PERPETUATION OF LIFE

The Reproduction of Plants

Angiosperms, also called flowering plants, have seeds enclosed within an ovary
whilegymnosperms have unenclosed or "naked" seeds on the surface of their leaves or
scales.
How do angiosperms and gymnosperms reproduce?
Reproduction in Angiosperms
Flowers are the sexual reproductive organs in angiosperms. They consist of the
androecium (male reproductive structure) and gynoecium (female reproductive
structure).
Male Reproductive Parts of the Flower
Androecium is the male reproductive structure of the plant that consists of a whorl of
stamens.
The stamen is comprised of the filament and the anther. The filament is a long, slender
stalk that holds the anther while the anther produces the pollen grains (male
reproductive cells).

(a) Stamen
(b) a cut section of the anther
Female Reproductive Parts of the Flower
Gynoecium is the female reproductive structure of a flower. It may consist of a single
pistil (monocarpellary) or may have several pistils (multicarpellary).

The pistil is made up of the stigma, the style, and the ovary. The style is a slender stalk
that supports the stigma while the stigma is the sticky part that receives the pollen.
The ovary is the basal sac that contains the ovules (female reproductive cells).

Both the male and female gametes of the flowers are non-motile. They are brought
together by pollination.
Pollination
Pollination unites the male and female reproductive cells or gametes. It takes place
when the pollen grains from the male anther are transferred to the female stigma.
Types of Pollination
Autogamy is a type of pollination where pollen grains are transferred to the
stigma of the same flower.
Geitonogamy is a type of pollination where pollen grains are transferred to the
stigma of another flower of the same plant.
Xenogamy, also called cross-pollination, is a type of pollination where pollen
grains are transferred to the stigma of a different plant.
Agents of Pollination
Abiotic agents are nonliving things that aid in the transfer of pollen grains from
the anther to the stigma. They include wind and water.
Biotic agents are living things that aid in pollination. They include animals and
even humans.
Example
A bee, which sips nectar from flowers, transfers the pollen grains from one flower to
another. It is an example of a biotic agent.
Fertilization
Fertilization takes place when the sperm (germinated pollen) unites with the egg
(ovule) forming a fertilized egg called a zygote.

Process of Fertilization
1. The pollen grain attaches to the stigma.
2. Each pollen grain becomes a part of the pollen tube, which grows down the neck of
the style and reaches the ovary.
3. Sperm cells are discharged into the embryo sac, fertilizing the egg cell.

Double Fertilization
During double fertilization, the pollen grain enters the ovary and releases two sperm
cells. One sperm cell unites with the egg cell forming a diploid cell or zygote. The other
sperm cell bonds with two polar nuclei forming a triploid endosperm nucleus.
Post-fertilization
During post-fertilization, the zygote develops into an embryo while the endosperm
nucleus develops into the endosperm. Also, the ovule, which contains the embryo
and endosperm, matures into a seed while the ovary forms the pericarp of the fruit.
The seed is the beginning of the next generation. It grows into a seedling and then into a
mature plant. The mature plant then produces flowers that contain the reproductive
cells.

Reproduction in Gymnosperms
Unlike angiosperms, gymnosperms do not have flowers and fruits. Their ovules, which
become seeds, are on the surface of a scale or modified leaf. Examples of gymnosperms
include cycads and conifers.

Most gymnosperms have reproductive parts called cones. They produce two kinds of
cones: the male and the female cones. The male cones produce the pollen while the
female cones contain at least one ovule.
Pollination
In gymnosperms, the main pollinating agent is wind. Wind carries the pollen from the
male cones to the female cones. A sticky substance secreted by the ovule collects the
pollen.
Fertilization
After pollination, the ovule closes and seals in the pollen. One sperm cell fertilizes the
egg cell forming a zygote.
Post-Fertilization
The fertilized egg develops into an embryo, and the other parts of the ovule mature into
the seed coat and food store.

Key Points

Angiosperms have seeds enclosed within an ovary while gymnosperms have

unenclosed or "naked" seeds on the surface of their leaves or scales.
The flower consists of the gynoecium (female reproductive structure) and
androecium (male reproductive structure).

Most gymnosperms have reproductive parts called cones. The male cones produce
the pollen while the female cones contain at least one ovule.

Pollination unites the male and female reproductive cells or gametes.

Fertilization is the union of pollen grain and ovule in the ovary.

During double fertilization, one sperm cell fertilizes the ovule forming the zygote
(diploid) while the other sperm cell unites with the two polar nuclei to form the
endosperm (triploid).

