits s1 and s2, the diffracted waves
then interfere roducing dark bands on the screen. This is known as destructive
interference and occurs as a result of the waves interfering at out of hase o
ints (crest to trough), the crest is reresented by the solid line while the tro
ugh is reresented by the broken line.
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Refraction
Refraction can be defined as the bending of a wave as it crosses the boundary be
tween two medium. This takes lace for all forms of waves including light.
Why refraction occurs?
Refraction occurs because there is a change in velocity between both medium.
Refractive index
Refractive index can be defined as a constant that gives the degree to which ref
raction or bending of a wave takes lace between the two medium. Here are the fo
rmulas associated with refractive index:
Snell s Law
n= sin i sin r
n = incident velocity refractive velocity n= incident wavelength refractive wave
length
n => refractive index i => angle of incidence r => angle of refraction
anb = 1 / bna
a and b are the different mediums.
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Where do waves bend with resect to the normal?

When waves are entering a denser medium they bend toward the normal but when ent
ering a less dense medium they bend away from the normal.
What haens to light when it meets a boundary erendicularly?
Refer to the diagrams below. When the wave meets the boundary erendicularly it
is not diffracted it just goes straight through.
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Youngs Double Slit Interference

When two waves interact to roduce a weaker wave or a stronger wave Interference
is said to have occurred. There are two things that must take lace for interfe
rence to occur:
1. 2.
The sources of these waves must have a constant hase difference and the same fr
equency. This is called Coherent. Also these waves must have the same amlitude.
In the double slit exeriment, a single source is slit in two, to generate two
coherent sources. When the light from the two sources is rojected on a screen,
an interference attern is observed. To exlain the origin of the interference 
attern, consider the distance traveled from the two sources. At the center of th
e screen the waves from the two sources are in hase. As we move away from the c
enter, the ath traveled by the light from one source is larger than that travel
ed by the light from the other source. When the difference in ath is equal to h
alf a wavelength, destructive interference occurs. Instead, when the difference
in athlength is equal to a wavelength, constructive interference occurs.
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Lenses
What is a Lens?
A lens can be a lastic or a glass or formed from a combination of these two suc
h that when light asses through it the light rays get refracted. Light rays fro
m an object resent on one side of a lens, when refracted can form an image on t
he other side of the lens.
Tyes of lens
There are two known tyes of lens these are: 1. A convex/converging lens 2. A co
ncave/diverging lens
Convex Lens
A convex lens is a tye of lens that bends/converges light in, it is also known
as converging lens. The diagram below shows how light is refracted through a con
vex lens.
Princile Axis c F
f
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Concave Lens
A concave lens also known as a diverging lens is one that diverges/ bends light
outwards. The diagram below shows the effect on rays being refracted through a c
oncave lens.
Princile axis (P)
F c
f
If you look at both convex and concave lens you would notice a difference in the
ir structures. A convex lens has more thickness in its middle than at its edges;
this is what aids in converging/ bending light inward. However the concave lens
is thicker at its edges than at the middle, which hels to diverge light.
F in both diagrams reresents focal oint. This is the oint in a converging lens
where the rays converge to and this is the oint in a diverging lens such that i
f the rays where to be traced backward they would meet at this oint. P reresents
the rincile axis. This is the imaginary line through the center of the lens. C
reresents the otical center. f reresents the focal length. This is the distance
measured from the mirror to the focal oint.
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Difference
The object
refracted.
hrough the
.

between Objects and Images

is the body from which the rays of light are emitted before they are
The image is what is formed as a result of the rays being refracted t
lens, they can be seen where the rays of light meet or aear to meet

Real and Virtual Images

Previously we said that images are formed when rays are refracted through a lens
and also that they are formed where the rays of light meet or aear to meet. B
ecause some images refracted actually meet at a oint while some really dont, wit
h this fact we can lace images formed into two categories:
Real Images And Virt
ual Images
Real images are those that are formed where light rays actually meet after being
refracted. These can be catured on a hotograhic film. Virtual images, on the
other hand, are those that are formed where light rays aears to meet but real
ly dont after being refracted.
What is Magnification?
The magnification is the ratio of the size of the image to the size of the corre
sonding object. The formula below shows the relationshi between the magnificat
ion, height of the image and height of the object:
The formula below shows the relationshi between the magnification, distance of
image from the lens and distance of object from the lens:
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U
V
ho i 2F O F c F 2F hi
In the examle above the image formed is real, magnified and inverted.
hi
ho
i
2F
F O
c
U
F
2F
V
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In the examle above the image formed is virtual, magnified and erect.
Princile of Reversibility
The rincile of reversibility states that a ray of light that takes a certain 
ath from A to B will also take the same ath from B to A.
The formula below relates focal length, image distance and object distance:
The following formula is used to find ower of a lens:
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