A

Summer Training Report

On
CASTING OF METALS
Prepared By:
ARIF WAQAR
Roll#:1305340023
Department of Mechanical Engineering
ME (40) UPTU

Under The Guidance

Of

Plant Manager:
Engg. Khursheed Anwar

At

30th July, 2015

Date: 30th July, 2015

To Whomsoever It May Concern

This is to certify that Mr. Arif Waqar, student of 4th
semester of B. Tech- Mechanical Engineering of Azad
Institute of Engineering & Technology, Lucknow has
successfully completed four (4) weeks (1st July, 201530th July, 2015) of the internship programme for the
partial fulfillment of degree at Saudi Cast Ltd., Riyadh.
During the period of his training with us he was found
punctual, hardworking and inquisitive.

__________________

Engg. Khurshid Anwar

(Plant Manager)

Table of Contents
I.
ABSTRACT
II. INTRODUCTION
III. TRAINING DESCRIPTION
1.

CASTING

..4
..5
..6
6

1.1. Definition
6
1.2. Types of Casting
6
1.2.1.
Sand Casting
6
1.2.2.
Die casting
7
1.2.3.
Investment Casting
7
1.2.4.
Centrifugal casting
8
1.2.5.
Plaster-mold casting
8
1.2.6.
Permanent-mold casting
8
1.2.7.
Squeeze casting
8
1.3. Advantages & Disadvantages 9

2.

STEPS OF CASTING

2.1. Pattern Making

9
2.1.1.
Definition
9
2.1.2.
Types of Pattern
10
2.1.2.1.
Solid or Single piece Pattern
10
2.1.2.2.
Split pattern or two-piece Pattern
10
2.1.2.3.
Cope and Drag Pattern
10
2.1.2.4.
Match plate Pattern
10
2.1.2.5.
Gated Pattern
11
2.1.2.6.
Skeleton Pattern
11
2.1.3.
Pattern Allowances ............
11
2.1.3.1.
Draft Allowances
11
2

2.1.3.2.

2.2.

2.3.

2.4.

2.5.

2.6.

Machining Allowances
11
2.1.3.3.
Distortion Allowances
12
2.1.3.4.
Rapping Allowances
12
Core Making
12
2.2.1.
Types of Core
12
2.2.1.1.
Green Sand Core
12
2.2.1.2.
Dry Sand Core
12
2.2.1.3.
Core Print
13
2.2.1.4.
Core Box
13
Molding
13
2.3.1.
Types of Mold
13
2.3.2.
Types of Temporary Mold
14
2.3.2.1.
Green Sand Mold
14
2.3.2.2.
Skin Dried Mold
14
2.3.2.3.
Dry Sand Mold
14
2.3.2.4.
No Bake Mold
14
2.3.2.5.
Molding Sand
14
Melting Furnaces
....15
2.4.1.
Cupola Furnace
15
2.4.2.
Induction Furnace
15
2.4.3.
Electric Arc Furnace
16
2.4.4.
Crucible Furnace
16
Gating System
17
2.5.1.
Runner & Sprue
17
2.5.2.
Riser
18
Cleaning and Finishing
18

2.6.1.

IV.
V.

Cleaning
18
2.6.2.
Finishing
18
2.7. Casting Defects
19
2.7.1.
Surface Defects
19
2.7.2.
Internal Defects
20
2.7.3.
Visual Defects
20

CONCLUSION
BIBLIOGRAPHY

..22
..23

VI.

ABSTRACT
This report discusses the summer technical internship program for a period of 30
days (1st July, 2015 to 30th July, 2015) in Saudi Cast Company located in Riyadh,
Saudi Arabia. It shows a brief background about the place of training. It also
mentions few facts about the department that was responsible for the internship
program. This report describes about the casting and the processes involved in
producing castings of various metals manufactured by Saudi Cast. The aim of my
training was to extrude the inner self to the environment of working area in
catastrophic periods and cope up with hurdles that are to be faced in future. It
also included the learning of modern techniques used in manufacturing
industries. It helped to bring the implementations of theoretical studies in
practical and real world. The main point that was observed without which none
can succeed was team work, every single individual had to coordinate with the
other for upgrading the job that has to be done.

INTRODUCTION
As part of the Bachelor degree for the Science Engineering students, a summer training
program is required to have a taste of the practical experience for engineers on the job.
The training program was supervised by the Plant Manager of Saudi Cast. The purpose
of this report is to show the experience at Saudi Cast during the summer training period.
Saudi Cast is a modern iron and steel foundry located in Riyadh, Saudi
Arabia. It was established in 1972. The production is of gray iron,
ductile iron, and steel castings.
Saudi Cast employs 200 professionals of 15 different nationalities. The
company is associated with a number of research and technology
institutions around the world, mainly World Foundry Organization, the
Casting Technology Institute of Sheffield UK, the American Foundry
men Association of Des Plains, Illinois, USA, and the Foundry
Association of Saudi Arabia.
Saudi Cast has two main product lines:
1. Drainage Castings

Outdoor Drainage: Manhole covers, gratings, and surface boxes

under the trade name: SlimCovers.

