1

Published by CFS Documentation Cell

Centre for Electronics Design and Technology of India
An Autonomous Scientific Society under Department of Electronics,
Govt. of India,
New Delhi.

First Edition: 1999

TRADEMARKS: All brand name and product names mentioned in this book are trademarks or registered trademark of their
respective companies.
Every effort has been made to supply complete and accurate information. However, CEDTI assumes no responsibility for its
use, nor for any infringement of the intellectual property rights of third parties which would result from such use.
No part of this publication may be stored in a retrieval system, transmitted or reproduced in any forms or by any means,
electronic, photocopy, photograph, magnetic or otherwise, without written permission of CEDTI.

CEDTI/CFS/99/6/2.1/R1

FOREWORD
The information technology and telecom sectors have suddenly opened up avenues,
which require a very large specially trained manpower. These sectors are highly dynamic and
need training and re-training of manpower at a rapid rate. The growing gap of requirement of
the industry and its fulfillment has created a challenging situation before manpower training
institutes of the country. To meet this challenge most effectively, Centre for Electronics Design
and Technology of India (CEDTI) has launched its nation-wide franchising scheme.
Centre for Electronics Design and Technology of India (CEDTI) is an Autonomous
Scientific Society under the Govt. of India, Department of Electronics with its Headquarters at
New Delhi. It operates seven centres located at Aurangabad, Calicut, Gorakhpur, Imphal,
Mohali, Jammu and Tezpur. The scheme will be implemented and coordinated by these centres.
The scheme endeavours to promote high quality computer and information technology
education in the country at an affordable cost while ensuring uniform standards in order to
build a national resource of trained manpower. Low course fees will make this education
available to people in relatively small, semi urban and rural areas. State-of-the-art training will
be provided keeping in view the existing and emerging needs of the industrial and Govt.
sectors. The examinations will be conducted by CEDTI and certificates will also be awarded
by CEDTI. The scheme will be operated through all the seven centres of CEDTI.
The CEDTI functions under the overall control and guidance of the Governing Council
with Secretary, Department of Electronics as its Chairman. The members of the council are
drawn from scientific, government and industrial sectors. The Centres have separate executive
committees headed by Director General, CEDTI. The members of these committees are from
academic/professional institutes, state governments, industry and department of electronics.
CEDTI is a quality conscious organisation and has taken steps to formally get recognition
of the quality and standards in various activities. CEDTI, Mohali was granted the prestigious
ISO 9002 certificate in 1997. The other centres have taken steps to obtain the certification as
early as possible. This quality consciousness will assist CEDTI in globalizing some of its
activities. In keeping with its philosophy of Quality in every Activity, CEDTI will endeavour to
impart state of the art computer and IT training through its franchising scheme.
The thrust of the Software Courses is to train the students at various levels to carry out
the Management Information System functions of a medium sized establishment, manufacture
Software for domestic and export use, make multimedia presentations for management and
effectively produce various manufacturing and architectural designs.

The thrust of the Hardware Courses at Technician and Telecommunication Equipment

Maintenance Course levels is to train the students to diagnose the faults and carry out repairs
at card level in computers, instruments, EPABX, Fax etc. and other office equipment. At
Engineer and Network Engineer levels the thrust is to train them as System Engineers to
install and supervise the Window NT, Netware and Unix Networking Systems and repair
Microcontrollers / Microprocessor based electronic applications.
An Advisory Committee comprising eminent and expert personalities from the Information
Technology field have been constituted to advise CEDTI on introduction of new courses and
revising the syllabus of existing courses to meet the changing IT needs of the trade, industry
and service sectors. The ultimate objective is to provide industry-specific quality education in
modular form to supplement the formal education.
The study material has been prepared by the CEDTI, document centre. It is based on
the vast and rich instructional experience of all the CEDTI centres. Any suggestions on the
improvement of the study material will be most welcome.

(R. S. Khandpur)
Director General (CEDTI)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

UNIT

CHAPTER NAME

PAGE NO.
SECTION - A

System Concepts and the Information

System Environment

11

System Development Life Cycle

17

System Analysis

21
SECTION - B

System Design

29

File and Database Design

39

System Testing and Quality Assurance

45

PREFACE
Use of Computers, albeit, Information Technology has grown tremendously over the last few
years. It is no longer restricted to scientific applications only. Computers have become all
prevasive. Today they affect every aspect of modern business and our personal life.
Computers can improve the performance of all sectors of economy. Therefore, the greatest
challenge of today is to increase business and industry productivity using the full potential of
computer-related technology. A systematic study and analysis of any system is an essential
pre-requisite before developing and designing an efficient application software for that system.
It is important to master both the methods of system analysis and the skills and tools required
for designing the application software. Therefore, System Analysis and Design forms an
essential part of any certificate course on Computer Programming.
This course material has been divided into two sections. Section A introduces the student to
the system concepts and familiarises him with the basic tools and techniques of system analysis.
Life cycle concept consisting of study, design, development and operation has been elaborated.
Stress has been laid on the Top Down approach for System Analysis. It has been emphasized
that business is an informaton system and that information is a resource to be managed.
Section-B prepares the student to perform activities essential to identifying a computerbased business information system problem and recommending a solution. The Design Phase,
teaches the student to perform basic computer-based system design tasks. These tasks include
general system design, output design, input design, and file design, including an introduction
to database management systems.
Assimilation exercises have been given at the end of each chapter to facilitate the students to
carry out the self check of the level of understanding achieved during the course of the study.

