VascodeGama

Eversince1416,thedreamofPrinceHenryofPortugal(knownas
"theNavigator")hadbeentoroundtheCapeofGoodHopeto
findanallwatertraderoutefromPortugaltoIndia.However,he
didnotlivetoseehisdreamfulfilledinfull.Exploringthesouthern
extremityofthecontinentofAfricawasnotaccomplisheduntil
1488whenBartolomeuDiasroundedtheCapeofGoodHope
showingthatcircumnavigatingAfricawasindeedafeasibleway
ofreachingIndia.ButwhohadthezealtofulfillPrinceHenry's
greatambitiousdream?WhichPortuguesecaptainhadthe
couragetosailallthewaytoIndiatotradeforitsvaluable
commodities?InspirationfromPrinceHenry'sexpeditionsand
otherpioneeringvoyagesfiftyyearsearlier,competitionin
oceanicexplorationfromSpain,andthegreatachievementof
roundingoftheCapeofGoodHopemayhavecontributedto
VascodaGama'sdesiretofindanall-oceanroutetoIndia.
VascodaGama'sbirthin1469inSines,Portugalisoneofthefewthingsweknowabouthislife
beforethevoyagetoIndia.Wealsoknowthathewasthetowngovernor'sson,hewaseducated
asanobleman,andservedinthecourtoftheKingofPortugal,JoaoII,thebrotherofPrince
HenrytheNavigator.AlthoughlittleelseisknownaboutVascodaGamabeforehisattemptto
findasearoutetoIndia,wedoknowthathisfather,EstevoadaGama,wasgiventhetaskto
findthetraderoutetoIndiabutdiedbeforehecouldbegin.TraditionhasitthatKingEmanuel
thenaskedPaulodaGama,VascodaGama'sbrother,toundertakethemission,butPaulo
refused.SincethetripwasheldinhighprioritybecauseofcompetitioninexpansionfromSpain's
discoveryoftheNewWorldbyChristopherColumbus,KingEmanuelthenlookedtoVascode
Gamatocompletethemissionbecauseofhisformerexperienceinthefieldasanavalofficer
andbecauseofhismeritinthewarsagainstCastile.In1492(thesameyearasColumbus'
discoveryoftheAmericas),hehadcommandedadefenceofPortuguesecoloniesfromthe
FrenchonthecoastofGuinea.
VascodaGamasetoutonhishistoricexpeditionfromLisbon,PortugalonJuly8,1497with170
menandfourships:theSoGabriel,theSoRafael,theBerrio,andastorageshipofunknown
name.Ironically,PaulodeGama,whoitissaidrefusedtocommandthevoyageearlier,
commandedtheSoRafael.DeGama'sshipsroundedtheCapeofGoodHopeonNovember
22,1497.Mostofthefirstpartofthetripwasuneventfulexceptforoneepisodewhenagroupof
nativeAfricansattackedandwoundedfivemen.However,afterroundingtheCapeofGood
Hope,henarrowlyavoidedamutinybecausehismenwantedtoreturnhome.WhenJanuary
came,daGama'ssmallfleetcameintoMuslim-controlledwateroffthecoastofEastAfricanear
MozambiquewhereheemployedthehelpofapilotfromMalindinamedAhmadIbnMajidwho
helpedtoguidethemtherestofthewaytoCalcut,India.Atotherpointsalongthecoastof
Mozambique,theMuslimsreactedwithhostilitytowardsdaGamaseeinghimasathreattotheir
tradewithIndiaandtriedtosiezehisships.Finally,onMay20,1498,VascodaGamaarrivedon
India'swesternshoreinCalicut,India(nowknownasKozhikode).Whathadbeenattemtedand
dreamedbysomany,likeColumbusandPrinceHenry,hadfinallybeenacomplished.Atfirst,he
wasreceivedwellbytheZamorin(HindurulerofIndia)andwastakentotheHindutemple.But
afterdaGamapresentedtheZamorinwhathefeltwereinferorgifts,theattitudestowardsthe
newcomersquicklychanged;thetradegoodsthathadbeenacceptedinAfricawereoflittle
worthinthehigh-classIndianmarket.TheMuslims'attitudetowardsthePortuguese
interferencealsocontributedtowardsthehostility."DaGama'sarrivalarousedthehostilityof
theArabtradersatCalicut.Hewasjailedasapirateandnarrowlyescapeddeath.Finallyhe
wasallowedtoassemblearichcargoofspicesandpreciousstones."6Finally,theZamorin
agreedtotradespicesandgemsforPortuguesegold,silver,coral,andscarletcloth.Afterhis
release,hesetsailforLisbon,PortugalinAugust,1498withonly55ofhis170men-mostof
whomhaddiedofscurvy.DaGamaandhisremainingcrewarrivedbackinPortugalin
September,1499tobehailedasheroes.KingEmanuelmadeVascodaGamaaLordand

suppliedhimwithalargeincome.Economically,thetripwaswellworththeeffortearninga
3000%profitduetoinflatedpricesbackinPortugal.8
VascodaGamareturnedtwicemoretoIndia:oncetoavengePortuguesemerchantswhowere
killedbyMuslimtradersin1502andanothertimetobecometheviceroyofIndiain1524.When
daGamareturnedtoavengethedeathsofthetraders,theKingmadehimanadmiralandsent
awell-armedfleetoftwentyships.