Indoor Drainage: Floor and Roof drainage, under the trade name:

FloDrain.
2. Industrial Castings

Engineering castings: Valve, pump, turbine, and turbo-chargers.

Castings are supplied fully-machined.

Heat and wear-resisting castings: Castings for the use in harsh and

abrasive mediums, such as cement plants, stone crushers, asphalt

mixers, and general mining. Castings are supplied machined, and

hear-treated.

Truck & Train: Precision castings to the truck and rail industries. We

supply fully-machined brake discs, flanges, spoke wheels, drums, and

axle nuts.

TRAINING DESCRIPTION
A. CASTING

1.1. Definition
The casting may be defined as a metal object obtained by allowing
molten metal to solidify in a mold, the shape of the object being
determined by the shape of the mold cavity. Founding or casting is
the process forming metal objects by melting metal and pouring it
into molds. A foundry is a commercial establishment for founding, or
producing castings. Castings obtain their shape principally when
molten metal solidifies in the desired form. Wrought objects,
however are cast as ingots and
then plastically worked to
approximately the desired
shape.

1.2. Types of Casting

Processes
1.2.1. Sand Casting
1.2.2. Die casting
1.2.3. Investment Casting
1.2.4. Centrifugal casting
1.2.5. Plaster-mold casting
1.2.6. Permanent-mold casting
1.2.7. Squeeze casting
1.2.1. Sand Casting
Molding processes where a sand aggregate is used to make the
mold produced by far the largest quantity of castings. Whatever the
metal poured into sand molds, the product may be called a sand
casting. The process of sand casting is very old going back to the
Bronze Age; the technique has changed very little since. It involves
making a suitable void in compacted sand which is then filled with
molten metal. This process is best suited to large casting where
7

surface finish is not important or which will be machined later. Thin

sections are not really suitable as the molten material starts to cool
before the mold is completely filled, forming cold shuts.
The first stage in sand casting is to make a pattern in wood or metal
of the shape to be cast. This pattern is made slightly larger to allow
for shrinkage of the hot metal as it cools down after casting. Any
part that requires machining after casting would have a machining
allowance incorporated in the pattern. The pattern maker is a very
skilled craftsman because as well as making the pattern he must
have a complete understanding of the actual process of casting. In
making the pattern he decides the way the item will be cast.
Depending on the shape of the item the pattern could be in one or
several pieces. If the pattern is split the separate parts are located
together with metal pins or dowels. In deciding which way to cast a
particular item the patternmaker would consider several factors
such as, which way up to cast it. Molten metal is very heavy and
most of the impurities in the metal float. When the metal is cast the
impurities get carried around the mold with the metal as they have
a tendency to float they are likely to be deposited in one place,
either trapped by a narrowing in the shape or floating to the top of
the casting.
1.2.2. Die Casting
Die castings are among the highest volume, mass-produced items
manufactured by the metal working industry. They can be found
in thousands of consumer, commercial and industrial products. Die
cast parts are important components of products ranging from
automotive to toys. Parts can be as simple as a trowel handle or a
complex engine block. A versatile process for producing engineered
metal parts, die casting calls for forcing molten metal under high
pressure into reusable steel molds. These molds, called dies, can be
designed to produce complex shapes with a high degree of accuracy
and repeatability. Parts can be sharply defined, with smooth or
textured surfaces, and are suitable for a wide variety of attractive
and serviceable finishes. Refinements are continuing in both the
alloys used in die casting and the process itself, expanding
die casting applications into almost every known market. Todays die
casters can produce castings in a variety of sizes, shapes and wall
thicknesses that are lightweight, strong, durable and dimensionally
precise. The process has been well researched and systematically
quantified in terms of thermodynamics, heat transfer and fluid flow.
Die casting machines are typically rated in clamping tons equal to
the amount of pressure hey can exert on the die. Machine sizes
range from 200 tons to 5,000 tons. Regardless of their size, the only
fundamental difference in die casting machines is the method used
to inject molten metal into a die.