In angiosperm fertilization, the zygote matures into an embryo while the rest of
the ovule develops into a fruit.

In gymnosperm fertilization, the zygote matures into an embryo while the rest
of the ovule develops into a seed.

DNA: Its Role in Inheritance and Protein Synthesis

What do you observe in this diagram?

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) contains the genetic information of almost all living organisms. It
contains nucleotides composed of a five-carbon sugar deoxyribose and a phosphate group.
There are four nucleotides in a DNA: adenine (A), thymine (T),guanine (G), and cytosine (C).

The nucleic acid sequence indicates the order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA strand. The
nucleotides or nucleotide bases (A, C, T, G) of a DNA strand or a sequence can be
complementary to another sequence. Cytosine pairs with guanine, and adenine pairs with
thymine in the complementary DNA strand.
The sequence of the DNA strand contains codes of information that provide instructions for
making proteins needed by organisms in order to grow and live. In our diagram in the previous
lesson chapter, the recipe was transcribed into English for one to make the recipe. The same with
DNA, if not transcribed, it will not give instructions to make proteins needed by our cells.
Role of DNA in Inheritance
Genes are short segments of DNA that are the basic units of heredity. Every individual has two
copies of each gene, one from the father and the other from the mother. They are responsible for
all the traits that an individual inherits from their parents. The sperm and egg cells carry 23
chromosomes each. When they unite, a total of 46 chromosomes will be produced. The only
thing that makes us unique from each other is the slight variations in the genes. For example,
most of us have black eyes, some have brown eyes. We all have genes for eye colors, but the
differences in the genes dictate whether a person will have black or brown eyes.
Role of DNA in Protein Synthesis
The DNA plays an important role in the synthesis of proteins. Proteins play an important role in
the cells functions and structures. There are three processes involved in the production of
proteins: replication, transcription, and translation.

Replication
Replication refers to the process of copying one DNA to produce two identical DNA molecules.
During this process, the DNA unwinds, and both strands of the double helix will serve as
templates for producing new strands of DNA.

Transcription
Transcription is the process by which the genetic information in the DNA strand is transcribed
to the messenger RNA (mRNA). This RNA is called the messenger RNA because it carries the
message copied from the DNA to produce proteins. In this process, RNA uses complementary
coding where the bases are matched up, similar to how DNA forms a double helix. The difference
between RNA and DNA is that instead of thymine, RNA makes use of uracil.

Translation
Translation is the process wherein protein molecules are assembled from the information
encoded in mRNA. As a whole, the synthesis of proteins is made possible by the DNA which
provides the information needed to create proteins in the body.

Key Points

DNA contains the genetic information of almost all living organisms.

The nucleotide consists of deoxyribose and a phosphate group.

There are four nucleotides in a DNA: adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G),
andcytosine (C).

Genes are short segments of DNA that are the basic units of heredity.

Replication refers to the process of copying one DNA to produce two identical DNA
molecules.

Transcription is the process by which the genetic information in the DNA strand is
transcribed to the messenger RNA (mRNA).

Translation is the process wherein protein molecules are assembled from the information
encoded in mRNA.
Genetic Engineering and Its Applications in Reproduction

Have you ever heard of genetically modified organisms?

Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology
Genetic engineering means modifying genes in a living organism to produce genetically
modified organisms (GMOs) also known as transgenic organisms. It is a modern type of
genetic modification. In this process, the gene of interest is physically removed and placed in
an organism to be modified. This method is more rapid and specific than the traditional plant
breeding because a gene coding for a specific trait could be transferred to an organism. Genetic
engineering is an application ofbiotechnology which uses biological systems, processes, or
organisms to create products intended to improve the quality of human life.

How is genetic engineering done?

As shown in the illustration above, copies of the recombinant plasmid a circular, doublestranded DNA molecule, will be isolated and transferred to other organisms. Depending on the
gene of interest, genetic engineering has various applications in the field of medicine,
environment, and agriculture.
To help you describe the processes involved in genetic engineering, let us use Bt corn, a
genetically modified pest resistant plant as an example. This plant was grown in the Philippines
against Asian corn borer, a major pest in corn.
DNA Isolation (isolating plasmid and gene of interest)
The first step in creating a pest-resistant plant is isolating the plasmid of Agrobacteriumand pestresistant gene from a bacteria, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt).