SECTION - A

COMPETENCY OBJECTIVES
The objective of this Section is to introduce the students to one of the most important
aspects of computer programming which is called as System Analysis and Design. At the
end of this section, a student should be able to :v
v
v
v
v

Logically analyse the importance of System and differentiate between its various
discrete components.
Visualize the activities which complete the System Development Life-Cycle
and appreciate the concepts of Operational Evaluation.
Understand the basic concepts involved in System Analysis.
Analyze, construct and implement the Data Flow-diagrams.
Formulate the graphical representation in the form of decision trees, tables
etc.

10

SYSTEM CONCEPTS

CHAPTER - 1

SYSTEM CONCEPTS AND

THE INFORMATION SYSTEM ENVIRONMENT

WHAT IS SYSTEM?
System is an orderly grouping of interdependent components according to a plan to advise a
specified task. Its main characteristics are
Organisation
Interaction
Interdependence
Integration

Central objective

Is arrangement of components to achieve objectives

Interaction refers to the manner in which each component functions
with other components of the system.
Interdependence means those parts of the organization or computer
systems depend on one another.
Integration is concerned with how a system is tied together. It is more
than sharing a physical part or location. It means that parts of the
system work together within the system although each part performs
a unique function. Successful integration will typically produce a better
result as a whole rather than if each component works independently.
Central objective is the last characteristic of a system. Objectives may
be real or stated. Although a stated objective may be the real objective,
it is quite common that organisation may set one objective and operate
to achieve another. The important points is that users must be aware
about the central objective well in advance.

A decision to computerize an application is initiated by user analyzed and designed by analysts

programmed and tested by programmer and run by operator.

11

SYSTEM CONCEPTS

ELEMENTS OF SYSTEM ANALYSIS

12

SYSTEM CONCEPTS

TYPE OF SYSTEM

PHYSICAL

Systems are tangible entities that may be static or dynamic

Example of static - Office desk, Chair
Example of Dynamic - Programmed Computer.

ABSTRACT

Systems are conceptual or non physical entities. They may be as straight

forward as formulas of relationships among set of variables or models is the
abstract conceptualization of physical system.

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SYSTEM CONCEPTS

OPEN & CLOSED SYSTEM (INFORMATION SYSTEM)

Open system continuously interact with environment. It interact inputs from and delivers
output to outside.
Closed system is isolated from environment influence. In reality completely closed systems
are rare.
MAN MADE INFORMATION SYSTEM
Man made information system is a power structure to achieve company goals and classified
as follows.

1.

FORMAL INFORMATION SYSTEM

A Formal information system is based on the organisation represented by the organisation

chart. The chart is a map of positions and their authority relationships, indicated by boxes and
connected by straight lines. It is concerned with the pattern of authority, communication and
work flow.

2.

INFORMAL INFORMATION SYSTEM

An Informal information system is an employee-based system designed to meet personnel

and vocational needs and to help in the solution of work-related problems. It also funnels
information upward through indirect channels. In this way, it is considered to be a useful
system because it works within the framework of the business and its stated policies.

3.

COMPUTER BASED INFORMATION SYSTEM

This third category of the information system mainly depend on the computer for handling
business applications. System analysts develop several different types of information systems to meet a variety of business needs. There is a class of systems known collectively as
Computer Based Information System. Computer based information systems are of too many
types. They are classified as:
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Transaction processing System (TPS)

Management Information Systems (MIS)
Decision support system (DSS)
Office Automation Systems (OAS)

The figure 1.2 shows the organisation chart of Computer Based Information System (CBIS)
and figure 1.3 shows the hierachical view of CBIS.

14

SYSTEM CONCEPTS

Transaction Processing System

A transaction processing system can be defined as a computer based system that capture,
classifies, stores, maintains, updates and retrieves transaction data for record keeping and
for input to other types of CBIS. Transaction Processing system are aimed at improving the
routine business activities on which all organisations depend. A transaction is any event or
activity that affects the whole organisation The types of transactions that occur vary from
organisation to organisation. Transaction processing system provide speed and accuracy and
can be programmed to follow routines without any variance.
EXAMPLE :- Placing orders, billing customers, hiring of employees and depositing cheques
are some of the common transactions.

15

Management Information Systems

Data processing by computers has been extremely effective because of several reasons. The
main reason being the huge amount of data relating to accounts and other transactions can
record keeping and the automation of routine clerical process. However, in recent years increasing attention has been focussed on computer applications providing information for policy
making, management planning and control purposes. MIS are more concerned with management function. MIS can be described as information system that can provide all levels of
management with information essential to the running of smooth business. This information
must be as relevant timely, accurate, complete, concise and economically feasible must be as
relevant, timely, accurate, complete and concise as is economically feasible.
Decision Support Systems:
It is an information system that offers the kind of information that may not be predictable, the
kind that business professionals may need only once. These systems do not produce regularly scheduled management reports. Instead, they are designed to respond to a wide range
of requests. It is true that all the decisions in an organisation are not of a recurring nature.
Decision support systems assist managers who must make decisions that are not highly
structured, often called unstructured or semi-structured decisions. A decision is considered
unstructured if there are not clear procedures for making the decision and if not all the factors
to be considered in the decision can be readily identified in advance.
Office Automation Systems:
Office automation systems are among the newest and most rapidly expanding computer based
information systems. They are being developed with the hopes and expectations that they will
increase the efficiency and productivity of office workers-typists, secretaries, administrative
assistant, staff professionals, managers and the like. Many organisations have taken the first
step toward automating their offices.

ASSIMILATION EXERCISES
1.
2.
3.
4.