1.2.3. Investment Casting

Investment casting (known as lost-wax casting in art) is a process
that has been practiced for thousands of years, with the lost-wax
process being one of the oldest known metal forming techniques.
From 5000 years ago, when bees wax formed the pattern, to todays
high technology waxes, refractory materials and specialist alloys,
the castings ensure high-quality components are produced with the
key benefits of accuracy, repeatability, versatility and integrity.
Investment casting derives its name from the fact that the pattern is
invested, or surrounded, with a refractory material.
The wax patterns require extreme care for they are not strong
enough to withstand forces encountered during the mold making.
One advantage of investment casting is that the wax can be reused.
The process is suitable for repeatable production of net shape
components from a variety of different metals and high performance
alloys. Although generally used for small castings, this process has
been used to produce complete aircraft door frames, with steel
castings of up to 300 kg and aluminum castings of up to 30 kg.
Compared to other casting processes such as die casting or sand
casting, it can be an expensive process, however the components
that can be produced using investment casting can incorporate
intricate contours, and in most cases the components are cast near
net shape, so requiring little or no rework once cast.

1.2.4. Centrifugal casting

Centrifugal casting consists of having sand, metal, or ceramic mold
that is rotated at high speeds. When the molten metal is poured into
the mold it is thrown against the mold wall, where it remains until it
cools and solidifies. The process is being increasingly used for such
products as cast-iron pipes, cylinder liners, gun barrels, pressure
vessels, brake drums gears, and flywheels. The metals used include
almost all castable alloys. Because of the relatively fast cooling
time, centrifugal castings have a fine gram size. There is a tendency
for the lighter non-metallic inclusions slag particles, and dross to
segregate toward the inner radius of the casting where it can be
easily removed by machining. Due to the high purity of the outer
skin, centrifugally cast pipes have a high resistance to atmospheric
corrosion.
1.2.5. Plaster-mold casting
Plaster-mold casting is somewhat similar to sand casting in that only
one casting is made and then the mold is destroyed, in this case the
mold is made out of a specially formulated plaster, 70 to 80%
gypsum and 20 to 30% fibrous strengtheners. Water is added to
make a creamy s1urry. This process is limited to non-ferrous metals,
because ferrous metals react with sulphur in gypsum. The core
boxes are usually made form brass, plastics, or aluminium.
1.2.6. Permanent-mold casting
The process utilizes a metal casting die in conjunction with metal or
sand cores. Molten metal is introduced at the top of the mold that
has two or more parts, using only the force of gravity. After
solidification, the mold is opened and the casting ejected. The mold
is re-assembled and the cyc1e is repeated. The molds are either
metal or graphite and, consequently, most permanent-mold castings
are restricted to lower melting point nonferrous metals and alloys.
1.2.7. Squeeze casting
Squeeze casting, also known as liquid-metal forging, is a process by
which molten metal solidifies under pressure within c1osed dies
positioned between the plates of a hydraulic press. Squeeze casting
consists of metering liquid metal into a preheated, lubricated die
and forging the metal while it so1idifies. The load is applied shortly
after the metal begins to freeze and is maintained until the entire
casting has solidified. Casting ejection and handling are done in
much the same way as in closed die forging. The applied pressure
10

and the instant contact of the molten metal with the die surface
produce a rapid heat transfer condition that yields a pore-free finegrain casting with mechanical properties approaching those of a
wrought product. The squeeze casting process is easily automated
to produce near-net to net shape high-quality components.

1.3. Advantages & Disadvantages

1.3.1. Advantages
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Complex shapes can be produced.

Minimal directional properties are obtained.
Hollow sections can be produced.
Very large parts can be produced.
Metals that are very difficult to machine can be used to
produce an object.
It is the cheapest method of fabrication.
Casting with wide range of properties can be produce by
adding various alloys elements.
Almost all the metals and alloys and some plastics can
be casted.
The number of casting can vary from very few to several
thousands.

1.3.2. Disadvantages
1. Time required for the process of making casting is quite
long.
2. Metal casting involves melting of metal which is
high energy consuming process.
3. The working conditions in foundries are quite bad due to
heat, dust, fumes, slags etc. compared to other process.
4. Metal casting is still high labor-intensive compare to other
process.
5. Productivity is less than the other automatic process. E.g.:
Rolling.

B. STEPS OF CASTING
2.1.
Pattern Making
2.2.
Core Making
2.3.
Molding
2.4.
Melting &
Pouring
2.5.
Cleaning

2.1. Pattern Making

2.1.1.

Definition

11

The pattern is the principal tool during the casting process. It is the
replica of the object to be made by the casting process, with some
modifications. The main modifications are the addition of pattern
allowances, and the provision of core prints. If the casting is to be
hollow, additional patterns called cores are used to create these
cavities in the finished product. The quality of the casting produced
depends upon the material of the pattern, its design, and
construction.
There are many types of pattern material used in industries as:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Wooden
Metal
Plastic
Quick setting material

2.1.2.