WhenVascodaGamawentoutonhissecondexpeditiononFebruary12,1502,hewas
preparedforanencounterwiththeMuslimtraders.Hesetsailwith20well-armedships,hoping
toforcehiswayintothemarketandtogetrevengeontheMuslimsfortheoppositionin1498.Da
GamakilledmanyinnocentIndiansandMuslims.Inoneinstance,daGamawaitedforashipto
returnfromMecca,aMuslimtradingandreligiouscenter.ThePortugueseovertooktheshipand
seizedallthemerchandise.Thentheylockedthe380passengersintheholdandsettheshipon
fire.Ittookfourdaysfortheshiptosink,killingallmen,women,andchildren.WhendaGama
arrivedinCalicutonOctober30,1502,theZamorinwaswillingtosignatreaty.DaGamatold
himthathewouldhavetobanishalloftheMuslims.Todemonstratehispower,daGamahung
38fishermen;cutofftheirheads,feet,andhands;andfloatedthedismemberedcorpsesonto
theshore.LaterdaGamabombardedthecitywithgunsandforcedhiswayintothetrading
system.ThisledthewayforotherPortugueseconquestsintheEastIndies.
DaGamareturnedinFebruary,1503.In1519,daGamawasmadeacount.Whenhewas
appointedtheviceroyofIndiain1524,hereturnedtoIndiaforhisthirdandlasttime.However,
hediedsoonafterarrivinginGoainSeptember,1524.Supposedly,hisremainsweretakenback
toPortugaltobeburiedinthechapelwherehehadprayedbeforehisfirstvoyagetoIndia.
WhatwastheoverallimportanceofVasco'svoyageandwhateffectdoesithaveonustoday?
NotonlydidithelpPotugal'seconomy,butithelpedallofEurope'seconomyandtrade.William
DurantassertsthathisvoyagewasoneofthecausesthathelpedendtheMedievalAges:"What
putanendtotheMiddleAges?Manycauses,operatingthroughthreecenturies:thefailureof
theCrusades;thespreadingacquaintanceofrenascentEuropewithIslam;thedisillusioning
captureofConstantinople;theresurrectionofclassicpaganculture;theexpansionof
commercethroughthevoyagesofHenrytheNavigator'sfleet,andColumbus,andVascode
Gama;theriseofthebusinessclass,whichfinancedthecentralizationofmonoarchial
government;thedevelopmentofnationalstateschallengingthesupernationalauthorityofthe
popes;thesucessfulrevoltofLutheragainstthepapacy;printing."11Durantalsoclaimsthat
VascodaGama'svoyagehelpedoneofthegreatestcommercialrevolutionsbeforethe
inventionoftheairplane:"ThediscoveriesbegunbyHenrytheNavigator,advancedbyVasco
daGama,culminatinginColumbus,androundedoutbyMagellameffectedthegreatest
commercialrevolutioninhistorybeforethecomingoftheairplane."12Anotheroutcomeofda
Gama'svoyageswastheMuslims'lossofcontroloftheIndianOceantothePortugueseintrade.
Becauseofthis,manyArabnationsenteredastateofeconomicdecline.Thismayhave
contributedtotheperiodofstagnationthatIslamexperencedintheseventeenthcentury.In
conclusion,VascodaGama'svoyage,whichsailedfromPortugaltonavigatearoundAfricato
findanalloceantraderoutewithIndia,hadmajoreffectsonEurope'seconomybecauseof
newlyopenedtradewiththerichesofIndia.ItalsohelpedtobringanendtotheMiddleAges,
stoppedMuslimsuperiorityintradeintheIndianocean,andwasasignificantrevolutionintrade.

HernanCortes
CORTES,Hernan,orHernando,soldier,borninMedellin,
provinceofEstremadura,Spain,in1485;diednearSeville,2
December,1547.Hisparents,MartinCortesandCatalina
PizarroAltamirano,werebothofgoodfamily,butinreduced
circumstances.Hewasasicklychild,andattheageoffourteen
wassenttotheUniversityofSalamanca,butreturnedhometwo
yearslaterwithoutleave.Hethendetermineduponalifeof
adventure,andarrangedtoaccompanyNicolasdeOvando,
likewiseanativeofEstremadura,whowasabouttosailfor
SantoDomingotosupersedeBobadillainhiscommand.An
accidentthathappenedtohiminaloveadventuredetainedhim
athome,andtheexpeditionsailedwithouthim.Hethensought
militaryserviceunderthecelebrated
GonzalodeCordova,butonhiswaytoItalywasprostratedbysicknessinValencia,wherehe
remainedforayear,experiencinggreathardshipandpoverty.ReturningtoMedellin,hewas
ablein1504tosailfromSanLucarforSantoDomingo.Ovandoreceivedhimcordially,andhe
obtainedemploymentunderDiegoValasquezinthesuppressionofarevolt,onthetermination
ofwhichhewasassignedthecontrolofalargenumberofIndians,andappointedanotary.He
wasatthistimeremarkableforagracefulphysiognomyandamiablemanneraswellasforskill
andaddressinmilitarymatters,andheheldsuccessivelyvariousimportantoffices.In1511he
accompaniedDiegoVelasquez,whowassentoutbyDiegoColumbustosubdueandcolonize
Cuba.LaterheheldtheofficeofalcaldeofSantiagointhenewcolony,andmeanwhilehe
marriedCatalinaJuarez,aSpanishladywhohadcomeoverinthesuiteofMariadeToledo,the
vice-queen.AfterhismarriageheemployedhimselfandhisIndiansingettinggold."Howmany
ofthemdiedinextractingthisgoldforhim,GodwillhavekeptabetteraccountthanIhave,"
saysLasCasas.Grijalva,alieutenantofVelasquez,hadjustdiscoveredMexico,buthadmade
noattemptatitssettlement.