What is the basic difference between Systems Approach and Systems Analysis?
What are the four basic elements in Systems Analysis?
What is a Computer Based Information System?
When is a decision considered to be unstructured?
16

SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

CHAPTER - 2

SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

System development, a process consisting of the two major steps of systems analysis and
design, starts when management or sometimes system development personnel feel that a
new system or an improvement in the existing system is required. The systems development
life cycle is classically thought of as the set of activities that analysts, designers and users
carry out to develop and implement an information system. The systems development life
cycle consists of the following activities:
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Preliminary investigation
Determination of system requirements
Design of system
Development of software
Systems testing
Implementation, evaluation and maintenance

PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION
A request to take assistance from information system can be made for many reasons, but in
each case someone in the organisation initiates the request. When the request is made, the
first system. (activity - the preliminary investigation begins). This activity has three parts:
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Request clarification
Feasibility study
Request approval

REQUEST CLARIFICATION
Many requests from employees and users in the organisations are not clearly defined. Therefore,
it becomes necessary that project request must be examined and clarified properly before
considering system investigation.

FEASIBILITY STUDY
An important outcome of the preliminary investigation is the determination that system
requested is feasible. There are three aspects in the feasibility study portion of the preliminary
investigation:
17

SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

(i)

Technical Feasibility: Can the work for the project be done with current equipment, existing
software technology and available personnel? If new technology is needed, what is the
likelihood that it can be developed?

(ii)

Economic Feasibility: Are there sufficient benefits in creating the system to make the
costs acceptable? Or, are the costs of not creating the system so great that it is advisable
to undertake the project?

(iii) Operational Feasibility: Will the system be used if it is developed and implemented? will
there be resistance from users that will undermine the possible application benefits?
The feasibility study is carried out by small group of people who are familiar with information
system techniques, understand the parts of the business or organisation that will be involved
or affected by the project, and are skilled in the system analysis and design process.

REQUEST APPROVAL
It is not necessary that all requested project are desirable or feasible. Some organisations
receive so many project requests from employees that only a few of them can be pursued.
However, those projects that are feasible and desirable should be put into a schedule. In
some cases, development can start immediately, although usually systems staff members
are busy on other ongoing projects. When such situation arises, management decides which
projects are most urgent and schedules them accordingly. After a project request is approved,
its cost, priority, completion time, and personnel requirements are estimated and used to
determine where to add it to any existing project list. Later on, when the other projects have
been completed, the proposed application development can be initiated.

DETERMINATION OF SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS

At the heart of system analysis is a detailed understanding of all important facts of the business
area under investigation. The key questions are:
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What is being done?

How is it being done?
How frequently does it occur?
How great is the volume of transactions or decisions?
How well is the task being performed?
Does a problem exist?
If a problem exists, how serious is it ? What is the underlying cause?

To answer the above question, systems analysts discuss with different category of persons to
collect the facts about the business process and their opinions of why things happen as they
do and their views for changing the existing process. During analysis, data are collected on
the available files, decision points and transactions handled by the present system. Some
tools are used in analysis like data flow diagrams, interviews, on-site observations and
18

SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

questionnaires. Detail investigations also require the study of manuals and reports. Once the
structured analysis is completed, analyst has a firm understanding of what is to be done?
DESIGN OF SYSTEM
The design of an information system produces the details that clearly describe how a system
will meet the requirements identified during systems analysis. systems specialists often refer
to this stage as logical design, in contrast to the process of developing program software,
which is referred to as physical design.
Systems analysts begin the design process by identifying reports and other outputs system
will produce. Then the specific data on each are pinpointed. The systems design also describes
the data to be input, calculated or stored. individual data items and calculation procedures
are written in detail. Designers select file structures and storage devices, such as magnetic
disk, magnetic tape or even paper files. Procedures they write tell how to process the data
and produce the output. The documents containing the design specifications portray the design
in many different ways-charts, tables, and special symbols. The detailed design information is
passed on to the programming staff for the purpose of software development. Designers are
responsible for providing programmers with complete and clearly out lined software
specifications.
DEVELOPMENT OF SOFTWARE
Software developers may install purchased software or they may develop new, custom designed
programs. The choice depends on the cost of each option, the time available to develop
software and the availability of programmers. Generally it has been observed that programmers
are part of permanent professional staff in a big organisation. In smaller organisation, without
programmers, outside programming services may be hired or retained on a contractual basis.
Programmers are also responsible for documenting the program, providing an explanation of
how and why certain procedures are coded in specific way. Documentation is essential to test
the program and carry on maintenance once the application has been installed.
SYSTEM TESTING
During systems testing, the system is used experimentally to ensure that the software does
not fail. In other words, we can say that it will run according to its specification and in the way
user expect. Special test data are input for processing, and the result examined. A limited
number of users may be allowed to use the system so that analyst can see whether they try to
use it in unforeseen ways. It is desirable to discover any surprises before the organisation
implements the system and depends on it.
IMPLEMENTATION, EVALUATION AND MAINTENANCE
Implementation is the process of having system personnel check out and put new equipment
into use, train users, install the new application and construct any files of data needed to use
it. This phase is less creative than system design. Depending on the size of the organisation
19

SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

that will be involved in using the application and the risk involved in its use. system developers
may choose to test the operation in only one area of the firm with only one or two persons.
Sometimes, they will run both old and new system in parallel way to compare the result. In still
other situations, system developers stop using the old system one day and start using the
new one the next.
Evaluation of the system is performed to identify its strengths and weaknesses. The actual
evaluation can occur along any of the following dimensions:
(i)

Operational Evaluation: Assessment of the manner in which the system functions,

including ease of use, response time, overall reliability and level of utilization.
(ii) Organizational Impact: Identification and measurement of benefits to the organisation in
such areas as financial concerns, operation efficiency and competitive impact.
(iii) User Manager Assessment: Evaluation of the attitudes of senior and user manager within
the organisation, as well as end - users.
(iv) Development Performance: Evaluation of the development process in accordance with
such yardsticks as overall development time and effort conformance to budgets and
standards and other project management criteria.
Maintenance is necessary to eliminate errors in the working system during its working life and
to tune the system to any variations in its working environment. Often small system deficiencies
are found as a system is brought into operations and changes are made to remove them.
System planners must always plan for resource availability to carry out these maintenance
functions. The importance of maintenance is to continue to bring the new system to standards.

