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Introduction
Contents:
Navier-Stokes equations
Inviscid flows
Boundary layers
Transition, Reynolds averaging
Mixing-length models of turbulence
Turbulent kinetic energy equation
One- and Two-equation models
Flow management
Reading:
F.M. White, Fluid Mechanics
J. Mathieu, J. Scott, An Introduction to Turbulent Flow
P.A. Libby, Introduction to Turbulence
P. Bernard, J. Wallace, Turbulent Flow: Analysis Measurement & Prediction
S.B. Pope, Turbulent Flows
D. Wilcox, Turbulence Modelling for CFD
Notes: http://cfd.mace.manchester.ac.uk/tmcfd
- People - T. Craft - Online Teaching Material
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U(t)
Here, we begin to consider how one might use the Navier-Stokes or the
RANS equations to compute engineering-related turbulent flows.
We can then examine how some of these features are (or ar not)
accounted for in some of the more widely-used, but still relatively simple,
turbulence models.
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u(t)
u
0
0
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As these eddies break up, kinetic energy gets transferred into smaller
eddies and, as these break up, into even smaller ones.
At the smallest scales (which will also be examined later) the kinetic
energy is dissipated into heat.
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E(k , t)dk
(1)
The largest eddies in the flow generally scale with the flow geometry, eg.:
The lowest wavenumbers (largest eddies) are typically related to the flow
geometry.
Dimensional analysis suggests that the size of these smallest eddies will
be related to ( 3 / )1/4 where is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid and
is the dissipation rate of the turbulent kinetic energy.
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Note that as decreases (as the Reynolds number increases), the size
of the smallest eddies decreases. Thus, as the Reynolds number
increases one expects to get a wider range of turbulent eddy sizes.
The large eddies can be very anisotropic. At the smaller scales the
turbulence is generally reckoned to become more isotropic.
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In principle, one could solve these directly (numerically) and obtain full
details of the turbulent flow field (averaging the results to obtain mean
velocities, etc., if desired).
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Since turbulent flows are 3-D, we need this many points in each direction,
so the total number of computational nodes scales as Re9/4 .
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The numerical solution methods require more accuracy than the standard
finite volume schemes studied in Modelling & Simulation or CFD-1, and
this often restricts their use to simple geometries.
DNS can give very useful, detailed, data for fundamental turbulence
studies, and can be used to guide turbulence model development.
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RANS Modelling
These are computationally cheaper than DNS, but often still too
expensive for routine use in an engineering environment.
Most turbulent flow simulations thus employ the RANS equations, solving
for the mean, or average, flow field.
For incompressible flow without body forces, the governing equations are
then:
Ui
1 P
DUi
(2)
+
ui uj
=
Dt
xi xj
xj
Ui
=0
(3)
xi
Vorticity isosurfaces
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There are many such turbulence models available, having different levels
of complexity, and providing differing levels of accuracy in various flows.
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U
1 P
(4)
+
=
+
uv
x
y
x y
y
Uo
=
(5)
x
y
where is the total shear stress, given by the sum of the molecular and
turbulent shear stresses:
U
=
uv
(6)
|{z}
y
| {z } Turbulent
In a zero pressure gradient boundary layer the total shear stress is thus
constant across the layer, / y = 0.
At the wall, uv = 0 and U/ y = w where w is the wall shear stress.
We thus obtain
U
(7)
uv = Constant = w
Outside the thin viscous sublayer, in the fully turbulent part of the
boundary layer, molecular effects are negligible and the turbulent shear
stress is then essentially equal to the total stress.
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The velocity and distance from the wall are then non-dimensionalized as
y + = y (w / )1/2 /
1
log(Ey + )
(8)
and
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Near-Wall Non-Dimensionalization
U + = U/(w / )1/2
Viscous sublayer
Turbulence and its Modelling
uv = w /
Molecular
w /
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Plotting the shear stresses against y + we can see the viscous sublayer
typically extends to around y + 30 40 (although the exact value is
rather flow-dependent).
Dt
Dt
Dt
Note that here the mean velocities are used in the convective
contributions to the total derivative D/Dt. ie. we interpret
(9)
+ Uj
Dt
t
xj
Turbulence and its Modelling
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2 ui
1 p
ui
u
Ui
+ Uj i =
uj
+
ui uj ui uj
t
xj
xi
xj
xj2 xj
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(10)
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Pk
Pk
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Ui
Ui 2
K
Ui ui uj + ui uj
xj
xj
xj
| {z }
Dk
Ui
u ui
= ui uj
Dt
xj
xj xj xi
| {z } | {z }
The second term on the right hand side of equation (11) represents the
dissipation of turbulent kinetic energy by viscosity at the smallest scales.
It is usually denoted as .
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DK
1
(PUj ) +
=
Dt
xj
xj
k
uj2 ui /2 + ui p/
(11)
= ui uj
i
+Uj
t
xj
xj
xj xj xi
xi
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k
uj2 ui /2 + ui p/
xi
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With the usual approximations for a steady boundary layer (or other thin
shear flow) the k equation reduces to
k
(Uk ) (Vk )
u2 ui ui /2 pu2 /
(12)
+
= Pk +
x
y
y
y
The generation rate Pk now reduces to
Pk = uv
Uo
U
y
As seen earlier, in the fully turbulent region of the boundary layer we can
approximate the turbulent shear stress as a constant (uv w / ), and
the mean velocity fits a logarithmic profile, so differentiating gives
U/ y 1/y .
We can now explain why the peak levels of turbulent kinetic energy
generally occur near the wall.
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(13)
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P11 = 2 uv
U
y
P22 = P33 = 0
P12 = v 2
U
y
Note, however, that all the turbulent kinetic energy generation actually
happens in the u 2 component.
= a1 y + b1 y 2 + c1 y 3 + . . .
= a2 y + b2 y 2 + c2 y 3 + . . .
= a3 y + b3 y 2 + c3 y 3 + . . .
This explain why the streamwise normal stress is generally larger than
the other two components.
The above expansions ensure that the velocities vanish at the wall, but
they must also satisfy continuity ( u/ x + v / y + w/ z = 0).
Substituting the expansions for the velocities into the continuity equation:
y a1 / x
+
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a2
2 y b2
y a3 / z
y 2 b1 / x
3 y 2 c2
y 2 b3 / z
+
+
...
...
... = 0
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