Thisdispleasedthegovernor,andCorteswasgiventhecommandofanewexpeditionaboutto
startfortheconquestofthenewlydiscoveredprovince.Atthelastmoment,Velasquezappears
tohaveregrettedtheappointment,possiblyfearingthatCorteswouldcarryoffallthegloryas
wellastheprofitoftheenterprise,andendeavoredtorecalltheexpedition;butCorteshastened
hispreparations,andon18:Nov.,1518,leftSantiagowith10vessels,550Spaniards,nearly300
Indians,afewNegroes,10brassguns,adozenhorses,andsomefalconets.Collectingstoreson
hisway,hearrivedatTrinidad,andlateratHavana,atbothofwhichplaceshefoundorders
fromVelasquezdeprivinghimofhiscommand,butinneitherplacecouldtheybeenforced,so.
afterwritingaletterofremonstrancetothegovernor,hesailed,on10February,1519,forthe
islandofCozumel,onthecoastofYucatan.On4MarchhefirstlandedontheshoresofMexico,
intheprovinceofTabasco,advancingslowlyalongthegulf.Sometimestakingmeasuresto
conciliatetheaatiresandsometimesspreadingterrorbyarms,hefinallyreachedandtook
possessionoftheCityofTabasco.Thenoiseoftheartillery,theappearanceofthefloating
fortressesthathadtransportedtheSpaniardsovertheocean,andthehorsesonwhichthey
fought,allnewobjectstothenatives,inspiredthemwithastonishment,terror,andadmiration.
AtSanJuandeUlua,CortesfirstlearnedthatthenativerulerwascalledMontezuma;thathe
reignedoveranextensiveempire,whichhadlastedforthreecenturies;thatthirtyvassalscalled
caciquesobeyedhim;andthathispowerandricheswereverygreat.Thesefactsinducedhim
toundertaketheconquestoftheempire.HelaidthefoundationofthetownofVeraCruz,and
causedhimselftobechosencaptain-generalofthenewcolony,thenburninghisshipssoasto
makeretreatimpossible,andtoaugmenthisarmybytheseamen,andtakingthepartofseveral
nativetribesagainstthetax-collectorsofMontezuma,thusgainingallies,hesetoutfortheCity
ofMexico,theresidenceandcapitalofMontezuma.TherepublicofTlascala,aprovince

betweenthecoastandthecapital,althoughhostiletoMontezuma,opposedCorteswithits
forces.Afterfourseverebattles,ineachofwhichhedefeatedlargenumbersofTlascalans,he
enteredthecapitalCityofTlascalaon18September,1519,and,dictatingpeaceonmoderate
terms,convertedthenativesintopowerfulallies.HeendeavoredtopersuadetheTlascalansto
abjuretheirreligion,butinvain,althoughhesucceededbetterinprevailinguponthemtoown
themselvesvassalsofthekingofSpain.Afterastayoftwentydaysinthiscapitalhepushedon
towardMexicobyCholula,accompaniedbyseveralthousandofhisnewallies.Anattemptwas
madetocheckhisadvancebyanambuscadepreparedbytheCholulansattheinstanceofthe
Mexicans;butthisheescaped,althoughnotuntilafterhehadtakenvengeanceonthe
Cholulans.Hethencontinuedhismarch,andreachedtheCityofMexicoearlyinNovember,at
theheadofaforceconsistingof6,000nativesandahandfulofSpaniards.Ambassadorsfrom
MontezumahadmetCortesbeforeheenteredTlascala,andhewasnowreceivedwithgreat
ceremonybytheMexicanmonarch.Thenatives,believinghimtobeadescendantofthesun,
prostratedthemselvesbeforehim,andhewasassignedquartersinoneofthebeautifulpalaces
ofthismagnificentcity.ThisheatoncefortifiedsoastopreventsurpriseorCapture,andwas
consideringwhatplanstopursueinordertopossessthewealthoftheempirewhenhewas
informedthatanattackhadbeenmadeonthegarrisonatVeraCruz.Theimportanceofthis
eventwasverygreat,forhithertotheMexicanshadbelievedtheSpaniardstobeimmortal,and
thereceiptoftheheadofoneofthesoldiersonlyundeceivedthem.
Cortesconceivedandexecutedamostbrilliantanddaringproject,which,beingsuccessful,
doubtlesspreventedthemassacreoftheentireSpanishforce.Accompaniedbyhisofficers,he
wentatoncetothepalaceofMontezuma,and,takinghimprisoner,threatenedhimwithinstant
deathifheinanywayappealedtohispeople;then,havingcapturedtheMexicanswhohad
participatedintheattackonYeraCruz,heburnedthemaliveinfrontoftheimperialpalace.