ASSIMILATION EXERCISES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Why is it so critical to manage System Development ? Explain.

What are the activities which complete the system development life cycle?
In preliminary investigation, three types of feasibility are usually studied. Name those.
What are the areas of operational evaluation?
Why is maintenance of a system necessary?
What important information does the users request form provides ? Why is to so important
in the initial investigation? Explain in detail.
20

SYSTEM ANALYSIS

CHAPTER - 3

SYSTEM ANALYSIS
System Analysis is a detailed study of the various operations performed by a system and their
relationships within and outside the system. One aspect of analysis is defining the boundaries
of the system and determining whether a candidate system should consider other related
systems.
STRUCTURED ANALYSIS
Structured analysis is set of techniques and graphical tools that allow the analyst to develop
a new kind of system specifications that are easily understandable to the user. In brief, The
structured analysis has following attribute.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

It is logical rather than physical. The elements of system do not depend on vendor or
hardware.
The process is partitioned so that we have a clear picture of the progression from general to specific in the system flow.
It calls for a rigorous study of the user area - a commitment that is often taken lightly in
the traditional approach to system analysis.
It is graphical study which is conceptually easy to understand presentation of the application.
Certain tasks that are normally carried out late in the system development life cycle are
moved to analysis phase. For example, user procedure are documented during analysis
rather chain later in implementation

TOOLS OF STRUCTURED ANALYSIS

To keep a blue print (like that of architect) as a starting point for system design, there are
several tools such as
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Data Flow Diagram (DFD)

Data Dictionary
Decision Trees
Decision Table

DATA FLOW DIAGRAM

DFD is a way of expressing system requirements in a graphical form A DFD, also known as
a bubble chart has the purpose of clarifying system requirements and identifying major transformations that will become programs in system design. The DFD does not depend on hard21

SYSTEM ANALYSIS

ware, software, data structure and file organisation. DFD describes what data flow (logically)
rather than how they are processed.
In DFD, there are four symbols:
Square

Defines source (originator) or destination of data

Arrow

Identifies data flow. It is a pipe line through which information flow.

Circle

Represent a process that transforms

or
Bubble

Incoming data flow(s) into outgoing data flow(s)

or

Open
Rectangle

Represents a Data store or Data at rest.

RULES FOR CONSTRUCTING DFDs

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Processes should be named and numbered for easy reference. Each name should be
representative of process.
Direction of flow is from top to bottom and from left to right..
Arrows should not cross each other .
Squares, circle must be named.

DATA DICTIONARY
Data Dictionary is a structured repository of data about data. It is a set of rigorous of all DFD
data elements and data structures.
ADVANTAGES
Documentation : It is a valuable reference in any organisation
l

Improving analysts/ user communication by establishing consistent definitions of various elements, terms and procedures.

An important step in building a data base. Most DBMS have a data dictionary as a
standard feature.

MAJOR SYMBOLS
=
+
[]
()

Equivalent to
And
or / either
Optional entry

RULES: Four rules govern the construction of data dictionary entries:

1

Words should be defined to stand for what they mean and not the variable names by
which they may be described in the program.
22

SYSTEM ANALYSIS

2
3
4

Each word must be unique; we cannot have two definitions of the same name.
Aliases or synonym are allowed when two or more entries show the same meaning and
it should be used only when absolutely necessary.
Self defining words should not be decomposed.

LOGICAL DATA DESCRIPTION HIERARCHY

DATA ELEMENTS DESCRIPTION WITH EXAMPLE

Name
Characteristics
Control information
Physical location

PO
File no.
date of origin etc.
in terms of record,
file or data base,

DATA STRUCTURES FOR BOOK DETAIL

DATA STRUCTURES
Data Elements

BOOK DETAIL
Author name
Title of book addition
ISBN (International Standard Book No.)
LOCN (Lib of Cong. No)
Publisher name
Quantity order

IN SUMMARY
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A data dictionary is an integral component of structured specifications.

Without data dictionary, DFD lacks. rigor and without, DFD data dictionary is of no use.
Therefore, correction between the two is important.

DECISION TREES:
A decision tree helps to show the paths that are possible in a design following an action or
decision by the user. Once the data element are defined in the data dictionary, we begin to
focus on the processes
Example :

Book - Order

23

SYSTEM ANALYSIS

Book stores get discount of books acquired from publishers, we can expect one lower-level
process to verify the discount.
DISCOUNT POLICY
Book store gets trade discount of 25%; for orders from libraries and individuals 5% allowed on
order of 6- 19 copies per book title,
10% on
15% on

20 - 49
50 or more

DECISION TREE
For above referred example, shall be as under
Type of Customer

Size of Order

Discount

Book store

6 or more
less than 8

25%
Nil

50 or more
20 - 49
6 - 19
less than 6

15%
10%
5%
Nil

Discount Policy
Libraries
or
Individuals
DECISION TABLES
Major draw back of a decision tree is the lack of information in its format to tell us what other
combinations to test.
l

A decision table is a table for contingencies for defining a problem and actions to be
taken

It is a single representation of relationships between conditions and actions

TITLE :
Author:
Comments:

Date
System

Condition Stub

Condition Entry

Action Stub

Action Entry

EXAMPLE : DECISION TABLE FOR BICYCLE ASSEMBLY:

24

SYSTEM ANALYSIS

TITLE : Bicycle Assembly

DATE :
Author:
System:
Comments : More than one carton of parts needs to be assembled
1

1.
2.