Types of Pattern
2.1.2.1. Solid or Single piece Pattern
2.1.2.2. Split pattern or two-piece Pattern
2.1.2.3. Cope and Drag Pattern
2.1.2.4. Match plate Pattern
2.1.2.5. Gated Pattern
2.1.2.6. Skeleton Pattern
2.1.2.1. Solid or single piece pattern

A single piece pattern is the simplest of all forms. As the name

indicates they are made of a single piece as shown in fig. This type
of pattern is used only in cases where the product is very simple and
can be easily withdrawn from the mould. This pattern is contained
entirely in the drag. One of the surfaces is usually flat which is used
as the parting plane.
2.1.2.2. Split pattern or two-piece Pattern
This is the most common type of pattern for intricate castings. When
the contour of the casting makes its withdrawal from the mould
difficult or when the depth of the casting is too high, then the
pattern is split into two parts. One part is contained in the drag and
the other in the cope. The split surface of the pattern is same as the
parting plane of the mould. The two halves of the pattern should be
aligned properly by making use of dowel pins which are fitted to the
top half.
2.1.2.3. Cope and Drag Pattern
When very large castings are to be made the complete pattern
becomes too heavy to be handled by a single operator. Such a
pattern is made in two parts which are separately moulded in
different moulding boxes. After completion of the moulds, the two
12

boxes are assembled to form the complete cavity. One part is

contained by the drag and the other by the cope. Thus it is different
from split pattern in which both pieces are moulded separately
instead of being moulded in the assembled position.
2.1.2.4. Match plate Pattern
These patterns are made in two pieces. One piece is mounted on
one side and the other on the other side of a plate called match
plate. Gates and runners are also attached to the plate along with
the pattern. After moulding when the match plate is removed a
complete mould with gating is obtained by joining the cope and drag
together. The complete pattern with match plate is entirely made of
metal, usually aluminium for its light weight and machinability.
These are generally used for mass production of small castings with
higher dimensional accuracy. These patterns are mainly employed
for machine moulding. Their construction cost is high but the same
is easily compensated by a high rate of production and greater
dimensional accuracy.

2.1.2.5. Gated Pattern

They are used for mass production of small castings. For such
castings multi-cavity moulds are prepared, i.e. a single sand mould
carriers a number of cavities as shown in fig. Pattern for these
castings are connected to each other by means of gate formers.
They provide suitable channels or gates in sand for feeding the
molten metal to these cavities. A single runner can be used for
feeding all the cavities. This enables a considerable saving in
moulding time and a uniform feeding of molten metal.
2.1.2.6. Skeleton Pattern
When the size of the casting is very large, but easy to shape and
only a few numbers are to be made, it is not economical to make a
large solid pattern of that size. In such cases a pattern consisting of
wooden frame and strips is made called skeleton pattern. It is filled
with moulding sand and rammed properly. The surplus sand is
removed by means of a strickle. A skeleton pattern for a pipe is
shown in figure.
2.1.3.

Pattern Allowances

The pattern needs to incorporate suitable allowances for shrinkage;

these are called contraction allowances, and their exact values
depend on the alloy being cast and the exact sand casting method
being used. Some alloys will have overall linear shrinkage of up to
13

2.5%, whereas other alloys may actually experience no shrinkage or

a slight "positive" shrinkage or increase in size in the casting
process (notably type metal and certain cast irons). The shrinkage
amount is also dependent on the sand casting process employed, for
example clay-bonded sand, chemical bonded sands, or other
bonding materials used within the sand.
Some types of Pattern allowances are:
2.1.3.1.
2.1.3.2.
2.1.3.3.
2.1.3.4.
2.1.3.1.

Draft Allowances
Machining Allowances
Distortion Allowances
Rapping Allowances
Draft Allowances

The pattern needs to incorporate suitable allowances for draft, which

means that its sides are tapered so that when it is pulled from the
sand, it will tend not to drag sand out of place along with it. This is
also known as taper which is normally between 1 and 3 degrees.
2.1.3.2.

Machining Allowances

The finish and accuracy achieved in sand casting are generally poor
and therefore when the casting is functionally required to be of good
surface finish or dimensionally accurate, it is generally achieved by
subsequent machining. Machining or finish allowances are therefore
added in the pattern dimension. The amount of machining allowance
to be provided for is affected by the method of moulding and casting
used viz. hand moulding or machine moulding, sand casting or
metal mould casting. The amount of machining allowance is also
affected by the size and shape of the casting; the casting
orientation; the metal; and the degree of accuracy and finish
required.
2.1.3.3.