MeanwhileheplacedMontezumainirons,andcompelledhimtoacknowledgehimselfavassal
ofCharlesV.Caminatzin,thebravestofMontezuma'snephews,waslikewisemadeprisoner,
and,withmanyofthenoblesoftheempire,inducedtotaketheoathofallegiancetothekingof
Spain.SoonaftertheMexicanrulerwasrestoredtoasemblanceofliberty,butnotuntilhe
presentedCorteswith600,000marksofpuregoldandalargequantityofpreciousstones.
Scarcelyhadheaccomplishedallthiswhenhereceivedintelligencethatanarmyunder
NarvaezhadbeensentbyVelasqueztocompelhimtorenouncehiscommand.Leaving200
meninMexicounderthecommandofalieutenantwhomherecommendedtothecareof
MontezumaasavassalofCharlesV.,hemarchedwith70men,and,afterbeingjoinedby150
more,whomhehadleftatCholula,capturedNarvaez,whohaden-campedneartheCityofthe
Cempovallanswithaforceof900men,80horses,and10or12piecesofartillery.Thedefeated
troops,afterthedeathoftheirleader,readilyjoinedthearmyofCortesandreturnedwithhimto
Mexico,wherehefoundthatthepeoplehadrisenagainsttheSpaniardss.Montezuma,stilla
prisoner,endeavoredtopacifyhissubjects,butwasattackedbythemobandsoinjuredby
stonesthathediedinafewdays.Anewemperorwaschosen,underwhoseleadershipthey
attackedtheSpaniardsanddrovethemoutofthecity.Cortes'srear-guardwascuttopieces,
and,afteraharassingretreatofsixdays,theMexicansofferedbattleontheplainsofOtumba.
Withtheadvantagesofferedbyhisartilleryandfire-arms,Cortes,on7July,1520,gaineda
greatvictory,whichdecidedthefateofMexico.Thecelebratednochetriste(or"unhappynight")
tree,shownintheillustration,isinthevillageofPopotla,nearanoldchurchintheenvironsof
Mexico.Cortesissaidtohavesatunderthistreelamentinghismisfortuneaftertheretreatofthe
Spaniardsduringthenightoftheevacuation.ThetreeisknownbytheIndiansasthe
"ahuehuete,"andinSpanishiscalled"sabino."Itisaspeciesofcedarandistenfeetindiameter
atthebase,aboutfortyfeetinheight,andsurroundedbyasubstantialironrailing.Afterhis
success,CortesproceededtoTlascala,wherehecollectedanarmyofnatives,andagain
marchedagainsttheCityofMexico,which,afteragallantdefenseofseventy-sevendays,was
retakenon13August,1521.Theextentofhisconquest,dueentirelytohisgenius,valor,and
profoundbutunscrupulouspolicy,causedhisirregularitiestobeforgivenbyhissovereign,who,
disregardingthepretensionsofVelasquez,appointedCortesgovernorandcaptain-generalof
Mexico,alsoconferringonhimthemarquisateofOajacawithaconsiderablerevenue.His

courseofconquest,however,wasnotsuchastoconciliatethenatives:hewasover-zealousto
destroytheiridols,andanxioustoconvertthemtoChristianity,evenusingforceforthispurpose.
TheseactionssoembitteredtheMexicansthat,reducedtodespair,theyagainrevolted,butin
vain.Thearms,valor,andzealoftheSpaniardssucceededeverywhere.Guatimozin,thenew
emperor,amanofmuchgreaterforcethanMontezuma,was,withanumberofthecaciques,
accusedofconspiringagainsttheconquerors,andwaspubliclyexecutedwithcircumstances
ofgreatcrueltybyCortes.MeanwhilehissuccessesproducedjealousiesinMadrid,hisambition
andgreatpopularitywiththesoldierscausedhimtobefeared,andcommissionersweresentto
watchhisconductandthwarthisproceedings.
Whilehewasengagedinconquest,hispropertywasseizedandhisretainersImprisonedand
putinirons.Indignantatsuchtreatment,CortesreturnedtoSpaintoappealtothejusticeofhis
master,andpresentedhimselfwithgreatsplendorbeforethecourt.HewasreceivedbyCharles
witheverydistinction,anddecoratedwiththeorderofSantiago.CortesreturnedtoMexicowith
750newtitlesandhonors,butwithdiminishedpower,aviceroyhavingbeenintrustedwiththe
administrationofcivilaffairs,althoughCortesstillretainedmilitaryauthority,withpermissionto
continuehisconquests.Thisdivisionofpowerledtocontinualdissension,andcausedthefailure
ofseveralenterprisesinwhichCorteswasengaged;butin1536hediscoveredthepeninsulaof
CaliforniaandsurveyedpartofthegulfthatseparatesitfromMexico.Subsequently,however,
tiredofstrugglingwithunworthyadversaries,hereturnedtoEurope,hopingtoconfoundhis
enemies.Charlescoldlyreceivedhim;but,concealinghisfeelings,heservedinthedisastrous
expeditiontoAlgiersin1541.Duringthisunfortunatecampaign,whichwashislast,heserved
withgreatbravery;and,hadhisadvicebeenheeded,theSpanisharmswouldhavebeensaved
fromdisgrace,andEuropedeliverednearlythreecenturiesearlierfromthescourgeof
organizedpiracy.Onhisreturnhewasutterlyneglected,andcouldscarcelyobtainan
audience.Ononeoccasionheforcedhiswaythroughacrowdthatsurroundedtheemperor's
carriage,andmountedonthedoorstep.Theemperor,astoundedatsuchaudacity,demanded
ofhimwhohewas."Iamaman,"repliedCortesproudly,"whohasgivenyoumoreprovinces
thanyourancestorsleftyoucities."Thisdeclarationofservicescouldscarcelyfailtooffendthe
proudmonarch,andCortesretiredtoSeville,wherehepassedtheremainderofhisdaysin
solitude.FivelettersaddressedtoCharlesV.,detailinghisconquests,arehisonlywritings.

