Part A

Use available evidence to gather and present data from

secondary sources and analyse progress in recent development
and use of a named biopolymer. This analysis should name specific
enzyme(s) used or organism used to synthesis material and an
evaluation on use or the potential use of polymer produced
related to its properties.

Introduction
As century advances, so does human race. In past fossil fuels has been very
depended on for many things, such as creation of polymers. Although, there
is a finite amount of fossil fuel in the world and it is known that supply will
not last very long. As a result, scientists are developing alternative options
for the use of fossil fuels.
Crude oil was very depended on for production of plastics. These plastics,
which are produced by petrochemicals, are non-biodegradable. Therefore
making this kind of plastics is very harmful to environment, as amount of
these unwanted plastics builds up & loiters rubbish tips without any decay or
decomposition. Consequently, research has begun into production of synthetic
biopolymers & using them to create plastics, as its properties will make it
biodegradable & will reduce necessity for non-biodegradable plastics.
A polymer is a long chemical chain formed from repetition of numerous monomer
units. For these monomer units to form polymer a small molecule must be
eliminated, generally this molecule is water (H2O). Units may be of same
chemical or different. This is illustrated in figure 1.1, as it shows monomer units of
Terephthalic acid & Ethylene Glycol form & water molecules are removed,
forming Poly(Ethylene Terephthalate) or more commonly known as PET.

Figure 1.1

How the Biopolymer is Produced

A biopolymer is also long chemical chain formed by repetition of monomer
cells. Although, these monomer cells are formed from renewable sources,
such

as

plants

&

micro-organisms,

which

cause

biopolymer

to

be

biodegradable and even biocompatible. An example of a biopolymer is

Biopol, formed from two other biopolymers Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) and
Polyhydroxyvalerate (PHV).
Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) is the most commonly used and created
biopolymer, & is also used to form copolymers with other biopolymers.
Although it has a low tensile strength unlike desired polypropylene formed
using petrochemicals & having high tensile strength. Thus PHB was
combined with Polyhydroxyvalerate (PHV) to create a biopolymer with
high tensile strength, just like polypropylene yet this has a benefit of being
biodegradable. Figure 1.2 shows PHB PHV and the copolymer of Biopol.
Bacteria that causes natural creation of monomer units of PHB is
Azobacter & bacteria used to create monomer units of PHV is known as
Pseudomonas.

Figure 1.2

Biopol is now synthetically produced industrially through use of bacteria, in

particular Alcaligenes Eutrophus, growing in tanks and feeding on a carbon
based food source. The polymer is followed by a purification step. This is
done by first isolating polymer then dissolving it in Trichloromethane or a
chlorinated hydrocarbon, then precipitating & drying Biopol once the waste
solid has been removed.
Recently, industries have created more economical and efficient ways of
producing Biopol, of using biotechnology. Genes from micro-organisms that
produce Biopol, such as Alcaligenes Eutrophus, are taken & then inserted
into bacteria such as E. coli. Therefore allowing E. coli. to produce Biopol.
The use of bacteria E. coli. allows cheaper food sources to be used to feed the
bacteria; examples of food sources that is used to grow bacteria include
whey, molasses & agricultural waste. Figure 1.3 shows the structure of E. coli.

Advantages of using E. coli. as bacteria to make Biopol also include; faster

growth, easier recovery, better yields & less formation of waste biomass.

Figure 1.3

Properties if the Biopolymer

Polypropylene is a polymer produced via use of petrochemicals and its
properties

mean

it

is

very

useful.

Although,

polypropylene

is

not

biodegradable, therefore there is a large build up of waste plastic.

Consequently, Biopol is a very desired & sort after biopolymer as its
properties are similar to that of polypropylene yet it is biodegradable & is
beneficial as it is also biocompatible. These desirable properties include;

Insoluble in water

Permeable to oxygen ( allows oxygen to pass through)

Impervious to UV light

Unresponsive to acids and bases

Soluble in chlorinated hydrocarbons (Trichloromethane)

Biocompatible

Biodegradable

High melting point ( 170 degrees)

High tensile strength

Non-toxic

Higher density then water (unlike polypropylene which has a lower

density then water)

Uses of the Biopolymer

Uses for Biopol are a very extensive range, ranging from medical applications
to kitchen utensils, & uses for it are still being discovered. These uses include;

Medical applications such as surgical pins and sutures. Often there is

no polymer produced through petrochemicals that can replace this as
they are not biocompatible, meaning body will not be reject or will
react to Biopol. It is also biodegradable, indicating no surgery will be
needed for removal of the pins or sutures. Other helpful properties for
this use are high tensile strength (it will not break easily), non-toxic
(will not poison body) and insoluble in water.