Distortion Allowances

Sometimes castings get distorted, during solidification, due to their

typical shape. For example, if the casting has the form of the letter
U, V, T, or L etc. it will tend to contract at the closed end causing the
vertical legs to look slightly inclined. This can be prevented by
making the legs of the U, V, T, or L shaped pattern converge slightly
(inward) so that the casting after distortion will have its sides
vertical.
The distortion in casting may occur due to internal stresses. These
internal stresses are caused on account of unequal cooling of
different section of the casting and hindered contraction.
2.1.3.4.

Rapping Allowance
14

Before the withdrawal from the sand mold, the pattern is rapped all
around the vertical faces to enlarge the mold cavity slightly, which
facilitate its removal. Since it enlarges the final casting made, it is
desirable that the original pattern dimension should be reduced to
account for this increase. There is no sure way of quantifying this
allowance, since it is highly dependent on the foundry personnel
practice involved. It is a negative allowance and is to be applied only
to those dimensions that are parallel to the parting plane.

2.2. Core
A core is a device used in casting and moulding processes to
produce internal cavities and re-entrant angles. The core is normally
a disposable item that is destroyed to get it out of the piece. They
are most commonly used in sand casting, but are also used in
injection moulding.
2.2.1.
Types of Core
2.2.1.1.
Green-sand core
Green-sand cores are not a typical type of core in that it is part of
the cope and drag, but still form an internal feature. Their major
disadvantage is their lack of strength, which makes casting long
narrow features difficult or impossible. Even for long features that
can be cast it still leave much material to be machined. A typical
application is a through hole in a casting.
2.2.1.2.

Dry-sand cores

Dry-sand cores overcome some of the disadvantages of the greensand cores. They are formed independently of the mold and then
inserted into the core prints in the mold, which hold the core in
position. They are made by mixing sand with a binder in a wooden
or metal core box, which contains a cavity in the shape of the
desired core.
2.2.1.3.

Core Print

Castings are often required to have holes, recesses, etc. of various

sizes and shapes. These impressions can be obtained by using
cores. So where coring is required, provision should be made to
support the core inside the mold cavity. Core prints are used to
serve this purpose. The core print is an added projection on the
pattern and it forms a seat in the mold on which the sand core rests
during pouring of the mold. The core print must be of adequate size
and shape so that it can support the weight of the core during the
casting operation. Depending upon the requirement a core can be
placed horizontal, vertical and can be hanged inside the mold cavity.
15

2.2.1.4.

Core Box

The simplest way to make dry-sand cores is in a dump core box, in

which sand is packed into the box and scraped level with the top. A
wood or metal plate is then placed over the box, and then the two
are flipped over and the core segment falls out of the core box. The
core segment is then baked or hardened. Multiple core segments are
then hot glued together or
attached by some
other means. There are
many types of core box
use in industries as:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.

half core box

dump core box
split core box
left and right core box
gang core box
strickle core box
loose piece core box

2.3. Molding
In sand casting, the primary piece of equipment is the mold, which
contains several components. The mold is divided into two halvesthe cope (upper half) and the drag (bottom half) which meet along a
parting line. Both mold halves are contained inside a box, called a
flask, which itself is divided along this parting line. The mold cavity
is formed by packing sand around the pattern in each half of the
flask. The sand can be packed by hand, but machines that use
pressure or impact ensure even packing of the sand and require far
less time, thus increasing the production rate. After the sand has
been packed and the pattern is removed, a cavity will remain that
forms the external shape of the casting. Some internal surfaces of
the casting may be formed by cores.
2.3.1.
Types of Molds
1. Permanent Mold Casting
Permanent mold casting is metal casting process that employs
reusable molds ("permanent molds"), usually made from metal. The
most common process uses gravity to fill the mold, however gas
pressure or a vacuum are also used. A variation on the typical
gravity casting process, called slush casting, produces hollow
castings. Common casting metals are aluminum, magnesium, and
copper alloys. Other materials include tin, zinc, and lead alloys and
iron and steel are also cast in graphite molds. Permanent molds,

16

while lasting more than one casting still have a limited life before
wearing out.
2. Temporary Mold Casting
These molds are destroyed at the time of removing casting from
them. There are many type of temporary mold which are mentioned
below.
2.3.2.
Types of Temporary Mold
2.3.2.1.
Greensand Mold
Greensand molds use a mixture of sand, water, and a clay or binder.
Typical composition of the mixture is 90% sand, 3% water, and 7%
clay or binder. Greensand molds are the least expensive and
most widely used.
2.3.2.2.

Skin-dried Mold

A skin-dried mold begins like a greensand mold, but additional

bonding materials are added and the cavity surface is dried by a
torch or heating lamp to increase mold strength. Doing so also
improves the dimensional accuracy and surface finish, but will lower
the collapsibility. Dry skin molds are more expensive and require
more time, thus lowering the production rate.
2.3.2.3.