JohnCabot
GiovanniCaboto(CabotsItalianname,otherspellingsareusedas
well)wasborninGenova,probablyaround1451.However,already
whenhewasachild,ormaybeayoungman,hemovedtoVenice.
ItwasprobablyonhearingofColumbus'sdiscoveryof'theIndies'
thathedecidedtofindaroutetothewestforhimself.Hewentwith
hisplanstoEngland,because:
1. HeincorrectlythoughtthespicerieswerecomingfromnorthernAsia
2. Becauseadegreeoflongitudeisshorterthefurtheroneisfromtheequator,thevoyage
fromwesternEuropetoeasternAsiawouldbeshorteronhigherlatitudes.
KingHenryVIIgavehimagrant"fullandfreeauthoritie,leave,andpower,tosayletoallpartes,
countreys,andseas,oftheEast,oftheWest,andoftheNorth,underourbannersandensignes,
withfiveships...andasmanymarinersormenastheywillhaveinsaideships,upontheirown
propercostesandcharges,toseekeout,discover,andfinde,whatsoeveriles,countreyes,
regionsorprovincesoftheheathenandinfidelles,whatsoevertheybee,andinwhatpartofthe
worldsoevertheybe,whichebeforethistimehavebeeneunknowentoallChristians."
CabotwenttoBristoltomakethepreparationsforhisvoyage.BristolbythenwasthesecondlargestseaportofEngland,andduringthepastyears(from1480onwards)severalexpeditions
hadbeensentouttolookforHy-Brasil,anislandthatwouldlaysomewhereintheAtlantic
accordingtoCelticlegends.SomepeoplethinkNewfoundlandmayhavebeenfoundon(oneof)
thesevoyages.
Cabotleftwithonlyonevessel,theMatthew,asmallship(50tuns),butfastandable.Thecrew
consistedofonly18people.Hedepartedon20May,1497(hehadalsomadeavoyagein1496,
butgotnofurtherthanIceland).HesailedtoDurseyHead,Ireland,fromwherehesaileddue
westtoAsia-orsohethought.HelandedontheAmericaneastcoastat24June,1497.Iwould
havelikedtobemoreprecise,buthislanding-placeisamatterofmuchcontroversy.Hewent
ashoretotakepossessionoftheland,andexploredthecoastforsometime,probablydeparting
at20July.Onthehomewardtravelhissailorsthoughttheyweregoingtoofarnorth,soCabot
sailedamoresouthernlycourse,reachingBrittanyinsteadofEngland.At6Augusthearrived
backinBristol.
BackinEnglandCabotgotwellrewarded(apensionof20poundsayear),andapatentwas
writtenforanewvoyage.Thenextyear,1498,hedepartedagain,with5shipsthistime.Except
foroneoftheships,thatsoonafterdepartmadeforanIrishportbecauseofdistress,nothing
washearedoftheexpedition,orofJohnCabot,eversince.
AsIsaidbefore,Cabot'slandfallisstillunknown,becauseoflackofevidence.Manyexperts
thinkit'sonCapeBretonIsland,butotherslookforitinNewfoundland,LabradororMaine.We'll
probablyneverknowthetruth.
John'ssonSebastianlatermadeavoyagetoNorthAmerica,lookingforthenorthwestpassage
(1508),andonetorepeatMagellan'svoyagearoundtheworld,whichendeduplookingforsilver
alongtheRiverPlate(1525-8).Aboutthe1508voyagelittleisknown,andMorisondoubts
whetheritreallyhastakenplace,suggestingitmightbenothingmorethanbluff.
In1498-1500afewPortuguesetravels,MiguelandGasparCorte-Realbeingthemostfamous
participants,visitedGreenland,LabradorandNewfoundland.In1501-5anEnglishsyndicate,
consistingof3Azoreansand2Englishtraders,madevoyagestoNewfoundland.From1504,if
notbefore,Breton,Basque,PortugueseandEnglishfishermencrossedtheoceantocatchfish
ontheNewfoundlandbanks.

JacquesCartier
JacquesCartierwasborninSt.Malo(France)in1491.Notmuchis
knownofhislifebefore1534,whenhedepartedonhisfirstvoyage.
HewaslookingforapassagethroughoraroundNorthAmericato
EastAsia,assomehaddonebeforehim,andmanywouldafterhim.
