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Portions of this document reproduce sections from the 2003 International Building Code, International Code Council,

Falls Church, Virginia. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved.


Also included are USGS figures, courtesy US Geological Survey
01 Load

Copyright G G Schierle, 2001-05

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Load
Structures must resist various loads, such as gravity and wind.
Loads may change rapidly or slowly. For example:

Furniture are moved gradually

Wind load changes rapidly


Lateral load (act horizontally):

Wind

Earthquake

Soil pressure on retaining wall


Design load is based on probability (50-year wind for example)
Load types:
1
Dead load (DL -structure and permanently attached items)
2
Live load (LL - other load, people, furniture, snow, etc)
3
Distributed load (snow drift, etc.)
4
Uniform load (uniformly distribution)
5
Point load (concentrated load)
6
Partial beam load causing greater bending than full load
7
Negative support bending reduces positive bending
8
Static load (at rest)
9
Impact load (moving object hitting a structure)
10 Dynamic load (cyclic load: earthquakes, wind gusts, etc.)
Classification as DL and LL is because:

Seismic load is effected by dead load

For continuous beams, etc. partial load may be more critical


than full load. Thus LL is assumed only on partial beam.
01 Load

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Dead Load (DL)


Structure and
everything
permanently
attached.
Examples:
floor
roof
walls
columns
windows, etc.

Live Load (LL)


Everything NOT
permanently
attached.
Examples:
furniture
people
snow, etc.

01 Load

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Snow live load

01 Load

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Static load

Dynamic load
01 Load

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Water power
dynamic load

01 Load

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Impact load

Dont try it !
01 Load

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World Trade Center Tragedy


Collapse scenario
Impact load of the aircrafts and the
ensuing inferno weakened the effected
floor structure, causing floors above
to collapse into it
Impact load of the falling floors
caused failure of the structure below
(impact effect amplifies load greatly)

The ensuing domino effect brought the


entire structure down
01 Load

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World Trade Center New York


Architect: Minoru Yamasaki
Engineer: Skilling / Robertson
The World Trade center had a
Framed Tube structure, composed of
closely spaced columns (~ 1 meter ~ 3 ft)
combined with moment resisting beams
at each floor to provide a lattice wall to
resist gravity and lateral loads.
1.
2.
3.
4.

01 Load

Copyright G G Schierle, 2001-05

Axonometric view of one tower


Floor framing
Prefab steel element of framed tube
Typical column

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Dynamic load
01 Load

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Northridge Earthquake failures


Collapsed building

Cosmetic damage

Soft-story tuck-under parking

Collapsed exit stair

01 Load

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Tectonic Plates
Plate Tectonics is the theory that considers the earth's crust
composed of large, thin plates that move relative to one another.
Slips on plate boundaries commonly cause earthquakes.

Pacific Rim Earthquakes 1975 1995

US Geological Survey earthquake hazard map of the United States


shows earthquake ground accelerations with 10 % probability to be
exceeded in 50 years for a firm rock site condition.

Maps, courtesy US Geological Survey


01 Load

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Seismic waves - USGS figures

Body waves travel through earth interior


P waves (Primary waves)
travel at very high speed (26,000 mph)
S waves (Secondary waves)
shake perpendicular to wave direction
Surface waves travel near the earth surface
Love waves
shake perpendicular to wave direction
Rayleigh waves
shake in elliptical motion
Epicenter Location
The time difference waves of different speed arrive
at seismic stations defines the earthquake distance
Distances from 3 stations define the Epicenter

01 Load

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Period
Time of wave cycle. Resonant building &
earthquake periods may cause collapse.
Richter scale
Developed 1935 by Charles Richter.
Earthquake magnitude as logarithm of
wave amplitude recorded by seismograph;
adjusted for distance to epicenter.
Each whole number increase represents
a tenfold increase in force and amplitude
and 31 times more energy.

USGS figures
01 Load

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Earthquake cause / effect


Causes:
Fault slippage (plate movement)
Volcanic eruptions
1

Fault rupture / wave propagation


H = Hypocenter (earthquake focus)
E = Epicenter (above hypocenter)
Vertical motion at epicenter
Lateral motion at distance

2
3

Lateral slip fault


Thrust fault

Effect on buildings:

01 Load

Copyright G G Schierle, 2001-05

4
5

Overturning
Base shear

6
7

Bending (first mode)


Bending (higher mode)

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Base shear V

V = CS W

(lateral force at base of building)

CS= seismic coefficient (see graphs)


W = Dead load
(+ 25% storage live load )
CS varies with spectral acceleration SS & S1 and type of structure
(defined on the following pages)
CS example in seismic areas:
CS ~ 3 % for tall steel frame structures
CS ~ 15 % for low-rise wood structures
CS ~ 30 % for masonry wall structures
W=wA
(w = DL {psf}, A = floor area)
w varies with type of construction for example:
w ~ 15 to 25 psf for wood structures
w ~ 70 to 100 psf for steel structures
w ~ 150 to 200 psf for concrete structures
01 Load

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Seismic Design
using

SD-Graphs
by G G Schierle
adapted from IBC-03/ASCE 7-02
Equivalent Lateral Force Analysis
for Allowable Stress Design (ASD)
(ASD = LRFD / 1.4)
Introduced later
Light framing with wood panels

Other low-rise structures

High-rise structures
S D1 graph 1 sec. design spectral accelerations

SDS graph 0.2 sec. design spectral accelerations

Cs factors for light fram ing with wood panels (R=6, I=1)