Disposable containers for instance shampoo and cosmetic containers.

Properties allowing Biopol to be useful for this are non-toxic, insoluble
in water, permeable to oxygen, biodegradable, high melting point &
high tensile strength. Figure 1.4 shows two shampoo bottles, one being
Polyethylene-terephthalate (PET) and the other Biopol.

Disposable items such as razors, rubbish bags, nappies &plastic

utensils. useful properties that make it this useful are non-toxic,
biodegradable (will take about two years to decompose), impervious to
UV light, permeable to oxygen & insoluble in water.
Figure 1.5 shows some of the uses of Biopol such as the shampoo bottles,
surgical applications and plastic utensils.

Figure 1.4

Figure 1.5

Conclusion

Biopolymers are very beneficial to environment, as they are biodegradable

resulting in an improvement of waste management and also by using
renewable sources to create the biopolymers. Although, it is more expensive
to produce the biopolymers than the plastics that are made by the use of
petrochemicals.

However

scientists

are

developing

ways

to

create

biopolymers using transgenic plants and subsequently lowering the costs and
making the biopolymers price competitive with the petrochemical plastics.

Part B
Gather and present information on structure and chemistry of a dry
cell or a lead-acid cell and evaluate it in comparison to:

Button cell
Fuel cell
Vanadium redox cell
Lithium cell
Device (e.g. the Gratzel cell)

In terms of:

Chemistry
Cost and practicality
Impact on society
Environmental impact

Introduction
Batterys contain cell(s) in which electricity is produced via a serious of
chemical reactions. These chemical reactions that are taking place are called
redox reactions.
At anode (negatively charged electrode), oxidation reaction occurs, while at
cathode (positively charged electrode), reduction reaction occurs. Although,
for electricity to be generated half reactions must be separated and the
electrons are to be transported from the anode to cathode through a wire. A
current is therefore produced.
These electrodes are submerged into solutions in different locations allowing
a current to be produced. Although, a salt bridge between the two solutions
is required as it allows the migration of ions to occur and create a neutral
balance of ions. This solution must be able to conduct electricity. This
substance is known as the electrolytes. Figure 2.1 is an example of a battery
that shows the anode, the cathode, the path of the electrons through the wire
and also the salt bridge.

Figure 2.1

Dry Cell (Leclanche Cell)

The dry cell is also known as the Leclanche cell. It is most widely and
commonly used battery, as it is the most affordable. Its uses include torches
and radios. The anode of the dry cell is zinc, while the cathode is graphite
(carbon rod). Figure 2.2 shows the half reactions occurring at the anode and
the cathode. The electrolyte solution used is a mix of ammonium chloride,
zinc chloride and manganese dioxide. Figure 2.3 shows a cross-section of the
structure of a dry cell.

Figure 2.2

The energy density of the dry cell is 0.09 kWh/kg. This is also the most
affordable battery available for commercial use.
The dry cell also had a very large affect on society as it was one of the
first portable batteries to be produced which allowed it to make torches,
radios, toys and clocks to be portable. However, the disadvantages for dry
cells are it does not produce high currents for its size and it may develop
leaks as the zinc casing corrodes. As a result, the dry cell batteries are
harmful to the environment only in the sense that it releasing hazardous
material and is creating waste material.

Figure 2.3

Button Cell
Another battery is the silver oxide battery or other wisely known as the
button as it is small just like a button of a shirt. Figure 2.5 displays how
small the silver oxide cell is compared to a button. The button is also a
commonly used battery as it is very compact and can consequently be used
for petite appliances such as watches and calculators. The negative terminal
of the button is zinc, whereas the positive terminal is silver oxide. Figure 2.4
shows the half reactions occurring at the anode and the cathode.
ANODE:- Zn(s) + 2OH-(aq) -----> ZnO(s) + H2O(l) + 2eCATHODE:- Ag2O(s) + H2O(l) + 2e- -----> 2Ag(s) + 2OH-(aq)
Figure 2.4

The electrolyte used for the button depends on the use and required needs.
The most commonly used electrolyte used is potassium hydroxide as this
provides higher bursts of currents but it lasts for a shorter time. The use of
sodium hydroxide as the electrolyte will result in the battery to last for a
longer amount of time but will provide lower currents. Figure 2.6 illustrates
the structure of the button cell.
The current produced by the button is 0.125 kWh/kg compared to the dry
cell producing 0.09 kWh/kg. The button has a much higher output of current
compared to the dry cell, therefore making it much more desired although
the button is generally too small to be used for any other applications.
The Button Cell is more expensive than the dry cell. The battery has had
a big impact on society especially as it is non-toxic and can be used inside
the body. Therefore, the button is much better than the dry cell as it does not
produce any hazardous materials that will harm the environment.