Last Carton?
Hand Brakes?

y
y

y
n

n
y

n
n

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Open Container
Stack Parts
Assemble whells
Finish assembly
End of assembly operations

.
.
.
.
x

.
.
.
.
x

x
x
x
x
.

x
x
x
x
.

DECISION TABLE FOR BICYCLE ASSEMBLY

Where Y= Yes, N = No, X = Response to the answer entered in the condition entry quadrant
So, according to the decision table we have sit decision and therefore provides each decision
(answer) immediately.
Rules for constructing a decision table
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A decision should be given a name, shown in the top left of the table.
The logic of the decision table is independent of sequence in which the condition rules
are written, but the action takes place in order in which the events occur.
Standardized language must be used consistently.
Duplication of terms or messages should be eliminated where possible.

In brief we can summarize the tools for system analysis as :

DFD - May be used at low or high levels of analysis and provide good system documentation. The user often finds it confusing
DATA DICTIONARY
May be used at high or low level of analysis but it does not provide functional details, and it is
not acceptable to many non technical users.
DECISION TREE
Used to verify logic and in problems that involve complex decision resulting in limited number
of action

25

SYSTEM ANALYSIS

DECISION TREE & TABLE

Are best suited for dealing with complex branching routines such as calculating discounts or
sales commission or inventory control procedures.
EXAMPLE
Figure 3.1 shows the decision tree for printing the accounts payable check. Trees can be
easily read by non technical users who find decision table too complex. users readily grasp
branches, forks, and out comes.

ASSIMILATION EXERCISE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Illustrate the difference between input/output analysis and system flowcharts. When is
each tool used ?
What are data flow diagrams? How do they differ from structure charts ?
Why is it important that the analyst learns about an organizations policies and objectives?
What traditional information-gathering tools are available for the analyst? Explain each
tool briefly.
What kinds of data should be recorded ? Why ?
26

SECTION - B

COMPETENCY OBJECTIVES
The objective of this Section is to introduce the students to one of the most important
phases in System Analysis and Design. At the end of this section, a student should be able
to :v
v
v
v
v
v

Visualize the requirement for System Design to meet the Design objectives.
Work upon the various Design methodologies and utilize them effectively to
generate efficient results.
Understand the factors that have to be considered in the Form Design.
Formulate and use the File Organization and Database Design effectively in
their practical implementation.
Perform the System Tests and checks for the sub-standard performance levels
or the other factors which lead to the system failure.
Appreciate the importance of Quality and achieve the goal of Quality Assurance
in System Life-Cycle.
27

28

SYSTEM DESIGN

CHAPTER - 4

SYSTEM DESIGN

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System design is a solution, a how to approach the creation of a new system.

System design goes through logical and physical stages of development.
Logical design review the present physical system, prepare input and output specifications
makes security and control specifications details the implementation plan and prepares
the logical design walk through
Physical design produces actual program S/W, file, and a working system.

DESIGN OBJECTIVES
Practicallity
Cost
Security

System must be stable & operated by person of average intelligence

Desirable to aim for system with minimum cost flexibility/ portability
Include security feature to the system developed.

LOGICAL DESIGN
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Review the current physical system - its data flow, file content . etc.
Prepares output specification - i.e. determines the format ,content and frequency of
reports including terminal specification and location.
Prepares input specification format, content and most of the input functions
Prepares edit, security and control specification- This includes specifying rules for edit
correction backup procedures and controls that ensure processing and file integrity.
Specifies implementation plan.
Reviews benefits, costs, Target dates and system constraints.

PHYSICAL DESIGN
It consisting of
#

Design the physical system

*
Specify input/output media
*
Design database and specify backup procedures
*
Design physical information through system and physical design walk through

29

SYSTEM DESIGN

Plant system implementation

*
Prepare a conversion schedule and target date.
*
Determine training procedure course and time table
Devise a test and implementation plan and specify any new Hardware/Software.

Update benefit, cost conversion date and system constraints (legal financial,
hardware etc.)

Files
Matrices

DESIGN METHODLODOGIES ATTEMPT TO DO THE FOLLOWING

*
*
*
*
*
*

Improve productivity of analyst and programmer.

Improve documentation and subsequent maintenance and enhancements
Cutdown drastically on cost overruns and delays.
Improve communication among the user, analyst, designer and programmer.
Standardize the approach to analysis and design
Simplify design by segmentation

30

SYSTEM DESIGN

STRUCTURED DESIGN
Structured design is a data flow based methodology.

l
l
l

System specifications are then used as a basis for graphical representation action i.e.
DFD.
From DFD, next step is definition of modules and their relationship to one another called
structured chart, using a data dictionary and other structured tools.
Structured design partitions a program into small independent modules.

STRUCTURE CHART
Graphic tool for representing hierarchy and it has three elements
= a module
A
C

Connection means one module has called

another represented by a vector linking the
modules.
Were O, P and Q are coupled

O
B

A
P

Q
C

Couple is represented by an arrow with circular

tail. It representes data elements moved from one
module to another.

FORM DRIVER METHODOLOGY

HIPO is a form driver technique used to document the information.
l
l

It consists of hierarchy chart and an associated set of input/process/output charts.

It describes the data input and output from process and defines the data flow composition. It was developed by IBM with following objectives.
t Provides a structure by which the function of a system can be understood.
t State the functions to be performed by the program rather than specifying the
program statements to be used to perform the function.
31

SYSTEM DESIGN
t

Provide a visual description of input to be used and output to be produced for

each level of diagram.

PROCEDURE FOR GENERATING HIPO DIAGRAMS

l
l
l
l

Begin at the highest level of abstraction and define the inputs to the system and O/
P from it in aggregate terms.
Identify the processing steps by those that convert I/P into O/P
Document each element using HIPO diagram notation and associated tree like
structure.
Identify sub processes and their respective inputs and outputs. Continue decomposition until the process cannot be decomposed any further.