3.0

0.50
0.45

3.5

2.5

3.0

2.0

2.5

0.40
0.35
0.30

2.0

1.5

0.25

1.5

0.20
1.0

0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
A
B
C
D
E

E
0.5
0.0

C
A

1.0

0.0

0.25

0.5

0.75

1.25

1.5

0.25

0.5

0.75

1.25

1.5

0.02
0.02

0.03
0.04

0.05
0.06

0.06
0.08

0.08
0.10

0.10
0.12

0.13
0.16

0.19
0.24

0.25
0.32

0.32
0.40

0.38
0.48

0.10

0.19

0.29

0.38

0.48

0.57

0.76

1.14

1.52

1.90

2.28

0.05
0.06

0.07
0.07

0.08
0.09

0.10
0.10

0.12
0.12

0.16
0.16

0.24
0.24

0.32
0.32

0.40
0.40

0.48
0.48

0.12
0.14

0.24
0.29

0.36
0.39

0.48
0.48

0.60
0.60

0.71
0.71

0.95
0.95

1.43
1.43

1.90
1.90

2.38
2.38

2.86
2.86

0.02
0.03

0.19

0.33

0.43

0.52

0.60

0.71

0.95

1.43

1.90

2.38

2.86

C
D

0.05

0.07

0.07

0.07

0.09

0.11

0.14

0.21

0.29

0.36

0.43

0.30

0.40

0.43

0.43

0.54

0.64

0.86

1.29

1.71

2.14

2.57

Cs for site class A-E for 0.2 sec mapped spectral accelerations Ss (top line)

01 Load

Copyright G G Schierle, 2001-05

D
E

SDS for site class A-E for 0.2 sec. mapped spectral accelerations SS (top line)

E
D
C

0.5

A
0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

1.5

2.5

0.04
0.05

0.08
0.10

0.11
0.14

0.15
0.19

0.19
0.24

0.38
0.48

0.57
0.71

0.76
0.95

0.95
1.19

1.14
1.43

0.08

0.15

0.21

0.27

0.31

0.62

0.93

1.24

1.55

1.86

0.11
0.17

0.19
0.30

0.26
0.40

0.30
0.46

0.36
0.57

0.71
1.14

1.07
1.71

1.43
2.28

1.79
2.86

2.14
3.43

SD1 for site class A-E for 1 sec. mapped spectral accelerations S1 (top line)

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Wind load
Causes:

Pressure on wind side

Suction on lee side

Uplift on roof leeside

01 Load

Copyright G G Schierle, 2001-05

Wind load on gabled building

Wind load on dome or vault

Protected city building

Exposed tall building

Exposed wide faade

Building forms can increase wind speed

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Wind load on building

Suction
on lee side

Pressure on wind side

01 Load

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Steady wind is static


Gusty wind is dynamic

01 Load

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Hurricane Andrew August 1992 photos, courtesy Applied Research Associates, Raleigh. North Carolina

01 Load

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IBC Fig. 1609. Nominal design 3-second gust wind


speeds in mph (m/s) at 33 ft (10 m) above ground
01 Load

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Wind load
Wind load per level = wind pressure times tributary area per level.
IBC-03 defines wind load by three ASC 7 methods.
Method 1: Simplified Design
(limited to 60 ft [18 m] height)
Method 2: Analytical Procedure
Method 3: Wind-tunnel Procedure
(required for complex forms)
Analytical Procedure uses figures and tables for wind speed, exposure,
building form, roof slope, enclosure, dynamic behavior and topography.
Wind pressure P increases with height and exposure:
P = qG Cp qi(GCpi)
(minimum P = 10 psf [480 Pa])
2
q = 0.00256 I Kz Kzt KdV (velocity pressure in psf)
q = 0.613 I Kz Kzt Kd V2
(SI units: m/s, Pa)
G = Gust factor
(G = 0.85 for rigid buildings 1 Hz)
GCpi = interior pressure
(GCpi = 0.18 for enclosed buildings)
Cp = Pressure coefficient
Cp = 0.8 on windward wall
Cp = 0.5 on leeward wall (suction on leeward wall)
Cp = 1.3 max. on roof
(varies by slope and exposure)
V = Velocity
(wind speed in mph)
I = Importance factor
I = 1.15 for essential and hazard facilities per IBC table 1604.5
I = 1.00 for all other buildings
Kzt = topography factor
(use Kzt = 1 for regular sites)
Kd = directionality factor
(use 0.85 for buildings)
Kz = exposure factor
(see graph for height and exposure)
Exposure B: building in cities protected by other structures
Exposure C: building in open areas exposed to wind
Exposure D: Buildings near ocean or large bodies of water
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Shear wall design


Load path:
Roof resists pressure on top half of wall;
2 shear walls parallel to force resist roof
Assume:
Wind speed 90 mph, Exposure C, I = 1
Building dimensions: 60x80x12 high
Plywood shear wall capacity
Wind pressure
Wind force W (P x tributary wall area)
W =20.1x80x12 / 2
Shear wall Length
L = W/q = 9648 / 200
2 walls L = L/2 = 48 / 2

q = 200 plf
P = 20.1 psf
W = 9648 #
L = 48
L = 24

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Average wind pressure P for exposure C, wind speed V and height h
Examples:
Wind speed (mph)
Height
Pressure
90
10
19.3 psf
90
20
20.1 psf
90
30
21.4 psf
100
50
28.7 psf
150
80
70.8 psf

Roof

Footing
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01 Load

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Design for real wind


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