HemadethecrossingoftheAtlanticinonlytwentydays,and
landedonanislandnearthecoastofNewfoundland,bythen
alreadymuchfrequentedbyBretonfishermen.Hesailednorth,and
enteredtheStraitofBelleIsle.HesailedintotheBayofSt.Lawrence
andalongthewestcoastofNewfoundland,andcrossedtheBayto
theMagdalenIslandsandPrinceEdwardIsland,bothofwhichhe
thoughtpartofthe
mainland.ThenhewenttoChaleurBayandGasppeninsula.Therehesaw50canoesfilled
withMicmacindians,whoseemedfriendlyandgreetedhimwiththewordsnapeutondamen
assurtah(wewanttomakefriendship).ThenextdaytheFrenchandtheMicmactradedand
celebrated.Cartierexploredthebay,beingdisappointedthatitwasnotthestraighttoChinahe
hadhopedittobe.Healsometafishingpartyof200Hurons,ledbytheirchief,Donnaconna.His
sons,DomagaiaandTaignagny,wenttoFrancewithCartiertobecomeinterpreters.Cartier
exploredAnticostiIslandandreturnedtoFrance.
Ashehadhearedofalargeriverfurthertothewest,andhopedittobethesought-fornortheast
passage,Cartierdepartedonasecondvoyageinthenextyear.HesailedthroughtheStraitof
BelleIsleagain,butthistimefollowedthecoastwestward,andreachedtheSt.Lawrence.He
sailedupriveruntiltheHuronvillageofStadacona(atthelocationofpresent-dayQuebec).
Donnaconafirstgreetedhimfriendlyandsolemnly,butrefusedtolethimsailfurtherwest.Three
medicinmendressedupasdevils,andwarnedCartiernottogofurther,butCartierjustlaughed
atit.Hewentfurtherupriver,leavingthetwoHuronboysbehind.
HereachedHochelaga,anotherHuronvillage.Againtheircomingresultedinextensive
festivities.CartierclimbedamountainhecalledMountRal(royalmountain),andwas
appointingwhenhesawtherapidsabitupriver,whichtoldhimthatthiswasnotthepassageto
China.HespentthewinterinStadacona.Duringthewinterhismensufferedfromscurvy,less
thantenofhis110menremainedstrongenough,andhadtogetfoodandwaterforall.Because
hewasafraidthattheindianswouldattackiftheylearnedthattheFrenchwereill,Cartier
orderedhismentomakenoisewhentheywerenear.Theexpeditionmightwellnothave
survivedifitwerenotforDomagaia.Domagaiahadscurvytoo,buttendayslaterCartiersaw
himhealthyandwell.Domagaiatoldhimhehadcuredfromthebarkandneedlesofthewhite
cedartree.Justoveroneweeklaterthetreewasbare,butallCartier'smenwerehealthyagain.
TheHuronstoldhimstoriesaboutalandinthenorth,calledSaguenay,fullofgoldandother
treasure.Noneofthiswastrueofcourse,buttheHuronslikedtellingstories,andwhenthey
foundtheFrenchlikedstoriesofriches,theywerehappytogivethemthese.Willingtoletking
FrancisItohearaboutthesestories,CartierkidnappedDonnaconnaandhissons,andtook
themwithhimtoFrance.
Hewantedtomakeanotherexpedition,thistimetolookforSaguenay,butbecauseofawar
withSpain,andthedifficultiesofpreparingthevoyage,hewasnotabletodosountil1541.This
timeCartierwouldnotbethesoleleaderoftheexpedition,buthadtoserveunderJeanFrancoisdelaRocque,sieurdeRoberval.HevisitedStadacona,andbuiltafortnearthemouth
oftheSaguenay.Hismencollectedwhattheythoughtwerediamondsandgold,butinreality
wereonlyquartzandironpyrite(fool'sgold).Cartierhimselfwentwest,lookingforSaguenay,but
gotnofurtherthanHochelaga.
Backathisfort(calledCharlesbourg-Royal)hespentthewinter.Somethirty-fiveofhismenwere
killedinsporadicalindianattacks(theHuronshadbecomehostilewhentheyrealizedthe
Frenchhadcometostay),andCartierwasworriedaboutthefactthatRobervaldidnotshow
up.ThenextspringhemetRobervalonNewfoundland.Robervalwantedhimtoreturn,but

Cartierrefused,andsneakedbacktoFrance.RobervalbuiltafortnearStadacona,wintered
there,wentlookingforSaguenaybutalsogotnofurtherthanHochelaga,andreturnedto
France.CartierspenttherestofhislifeinSt.-Maloandhisnearbyestate,anddiedin1557,aged
66.

FranciscoVsquezdeCoronado
Spanish,borninSalamanca,ca.1510,diedinMexicoCity,1554.
CoronadowasgovernorofNewGalicia(contemporarySinaloaand
Nayarit,Mexico).AssuchhehadalreadysentoutFrayMarcosde
Nizaonavoyagetothenorth,toNewMexico.WhenMarcos
returnedhetoldaboutawealthy,goldencity,calledCibola.Of
coursethisraisedCoronado'sinterest,andhedecidedtotrytoget
thatgold.Hesetoutin1540,joinedbyalargeexpeditionof340
Spanish,300Indianallies,and1000slaves,bothnativeAmericans
andAfricans.