Aids available for drawing HIPO diagrams are

HIPO Worksheet GX 20-1970
HIPO Template GX 20 - 197
Contains symbols for HIPO
HIPO package format consists of VIOC (Visual Table of Constant) shows the structure of
diagram and relationships of functions in a hierarchical manner. It also has a legend to show
how symbols are to be used.
Overview diagrams describes major functions and reference the detail diagram needed to
expand the functions adequately.
Input
Contains
Data items
used by process

Process
Contains
members
steps and functions
to be performed.

Output
Data item created
by process step

Detail Diagram contains an extended description section that amplifies the process step and
reference the code associated with each step process.

32

SYSTEM DESIGN

I/P DESIGN -

Is the process of converting user originated inputs to a computer based

formats.

INPUT DATA -

Goal of designing I/P data is to make data entry as easy, logical and free
from errors as possible, In entering the data, operators need to know.

allocated space for each field

field sequence
format in which data fields are entered e.g. filling out data field is required through
the edited format mm/dd/yy

SOURCE DOCUMENT
Initiate the processing cycle as soon as they are entered on the system. Sources may be
entered into the system from punch cards, diskettes or even directly through keyboards therefore source document may be evaluated in terms of
-

its continued use in the proposed system

extent of modification for the proposed system &
replacement by an alternative source document.

A source document should be logical and easy to understand e.g. date of birth
Ist May 1963
May 1 1963
5/1/63 (American)
1/5/63 (European)
source document should specify mmddyy
INPUT MEDIA & DEVICES
These are as follows :
Punch Cards
CRT Screen
OCR (Optical Character Recognition)
Mark sensing reader
MICR translates special fonts printed in magnetic ink on checks and Direct computer
input through keyboard.
VALIDATION TEST :- A system can employ any of nine common validation tests:
1.

Class Test

Sign Test

Numeric
Alphabetic
Determines weather algebraic value of numeric date is <, > or
= to zero
33

SYSTEM DESIGN

3.
4.
5.

Reasonableness Test
Sequence Test
Range Test

6.

Presence Test

7.

Code Test

8.

Combination Test

9.

Date Test

Rejects data that should never occur

Ensures that data appears in a certain order mmddyy
Determines that data falls within upper & lower limit
e.g. month between 1- 12
Ensures that data are present to allow further processing (Drug
No.)
Data values must match one of the several acceptable predetermined values (year 91 - 93,94 etc)
A certain group of data elements must be present at the same
time and must be correct drug no., dosage, date and patient
no. must all appears
Requires two digit month, day, and two digit year no.

GUIDE LINES FOR DATA ENTRY SCREENS

-

Keep screen simple

Make screen easy to read.
Position the cursor to the first field in which user will enter the data
Use same color for similar elements e.g. red for error, green for money etc.
Use consistent method for signaling error messages.
Place error messages in the same place on every screen.
Include passwords to tighten security
Use same format throughout the project.
provide help or tutorials for technical terms or procedures.

OUTPUT DESIGN
Computer O/P is the most important and direct source of information to the user. Efficient
intelligent O/P design should improve the system relationships with the user and help in
decision making. A major form of output in hardcopy from the printer. Print outs should be
designed around the output requirements of the user. Following guidelines apply to any report.
*
*
*
*

Information should be clear and accurate, yet concise and restricted to relevant
data
Report should have titles, date, descriptive headings for columns of data numbered pages and so on.
Report should be in a logical arrangements so that users can easily locate what
they need.
The report should come on an output medium that best suits the users need (stockbroker - CRT, Manager Printout)

34

SYSTEM DESIGN

INTERNAL REPORTS
Manager & other decision making within organisation use internal report to track performance
and to make variety of business judgements,
EXTERNAL REPORTS
Circulate among customers, clients, stockholders vendors, Govt. agencies and others outside
an organisation. Since the report present companys image outside the world, they must
make company well organised, stable and professional.
OUTPUT DEVICES
Printer
-

Selected in respect of
Amount of O/P work per week per month (device speed)
Quality of output
Existing printers available

List Requirements
Except for customers, reports need not be elegant, most would circulate internally
12000 page per month printouts i.e. 4,80,000 lines.
Organisation does not need a plotter that could draw graphs
Payroll forms could be oversized (132 character).
Paper
Important consideration cost, no. of copies needed based on these factors, analysts select:
-

Weight & bond of paper

Plain paper or preprinted paper

Appearance of materials on the screen monochrome color.

Screen size (diagonal measure in inches 14") VGA, SVGA etc.

CRT

DESIGN OF OUTPUT REPORTS

Most reports contain all or some of the following design elements
Reprot heading
Title of report
Page Heading
Page number, Date, Time, etc.
Control Heading Captions & titles that separate one group of data from another.
Column Heading Heading is given in each column.
Detail Line
Details about each column heading is given
Control Footing
Appearing at bottom of the Page

35

SYSTEM DESIGN

FORM DESIGN & CONTROL

Form is a tool with message. It is the physical carrier of data or information

Action form

Memory Form

Report Form

Achieves results
Goes from one place to another
Represent
historical data
Data generally used for
reference in a file

order, instruction,
authorizes i.e.
applied for P.O.
Sales Slip etc.

i.e. library records

Summary picture of project

i.e. balance sheet
Provides info about job details & report trial balance sheet
Used by manager with authority
etc.
to effect change

FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN FORM DESIGN

l
l
l
l

Size and shape of the form should be such that it is convenient for handling
Max. readability & use physical factors - color type of paper
each of data entry
Carbon paper as form copies, one time carbon, carbon backed paper, no. of carbon required paper

36

SYSTEM DESIGN

ADVANTAGES

DISADVANTAGES

SEQUENTIAL

Simple to design easy to program

variable length record best use of
storage space

Records cannot be added at

middle.