Dry sand mold

In a dry sand mold, sometimes called a cold box mold, the sand
is mixed only with an organic binder. The mold is strengthened by
baking it in an oven. The resulting mold has high dimensional
accuracy, but is expensive and results in a lower production rate.
2.3.2.4.

No-bake mold

The sand in a no-bake mold is mixed with a liquid resin and hardens
at room temperature.
2.3.2.5.

Moulding Sand

Molding sand is more than just sand.

Typically it is a fine grade of sand, clay
binder and something to moisten it.
There are two types of molding sand
namely natural sand and synthesis sand.
Its principal use is in making molds
for metal casting. The largest portion of
the aggregate is always sand, which can
17

be either silica or olivine. There are many recipes for the proportion
of clay, but these all strike different balances between moldability,
surface finish, and ability of the hot molten metal to degas. The coal
typically referred to in foundries as sea-coal, which is present at a
ratio of less than 5%, partially combusts in the surface of the molten
metal leading to off gassing of organic vapors.

2.4. Melting Furnaces

A furnace is a device used for high-temperature
heating. It is a device used for melting of
metals and alloys. The term furnace can also
refer to a direct fired heater, used in boiler
applications in chemical industries or for
providing heat to metals for processes like
melting.
There are different types of furnaces. Few are listed below:
2.4.1.

Cupola Furnace

A Cupola or Cupola furnace is a melting device used in foundries

that can be used to melt cast iron, Ni-resist iron and some bronzes.
The cupola can be made almost any practical size. The size of a
cupola is expressed in diameters and can range from 1.5 to 13 feet
(0.5 to 4.0 m). The overall shape is cylindrical and the equipment is
arranged vertically, usually supported by four legs. The overall look
is similar to a large smokestack. The bottom of the cylinder is fitted
with doors which swing down and out to 'drop bottom'. The top
where gases escape can be open
or fitted with a cap to prevent
rain from entering the cupola. To
control emissions a cupola may
be fitted with a cap that is
designed to pull the gases into a
device to cool the gasses and
remove particulate matter.
2.4.2.

Induction furnace

Induction furnaces are widely

used for melting non-ferrous and
ferrous alloys. There are two types of induction furnaces: coreless
induction furnaces and channel induction furnaces:

Coreless induction furnace

18

Coreless induction furnace consists of a water cooled helical coil

made of a copper tube, a crucible installed within the coil and
supporting shell equipped with trunnions on which the furnace may
tilt. Alternating current passing through the coil induces alternating
currents in the metal charge loaded to the crucible. These induced
currents heat the charge.
When the charge is molten, electromagnetic field produced by the
coil interacts with the electromagnetic field produced by the induced
current. The resulted force causes stirring effect helping
homogenizing the melt composition and the temperature. The
frequency of the alternating current used in induction furnaces may
vary from the line frequency (50Hz or 60Hz) to high frequency
10,000Hz.

Channel induction furnace

Channel type induction furnace consists of a steel shell lined with

refractory materials and an inductor attached to the shell. There is a
channel connecting the main body with the inductor. The inductor of
the channel furnace works as a transformer. It has a ring-like iron
core with a water- or air-cooled coil as a primary coil and a loop of
the melt, circulating in the channel, as a secondary coil.
Melt circulation has a stirring effect. Channel induction furnaces
work at line frequency currents. Channel induction furnaces are
commonly used as holding furnaces. Channel furnaces are also used
for melting low melting point alloys and iron. For two or three shift
operation channel furnaces are more economical than coreless
furnaces. Channel furnaces of ratings up to the 10s of MW and up to
capacities of thousands of tons have been used for melting and
superheating iron.
2.4.3.

Electric Furnace

Electric furnace is used for heating purpose in various industrial

production processes. Electric furnaces are used where more
accurate temperature control is required. There are three types of
electrical furnaces namely:
i.
ii.
iii.

Induction Heating Furnace.

Resistance Heating Furnace.
Arc furnace depending upon the method of heat generation.

Induction heating furnaces and arc furnaces are beyond the scope of
this project profile. The scope of this project profile is confined to the
resistance heating furnace only. The heating elements used are
Nichrome wire, Kanthal wire or Graphite rods depending upon the
19

temperature requirements. The unit proposed in this project profile

envisages manufacturing furnaces to a maximum temperature of
1000C and only up to 50 kW power rating. In this case, Kanthal wire
is used. The temperature is controlled using thermostat sand the
temperature is monitored by thermocouples. The heating chamber is
constructed by M. S. Sheets and channels and for thermal Insulation,
fire clay bricks and refractory bricks are used.
2.4.4.