HefollowedthecoastoftheGulfofCalifornianorthwardtotheSonora,thentraveledupstream
theSonora,andcrossedtheGilatoCibola,inthewestofpresent-dayNewMexico.Therehe
wasmetbydisappointment.CibolawasnothinglikethegreatgoldencityfrayMarcoshad
described,itwasjustasimplepueblooftheZuniindians.MarcoswassentbacktoMexicoin
disgrace.
CoronadoconqueredCibola,andexploredtheothersixZunipueblos.Healsosentoutvarious
expeditions.MelchiorDiazwassentouttothemouthoftheColorado,tomeetHernndode
AlarcnwhowouldbeshippingsuppliesforCoronado.PedrodeTovarwassentnorthwest,and
hearedofagreatriverfurtherwest.GarciaLopezdeCardenaswassentouttofindthisriver,
andfoundhimselfbeingthefirstEuropeantoseethemagnificentGrandCanyon.Hernandode
Alvaradowassenteast,andfoundvillagesaroundtheRioGrande.Coronadosetuphiswinter
quartersinoneofthem,Tiguex(present-dayBernalillonearAlbuquerque).Duringhiswintering
hesufferedfromfierceattacksbytheIndians.
HemetanIndian,whichhecalled"theTurk",whotoldhimaboutQuivira,arichcountryinthe
northwest.HedecidedtolookforQuivira,takingtheTurkashisguide.HetraversedtheTexan
panhandle,andmarchedonfurthernorth.However,theTurkwasfoundlyingabouttheroute,or
atleastCoronadothoughthedidso,andwasexecuted.OtherguidesledhimfurthertoQuivira,
andhereachedavillagenearpresent-dayLindsborg,Kansas.Buthisdisappointmentwas
repeated:TheQuiviraindians(laterknownasWichita)werenorichpeopleatall,thevillage
consistedmostlyofthatchedhuts,andnotevensmallamountsofgoldcouldbefound.
CoronadoreturnedtoTiguex,wherehismainforcehadremainedbehind.Herehespent
anotherwinter.
In1542hewentbacktoMexicothroughroughlythesameroutehehadcome.Only100ofhis
mencamebackwithhim.Althoughtheexpeditionwasacompletefailure,heremained
governorofNewGaliciauntil1544,thenretiredtoMexicoCity,wherehediedin1554.

HenrytheNavigator
Henrywasbornin1394asoneofthesonsofthePortugueseKing
JohnI,founderoftheAvizdynasty.In1415heandhisbrotherslead
thePortuguesearmyintheconquestofCeuta,aMuslimstronghold
inMorocco.TherehelearnedabouttherichesofAfrica.Hestarted
studyingthegeography,richesandtradeofwesternAfrica.
PrinceHenrydecidedtotrytogivePortugalashareintheseriches.
HoldingCeutadidnotwork-itusedtobeoneoftherichestcaravan
cities,butthatwaslostonceithadbecomechristian.Theonlyway
wouldbetogoaroundtheMuslimterritory,directlytothelands
wherethegold,silver,andmanymoreproductscamefrom
themselves.
ItissometimesthoughtthatHenrywaslookingforasearoutetoIndia,but,althoughhemight
havebeen,thiscertainlywasn'tthemainreasonforhisexpeditions.Farmoreimportantwasthe
wishtotakepartoftheWest-Africantrade.AnotherimportantgoalwastofindPresterJohn,a
christiankingthatwasrumouredtoholdalargeempiresomewhereinAfrica.Ifhewould
contactPresterJohn,perhapstogethertheycouldgainadecisivevictoryoverthemuslims.
PrinceHenrywasacrusaderatleastasmuchasadiscoverer.
HenryestablishedhimselfinSagres,onthesouthwesterntipofEurope,farawayfromthecourt
inLisbon.Therehebroughttogetherseveralimportantcartographersandinstrument-makers.
New,moreprecisemapswerecreated,sailorsgotlessonsinnavigatorytechniques,andanew
typeofshipwasdeveloped,thecaravel,thatcombinedcargocapability,manoeuverabilityand
seaworthiness,andthuswastheidealshipforexploring.Lagos,nearSagres,becameacenter
forshipbuilding.TheAgeofDiscoverywasreadytogetstarted.
HestartedsendingoutshipssouthwardalongtheAfricanwestcoast.However,noneofhismen
daredtogobeyondCapeBojador,atinycapesomewhatsouthoftheCanaries.Theywere
afraidthatbeyondCapeBojadortheseawassoundeepthatevenoneleague(almost5
kilometres)outofthecoast,theseawasonly1fathom(2metresdeep),thatthecurrentswere
sostrongthatnoshipwouldeverreturnandthatthesunwouldburnsohotthatnolifecould
surviveontheland.From1424to1434Henrysentout15expeditions,allofwhichdidnotdareto
passtheCape.