INDEXED
SEGMENT

Records can be added at middle

Processing can be carried out
Sequentially or randomly

Unique key require slow

processing

INVERTED LIST

Used in application requesting

specific data on multiple keys.

RANDOM

Records can be inserted or updated in

middle of file better control over record
allocation.

ASSIMILATION EXERCISE
1.
2.

3.
4.

In your own words, describe the process of system design.

Distinguish between the following:
a. Logical and physical design
b. Coupling and cohesion
What design methodologies are used in system design ?
Define structured design. How is it related to a DFD ?

37

38

FILE & DATABASE DESIGN

CHAPTER - 5

FILE & DATA BASE DESIGN

ABOUT FILE
File is a particular group of information collected at a common place, making information easy
to retrieve and store with day to day basis.
To learn about files we need to define basic terms of the file hierarchy
BYTE
A byte is an arbitrary set of eight bits that represent a character. It is the smallest addressable unit in todays computer.
DATA ITEM
One or more bytes are combined into a data item to describe an attribute of an object. For
example, if the object is an employee one attribute may be sex, name, age or social security
number. A data item is sometimes referred to as a field. A field is actually a physical space on
tape or disk, whereas a data item is the data stored in the field.
RECORD
Collection of related data items. There are two types of records
(i)
(ii)

Logical record
Physical record

A logical record maintains a logical relationship among all the data items in the record. It is
the way the program or user sees the data. In contrast, a physical record is the way data are
recorded on a storage medium. To illustrate, Figure 5.1 shows a programmer who required a
five - record file in a particular sequence (A,D,C,B,S). The programmer does not know about
the physical map on the disk. the software presents the logical records in the required sequence. This capability is unique to data base design.

39

FILE & DATABASE DESIGN

FILE
Collection of related records. It characteristics are
(i)
(ii)

Activities
Volatility

File activity specifies the percentage of actual records processed in a single run. If a small
percentage of records is accessed at any given time, the file should be organized on disk for
direct access. In contrast, if a fair percentage of record is affected regularly, then storing the
file on tape would be more efficient and less costly. File volatility addresses the properties of
record changes. File records with substantial changes are highly volatile, meaning that disk
design would be more efficient than tape.

DATABASE

It is a set of interrelated files for real time processing. It contains the

necessary data for problem solving and can be used by several users
accessing data concurrently.

TYPE OF FILE

File can be permanent files containing reference data used in processing transactions, updating master files or producing O/P. These
files store data in tabular form.

REPORT

This type of file gives relevant information from the data base file after
the processing of the data. If the report file information is to be used
for internal use only the relevant option is shown. But if report is to be
used externally all the information in a beautiful format is given to the
user.

BACKUP

Copy of master, transaction or table file that is made to ensure a copy

is available if anything happens to the original.

40

FILE & DATABASE DESIGN

FILE ORGANISATION
Sequential - Record can be added only at the end of the file. It is not possible to insert a record
in the middle of file without rewriting. The file
-

No address or location assignments in.

Simple to design

INDEXED SEQUENTIAL
-

Having address or location assignments

Permits next and economical use of sequential processing techniques when activity rate is high.
Sequential
Have multiple index for a given key

41

FILE & DATABASE DESIGN

INVERTED LIST
-

Records are not necessarily stored in sequence .

Have single index for each key type.

Defined on keys and separate index is maintained for each

DIRECT ACCESS
Data are placed randomly
-

record need not be in sequence become they are updated directly and rewritten
back in the same location
New records are added at the end of file or specific location based on S/W commands

DATA BASE DESIGN

-

A Database can be thought of as set of logically related files organised to facilitate

access by one or more application program and to minimize the data redundancy.

OBJECTIVE OF DBASE
-

To make information access easy quick, inexpensive and flexible for the user
Controlled redundancy
Data independence
Lower cost
Accuracy and integrity

Following figure shows the total Data Base Mangement System.

This block diagram shows the collection of data
1. for various cities in north, south, east, and west
2. pin code of cities.
3. peoples living in these cities
4. .....
5. .....
.
.
.
.
and many more information as per users need.
The use of DBMS package (such as ORACLE, FOXPRO dBASE) are to be used for processing of data as per user need.

42

FILE & DATABASE DESIGN

ASSIMILATION EXERCISE
1.
2.

Illustrate the hierarchy making up a database.

Explain the difference between:
a.
Logical and physical record.
b.
Data item and field
c.
File activity and file volatility.
43

44

SYSTEM TESTING & QUALITY ASSURANCE

CHAPTER - 6

SYSTEM TESTING AND QUALITY ASSURANCE

What is system testing?

System testing is executing a program to check logic changes made in it and with the intention
of finding errors- making the program fail proof. Testing is essential to the success of the
system
In system testing, performance and acceptance standards are developed. Substandard
performance or service interruptions that result in system failure are checked during the test.
The following performance criteria are used for system testing.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Turn around time is the elapsed time between the receipt of the input and the availability
of the output.
Backup relates to procedures to be used when the system is down.
File protection pertains to storing files in separate area for protection against fire, flood,
or natural disaster.
The human factor applies to the personnel of the candidate system

TYPE OF SYSTEM TESTS

System testing consists of the following steps.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Program(s) testing
String testing.
System testing.
System documentation
User acceptance testing.

PROGRAMS TESTING
A program represents the logical elements of system. Program testing checks for two types of
errors: syntax errors and logic errors. A syntax error is a program statement that violates one
or more rules of the language in which it is written. These errors are shown through error
messages generated by the computer. A logic error on the other hand deals with incorrect
data fields, out-of-range items, and invalid combination.