Crucible furnace

Crucible furnaces are used for melting and holding small batches of
non-ferrous alloys. Crucible furnaces are the oldest type of melting
furnaces. A refractory crucible filled with the metal is heated
through the crucible wall.
There are two main types of crucible furnace:

Electricity resistance furnaces,

Gas (oil) fired furnaces.

In the gas fired furnaces heat is provided by a burner directed to the

crucible. In the resistance furnaces electric heating elements are
used as a source of heat.

2.5. Gating System

The gating system serves many purposes, the most important being
conveying the liquid material to the mold, but also controlling
shrinkage, the speed of the liquid, turbulence, and trapping dross.
The gates are usually attached to the thickest part of the casting to
assist in controlling shrinkage. In especially large castings multiple
gates or runners may be required to introduce metal to more than
one point in the mold cavity. The speed of the material is important
because if the material is traveling too slow it can cool before
completely filling, leading to mis-runs and cold shuts. If the material
is moving too fast then the liquid material can erode the mold and
contaminate the final casting. The shape and length of the gating
system can also control how quickly the material cools; short round
or square channels minimize heat loss. The gating system may be
designed to minimize turbulence, depending on the material being
cast. For example, steel, cast iron, and most copper alloys are
turbulent insensitive, but aluminum and magnesium alloys are
turbulent sensitive. The turbulent insensitive materials usually have
a short and open gating system to fill the mold as quickly as
possible. However, for turbulent sensitive materials short sprues are
used to minimize the distance the material must fall when entering
the mold. Rectangular pouring cups and tapered sprues are used to
prevent the formation of a vortex as the material flows into the
20

mold; these vortices tend to suck gas and oxides into the mold. A
large sprue well is used to dissipate the kinetic energy of the liquid
material as it falls down the sprue, decreasing turbulence. The
choke, which is the smallest cross-sectional area in the gating
system used to control flow, can be placed near the sprue well to
slow down and smooth out the flow.
2.5.1.

Runner & Sprue

The molten material is poured in the

pouring cup, which is part of the
gating system that supplies the
molten material to the mold cavity.
The vertical part of the gating system
connected to the pouring cup is the
sprue, and the horizontal portion is
called the runners and finally to the
multiple points where it is introduced
to the mold cavity called the gates. Additionally there are extensions
to the gating system called vents that provide the path for the built
up gases and the displaced air to vent to the atmosphere. The cavity
is usually made oversize to allow for the metal contraction as it
cools down to room temperature. This is achieved by making the
pattern oversize. To account for shrinking, the pattern must be made
oversize by these factors, on the average. These are linear factors
and apply in each direction. These shrinkage allowance are only
approximate, because the exact allowance is determined the shape
and size of the casting. In addition, different parts of the casting
might require a different shrinkage allowance. See the casting
allowance table for the approximate shrinkage allowance expressed
as the Pattern Oversize Factor.

21

2.5.2.

Riser

A riser, also known as a feeder, is a reservoir built into a metal

casting mold to prevent cavities due to shrinkage. Most metals are
less dense as a liquid than as a solid so castings shrink upon cooling,
which can leave a void at the last point to solidify. Risers prevent
this by providing molten metal to the casting as it solidifies, so that
the cavity forms in the riser and not the casting. Risers are not
effective on materials that have a large freezing range, because
directional solidification is not possible. They are also not needed for
casting processes that utilized pressure to fill the mold cavity. A
feeder operated by a treadle is called an under feeder.

2.6. Cleaning And Finishing

2.6.1.

Cleaning

After removal of gates, sand or other moulding media may adhere to

the casting. To remove this, the surface is cleaned using a blasting
process. This means a granular media will be propelled against the
surface of the casting to mechanically knock away the adhering
sand. The media may be blown with compressed air, or may be
hurled using a shot wheel. The media strikes the casting surface at
high velocity to dislodge the molding media (for example, sand,
slag) from the casting surface. Numerous materials may be used as
media, including steel, iron, other metal alloys, aluminum oxides,
glass beads, walnut shells, baking powder among others. The
blasting media is selected to develop the color and reflectance of
the cast surface. Terms used to describe this process include
cleaning, blasting, shot blasting and sand blasting.
2.6.2.

Finishing

The final step in the process usually involves grinding, sanding, or

machining the component in order to achieve the desired
dimensional accuracies, physical shape and surface finish. Removing
the remaining gate material, called a gate stub, is usually done
using a grinder or sanding. These processes are used because their
material removal rates are slow enough to control the amount of
material. These steps are done prior to any final machining. After
grinding, any surfaces that require tight dimensional control are
machined. Many castings are machined in CNC milling centers. The
reason for this is that these processes have better dimensional
capability and repeatability than many casting processes. However,
it is not uncommon today for many components to be used without
machining. A few foundries provide other services before shipping
components to their customers. Painting components to prevent
corrosion and improve visual appeal is common. Some foundries will
assemble their castings into complete machines or sub-assemblies.