Shirt Button

Silver Oxide Cell (Button)

Figure 2.5

Figure 2.6

Fuel Cell
The fuel cell is one type of galvanic cell that can be recharged simply by
adding more fuel. These batteries work by adding hydrogen and oxygen
together to create water and heat, and produce electricity. This is done by
inserting hydrogen gas into the anode which splits the hydrogen gas into
electrons and hydrogen ions, while on the other hand oxygen gas is inserted
into the cathode and is separated into oxygen ions. The hydrogen ions and
the oxygen ions are then combined to form water, while the electrons are
passed through a circuit which generates electricity. Figure 2.7 shows the
half reactions occurring at the anode and the cathode, and figure 2.8
displays the structure and the process of the fuel cell.

Figure 2.7

Although the fuel cell is reasonably cheaper than the dry cell, it does not
give a high enough output of electricity, as a result more than one fuel cell
are stacked to produce the current as the dry cell. Also the hydrogen that is
used to supply the battery is difficult to store and is not easily accessible so
alternative fuels are being considered.
Even though fuel cells are not being used widely throughout society they
are predestined for use in motors and appliances, especially as it has an
extremely high efficiency rate. Also the fuel cell is very environmentally
friendly as it has only water and heat as its emissions, as a pose to dry cells
with contain hazardous materials.

Figure 2.8

Vanadium Redox Cell

The Vanadium Redox battery consists of two compartments in which are
two different electrolyte solutions, one consisting of vanadium sulfate and
the other consisting of vanadium dioxide sulphate. These two solutions are
separated by a porous membrane. At the anode v2+ oxidises to v3+, therefore
allowing electrons to flow to the cathode and create electricity. Whilst the
electrons travel to the cathode are taken by VO2+ and reduce it to VO2+, and
water is produced. For the battery to sustain its electrical neutrality sulfate
ions are transferred through the porous membrane. Figure 2.9 shows the half
reactions occurring at the anode and the cathode.

Figure 2.9

The Vanadium Redox battery can easily be recharged by passing an

electric current in the reverse direction and therefore reversing the solution
flow. The battery may also be recharged by simply replacing the electrolyte
solutions as the electrodes did not undergo any reaction. Figure 2.10 shows a
schematic drawing of the Vanadium Redox battery.
Vanadium Redox battery has a very high efficiency and is very cheap to
purchase and to recharge. Also existing Vanadium Redox batteries can be

readily upgraded by changing electrolyte or container. Also when it is

recharged it will not affect battery in any way. Therefore, Vanadium Redox
battery is cheaper than the dry cell and can be recharged unlike the dry cell.
Fact that both electrolytes are same element will mean that waste disposal
will be very minimal unlike dry cell where leakages will ruin the battery.
Also life cycle of Vanadium Redox battery is very long in relation to the dry
cell therefore meaning the Vanadium Redox is a better battery.

Figure 2.10

Lithium Cell
There is a diversity of Lithium batteries but the most common and used one
is the Lithium-manganese dioxide cell. The anode of this battery is Lithium &
cathode is the Carbon. Although, for this battery, a non-aqueous electrolyte
must be used as Lithium reacts with water, therefore electrolyte solution
used is Lithium Iodide. Figure 2.11 shows half reactions occurring at the
anode and cathode, & figure 2.12 illustrates structure of a Lithium battery.

Anode

Li > Li+ + e

Cathode MnIVO2 + Li+ + e > MnIIIO2(Li+)

Figure 2.11

Lithium batteries are much more preferred then dry cell as it is longer
lasting, rechargeable and provides twice the electricity a dry cell of same
size would. Although, Lithium battery is much more expensive.
Improvement of Lithium battery over dry cell has had a large affect on
society as it provided longer lasting & rechargeable batteries which is very
useful, specifically in medical appliances. However, lithium is harmful to the
environment & must be carefully disposed of to prevent any environmental
damage.

Figure 2.12

The Gratzel Cell

The Gratzel cell is a photovoltaic cell that can produce electricity from solar
light, very similar to solar panels. Yet instead the Gratzel battery allows
some of light to enter & uses it to remove an electron from anode, Titanium
Dioxide. The electron then passes through the circuit and oxidises the iodine
from electrolyte solution. Figure 2.9 is a diagram of Gratzel battery.
Titanium Dioxide is a very cheap and general material that can be found
easily. This therefore makes it easier to create then dry cell. However, the
Gratzel has a low efficiency rate, low current rate and is not able to absorb
the full light spectrum.
Gratzel uses the environment to generate the electricity although it still has
hazardous waste material that is harmful to the environment, similar to
that of the dry cell.

Figure 2.9

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