45

SYSTEM TESTING & QUALITY ASSURANCE

STRING TESTING
Program are invariably related to one another and interact in a total system. Each program is
tested to see whether it conforms to related programs in the system. Each portion of the
system is tested against the entire module with both test and live data before the entire
system is ready to be tested.
SYSTEM TESTING
System testing is designed to uncover weaknesses that were not found in earlier tests. This
includes forced system failure and validation of the total system as it will be implemented by
its user(s) in the operational environment.
SYSTEM DOCUMENTATION
All design and test documentation should be finalized and entered in the library for future
reference. The library is the central location for maintenance of the new system. It verifies that
the systems procedures operate to system specification and that the integrity of vital data is
maintained . Performance of an acceptance test is actually the users show. User motivation
and knowledge are critical for the successful performance of the system.
QUALITY ASSURANCE
Quality assurance defines the objectives of the project and reviews the overall activities so
that errors are corrected early in the development process. Steps are taken in each phase to
ensure that there are no errors in the final software.
GOAL OF QUALITY ASSURANCE IN SYSTEM LIFE CYCLE
The goal of this stage is to define the factors that contribute to the quality of the candidate
system. Several factors determine the quality of a system:
1.

Correctness

2.

Reliability

3.

Efficiency

4.
5.

Usability
Maintainability

6.

Testability

7.

Portability

8.

Accuracy

9. Error tolerance
10. Expandability
11. Access control

The extent to which a program meet system specification and

user objectives.
The degree to which the system performs its intended functions
over a time.
The amount of computer resources required by a program to
perform a function.
The effort required to learn and operate a system.
The ease with which program errors are located and corrected.
The effort required to test a program to ensure its correct
performance.
The ease of transporting a program from one hardware
configuration to another.
The required precision in input editing, computations, and
output.
Error detection and correction versus error avoidance.
Ease of adding or expanding the existing data base
Control of access to the system and extent to which that access
can be and audit audited.
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SYSTEM TESTING & QUALITY ASSURANCE

12. Communicativeness

How descriptive or useful the inputs and outputs of the system

are.

LEVELS OF QUALITY ASSURANCE

There are three levels of quality assurance:
1.
2.
3.

System Testing
System Validation
Certification

SYSTEM TESTING
In the system testing the common view is to eliminate program errors. This is extremely difficult
and time-consuming, since designers cannot prove 100 percent accuracy. Therefore, all that
can be done is to put the system through a fail test cycle- determine what will make it fail. A
successful test, then is one that finds errors. The test strategies discussed earlier are used in
system testing.
SYSTEM VALIDATION
System validation checks the quality of the software in both simulated and live environments.
First the software goes through a phase (often referred to as alpha testing) in which errors
and failures based on simulated user requirements are verified and studied. The modified
software is then subjected to phase two (called beta testing) in the actual users site or a live
environment. The system is used regularly with live transactions. After a scheduled time,
failures and errors are documented and final correction and enhancements are made before
the package is released for use.
SYSTEM CERTIFICATION
The third level of quality assurance is to certify that the program or software package is
current and conforms to standards. With a growing trend towards purchasing ready-to-use
software, certification has become more important. A package that is certified goes through a
team of specialists who test, review and determine how well it meets the vendors claims.
Certification is actually issued after the package passes the test certification, however, does
not assure the user that it is the best package to adopt; it only attests that it will perform what
the vendor claims.
TRENDS IN TESTING
Automated tools and software aids are used for testing. Tools are as under

1.

FUNCTIONAL TESTER

The functional tester is of great value when minute hardware problems are disguised as
software bugs. For Example, hardware faults are usually repeatable, whereas software bugs
are generally erratic. Problems arise when the delicate interaction between hardware and
software cause a hardware problem to appear as an erratic software bug. A functional tester
determines immediately that the problem is in the hardware. This saves considerable time
during testing.
47

SYSTEM TESTING & QUALITY ASSURANCE

2.

DEBUG MONITOR

Another software aid is the debug monitor. It is a computer program that regulates and modifies
the applications software that is being tested. It can also control the execution of functional
tests and automatically patch or modify the application program being tested.
The use of these tools will increase as systems grow in size and complexity and as the
verification and insurance of reliable software become increasingly important.
ROLE OF THE DATA PROCESSING AUDITOR
The data processing (DP) auditor should be involved in most phases of the system life cycle,
especially system testing. In the past, auditors have audited system after they have been
installed. Then the cost is often too prohibitive to go back and modify the system to incorporate
adequate control. Therefore audit control must be built into the system design and tested with
the cooperation of both the analyst and the DP auditor. The auditors role is to judge the
controls and make recommendations to the system team in charge of the project. The user
department should participate in reviewing the control specification for the system to ensure
that adequate control has been provided.
THE AUDIT TRAIL
An important function of control is to provide for the audit trail. In designing tests the auditor is
concerned about the changing nature of the audit trail.
Some of the following changes in the audit trail confront the auditor
1.
2.
3.

Source documents are no longer used by the system after they are transcribed onto a
machine-readable medium.
Files stored on tape or disk can be read only be a computer, which limits the auditing
function.
Processing activities are difficult to observe, since most of them are within the system.

MAINTINING OF AUDIT TRIAL

One way to maintain a viable audit trail is to keep a detailed file of the transactions as they
occur. The file can then be the input for an audit program that extracts the transactions for
selected accounts and prints them so that auditor can trace the status of an account in detail.

ASSIMILATION EXERCISE
1.
2.
3.
4.

Why do we test systems ? How important is testing ? Elaborate.

A variety of tests are used to test systems. Discuss three such tests.
What types of test data are used in system testing ?
Specify the purpose of system testing. What performance criteria are used for system testing? Discuss.
48