22

Other foundries weld multiple castings or wrought metals together

to form a finished product.

23

2.7. Casting Defects

2.7.1.

Surface Defects

Due to design and quality of sand molds and general cause is poor
ramming.
1) Blow:
Blow is relatively large cavity produced by
gases which displace molten metal form.
2) Scar:
It occurs due to improper permeability or
venting. A scar is a shallow blow. It
generally occurs on flat surf; whereas a
blow occurs on a convex casting surface.
A blister is a shallow blow like a scar with
thin layer of metal covering it.
3) Scab:
This defect occurs when a portion of the face
of a mould lifts or breaks down and the
recess thus made is filled by metal. When
the metal is poured into the cavity, gas may
be disengaged with such violence as to
break up the sand which is then washed
away and the resulting cavity filled with
metal. The reasons can be: - to fine sand,
low permeability of sand, high moisture content of sand and uneven
moulds ramming.
4) Drop:
Drop or crush in a mould is an irregularly shaped projection on the
cope surface of a casting. This defect is caused by the break-away of
a part of mould sand as a result of weak packing of the mould, low
strength of the molding sand, malfunctioning of molding equipment,
strong jolts and strikes at the flask when assembling the mould.
The loose sand that falls into the cavity will also cause a dirty
casting surface, either on the top or bottom surface of the casting,
depending upon the relative densities of the sand and the liquid.
5) Penetration:
It is a strong crust of fused sand on the surface of a casting which
results from insufficient refractoriness of molding materials, a large

24

content of impurities, inadequate mould packing and poor quality of

mould washes.
When the molten metal is poured into the mould cavity, at those
places when the sand packing is inadequate, some metal will flow
between the sand particles for a distance into the mould wall and
get solidified. When the casting is removed, this lump of metal
remains attached to the casting. Of course, it can be removed
afterwards by chipping or grinding.
2.7.2.

Internal Defects

1) Blow Holes:
Blow holes, gas holes or gas cavities are well rounded cavities
having a clean and smooth surface. They appear either on the
casting surface or in the body of a casting.
These defects occur when an excessive evolved gas is not able to
flow through the mould. So, it collects into a bubble at the high
points of a mould cavity ad prevents the liquid metal from filling that
space.
2) Pin holes:
Pin holes are small gas holes either at the surface or just below the
surface. When these are present, they occur in large numbers and
are fairly uniformly dispersed over the surface. This defect occurs
due to gas dissolved in the alloy and the alloy not properly
degassed.
2.7.3.

Visible Defects

1) Wash:
A cut or wash is a low; projection on the drag
face of a casting that extends along the
surface, decreasing in height as it extends
from one side of the casting to the other end.
It usually occurs with bottom gating castings in which the molding
sand has insufficient hot strength, and when too much metal is
made to flow through one gate into the mold cavity.

25

2) Shrinkage:
A shrinkage cavity is a depression or an internal void
in a casting that results from the volume contraction
that occurs during solidification.
3) Swell
A swell is a slight, smooth bulge usually found on
vertical faces of castings, resulting from liquid metal
pressure. It may be due to low strength of mould because
of too high a water content or when the mould is not
rammed sufficiently.

4) Shift
Mold shift refers to a defect caused by a
sidewise displacement of the mold cope
relative to the drag, the result of which
is a step in the cast product at the parting line.
Core shift is similar to mold shift, but it is the core that is displaced,
and (he dis-placement is usually vertical. Core shift and mold shift
are caused by buoyancy of the molten metal.

26

CONCLUSION
As a student of Azad Institute of Engineering & Technology, I would say that this
training program was an excellent opportunity for me to get to the ground level and
experience the things that I would have never gained through going straight into a job.
I am grateful to Saudi Cast for giving me this wonderful opportunity. The main
objective of the training was to provide an opportunity to identify, observe and practice
how engineering is applicable in the real industry. It helps to observe management
practices and to interact with fellow workers. It is easy to work with sophisticated
machines, but not with people.

27

Also, I learnt the way of work in an organization, the importance of being

punctual, the importance of maximum commitment, and the importance of
team spirit. I have gained lot of knowledge and experience needed to be
successful in a great engineering challenge, as in my opinion, Engineering
is after all a Challenge, and not a Job. BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Richard W Heine, Principles of Metal Casting, Tata McGraw Hill, 1967.
2. American Foundry mens Society, Cast Metals Handbook, Desplaines, 1957.
3. R K Rajput, A Textbook of Manufacturing Technology:
Manufacturing Processes, Firewall Media, 2007.

28