Agrobacterium tumefaciens, a gram-negative soil bacteria cause crown gall disease in

plants but its tumor-inducing plasmid is usually used in genetic engineering because of its
ability to integrate its DNA into a plants genome.
The resistant gene would be obtained in the DNA of Bacillus thuringiensis. This
bacterium produces a protein known as Cry1Ab toxin that is lethal to the larval stage
of lepidopterans (moth family).

Ligation (gene insertion to the plasmid)

When the resistant gene is inserted into the isolated plasmid, they are cleaved using the same
restriction enzyme before they are combined using DNA ligases. Restriction enzymes are also
called restriction endonucleases. Once they recognize a specific nucleotide sequence, they
cleave the strands.

Transformation (plasmid is placed back into bacterial cell)

The recombinant plasmid would then be placed back to the bacterium in a process
called transformation.

Selection (identification of the desired clone)

The nutrient media with X-gal (special galactose sugar) are used to select the transformed
bacteria containing the recombinant plasmid with the gene of interest.
The selected bacteria would then infect the cell of corn and integrate the gene into the plants
DNA. When the plant cell divides, each daughter cell receives the new gene. The transformed
corn plant is now pest-resistant.

The inserted gene producing the toxin in the genetically modified crop is only lethal to specific
target pests.
Current Uses of GMOs
The genes of bacteria, plants, and animals are being modified to improve the quality of human
life. Depending on the gene of interest, GMOs have many uses in agriculture, medicine, and the
environment.
Uses of Genetically Modified Bacteria
Escherichia coli creates a synthetic human insulin.
Cyanobacteria is used to yield polyhydroxybutyrate to produce bioplastic.
Uses of Genetically Modified Plants
Bt corn is a pest-resistant plant against corn-infesting larvae.
Banana vaccine is an edible vaccine against hepatitis virus.

Golden rice is a genetically modified rice that produces beta-carotene.

Uses of Genetically Modified Animals

Bioluminescent animals are used to identify different types of cells to detect diseases.
Some bioluminescent animals such as glofish became novelty pets to humans.

Fast-growing salmon are genetically modified salmon to continually produce growth

hormones.

Advantages of GMOs
The GMOs offer many benefits to mankind such as:

Increased productivity. This enables farmers to have higher crop yields and reduced
pesticide use. (e.g. Bt corn)
Reduced pesticide use. Since GM crops are modified for a specific pest, the use of
pesticide against that pest is reduced or removed.

Improved nutrition like the high beta carotene content of Golden Rice. GM crops
such as Golden Rice with improved nutrition (high in beta carotene) reduces eye-related
problems like blindness due to malnutrition.

Aided disease detection. Diseases can be identified because of protein trackers in

bioluminescent animals.

Disadvantages of GMOs
GMOs also raised concerns from people because of its possible harm to the environment and
mankind such as:

Reduced biodiversity of non-damaging insects. Pest resistant crops (e.g. Bt corn)

lead to unintended harm to non-crop damaging insects such as larvae of Monarch
butterflies when affected by pollen of Bt corn.
Decreased pesticide effectivity. Pest resistant crops seem to reduce the need for
pesticide at first but it would increase later on.

Produced allergic reactions. Some people develop an allergic response to GM crops

when exposed to them.

Led to a higher cost for GM seeds. Farmers buy new seeds every year. Farmers using
second generation seeds would lead them to Supreme Court with a charge of patent
infringement.

Key Points

Genetic engineering means altering genes in a living organism to produce a Genetically

Modified Organism (GMO).
Biotechnology is a technology using biological systems, processes, or organisms to
create products intended to improve the quality of human life.

The following are the steps in genetic engineering: DNA isolation, ligation, transformation,
and selection.

DNA isolation is isolating the plasmid and gene of interest.

Ligation involves sealing the gene of interest into the plasmid after they are both cut with
the same restriction enzyme.

Transformation is a process wherein cells ingest foreign DNA from the surroundings.

Selection is the process where the bacteria containing the recombinant plasmid with the
gene of interest is selected and will be used to integrate the gene of interest in the host
organism.

Depending on the gene of interest, GMOs have many uses in agriculture (e.g. pest
resistant plants), medicine (e.g. edible vaccines), and environment (e.g. butanol
production).

GMOs offer many benefits to mankind such as increased productivity, improved nutrition,
disease detection, and cheaper medicines.

Possible risks about GMO such as reduced biodiversity, decrease pesticide effectivity,
allergic reactions, and high cost for GM seeds posed concerns to many people.