Then,in1433,asquirecalledGilEannesmadeanattempt.Hetoowastooafraid,however,and
returnedempty-handed.FinallyHenry'spatiencehadrunout,andhemadeEannessweartogo
southagain,andthistimenottoreturnwithouthavingpassedtheinfamouscape.Thistime
Eannessucceededintodoingwhatsomanybeforehimfailedtodo.Toavoidtheshallowsnear
theCape,hesailedwestwardintotheopensea,andwhenheturnedeastagain,hefound
himselfonthesouthsideoftheCape.Hefoundthecountrydesolate,butnotdeprivedofall
living.Finallythebarrieroffearhadbeenbroken.Eannesdeservestohavehisnametobe
amongthoseofthemostimportantexplorersofourworld.
FromthistimeonHenry'smenreachedfurthersouth,everyyear(well,notreally,sometimesone
ormoreyearsweremissedwhentroubleswithinthePortugueseroyaltyorfightswiththe
MuslimstooktoomuchofprinceHenry'stime)goingabitfurthersouth:
1435:EannesandAfonsodeBaldayaget50leaguesfurthersouth,andseetracesofpeople.
1436:BaldayareachesRiodeOro.
1441:NunoTristoandAntaoGonalvesreachCapeBlancoandcapturetwonatives.
1444:Eannescaptures200slavesnearCapeBlanco.BeginningoftheEuropeanslavetrade.
1445:DinisDiasroundsCapeVerde.
ItwasaroundthistimethatHenry'svoyagesbegantobearfruit.Slavesandseals,andlater
othertradearticlesaswell,begantobesailedfromtheAfricanCoasttoPortugal.Animportant
viewonthePortuguesetradingvoyagescanbegotfromAlvisedaCadamosto,aVenetian

traderwhotookpartinthevoyagestocontemporarySenegal,andwroteabookonhisvoyages.
HemightalsobethediscovereroftheCapeverdianIslands.
BythetimePrinceHenrydied,in1460,thePortuguesehadreachedCapePalmas(Liberia),and
atradingposthadbeenestablishedinArguim(anislandnearCapeVerde).

JuanPoncedeLon
JuanPoncedeLonconqueredtheislandofPuertoRico,
discoveredFlorida,exploreditscoastandmadeafailedattemptto
startasettlementthere.
JuanPoncedeLenwasbornsomewherearound1460inSan
TervsdeCampos,Len,fromimpoverishednobility.Hefirstvisited
theNewWorldonColumbus'ssecondvoyagein1493,andsettled
therein1502.
AfteragovernorshipofHigey(onHispaniola),in1508helefttoconqueranislandfurthereast,
whichhecalledSanJuandePuertoRico(nowPuertoRico).Heestablishedacolony,and
broughttheislandunderSpanishrule.In1509hewasnamedgovernorofPuertoRico,butin
1511hewasrelievedfromthisdutyforpoliticalreasons.
Forhisnextexploit,PoncedeLonsetouttofindanislandrumoredtolienorthofCuba,called
Bimini.AboutBiminitherewerelegendsgoingaroundofaFountainofYouth.Someonewho
drankfromthisfountainwassaidtobecuredofallhisillnessesandtoretainhisyouth.Poncede
Lonmaywellhavehopedtofindthisfountain.
PoncedeLonleftPuertoRicoon3March1513,sailinginanorthwesterndirection,skirtingthe
Bahamas.On27March,hefirstsawthemainlandofFlorida,whichhecalledTierraLaFlorida,
becausehediscovereditonPalmSunday(PascuaFloridainSpanish).On2Aprilhelanded,just
northofpresent-daySt.Augustine,andremainedthereforsixdays.
PoncedeLonandhispilot,AntndeAlaminos,whowouldpilotseveralmorevoyagesof
discoveryandinhistimewasthepersonbestacquaintedwiththeCaribbeanandtheGulfof
Mexico,followedthecoastsouthward,roundedtheFloridakeys,andexploredFlorida'swest
coastnorthward,possiblyasfarasPensacolaBay,beforereturningtoPuertoRico.
Theexpeditionwasanimportantone.NotonlywasPoncedeLondefirstEuropeanofwhom
wearecertainhevisitedtheterritoryofwhatisnowtheUnitedStates,butalsohehadfoundthe
BahamaChannel,whichgaveashorterroutebetweenCubaandEurope.Alaminos,whohad
noticedtheunusuallystrongcontrarycurrentatFlorida'ssouthcoast,isnowconsideredthe
discovereroftheGulfStream.
ThekinghonoredPoncedeLonwithaknighthoodandgovernorshipofFlorida,butitwould
takeuntil20February1521beforeheleftfromPuertoRicowithanexpeditiontocolonizewhat
PoncedeLonstillthoughtwastheislandofFlorida.Helandedonthewestcoast,and
attemptedtoestablishacolony,whichwasprobablyeithernearthemouthofCaloosahatchee
River,oronSanibelIsland.However,thefledglingcolonysoonsufferedfromIndianattacks,and
hadtobeabandoned.PoncedeLonhimselfhadbeenmortallywounded,andhediedshortly
afterarrivalbackinHavana(Cuba),inJuly1521.

FerdinandMagellan
ThefirstcircumnavigationoftheglobewasledbyFerdinand
Magellan.Hewasborninthespringof1480toafamilyoflower
nobility.EducatedinthePortuguesecourt,Magellanprovedhimself
inmanybattlesinthenameofhiscountry.LikeColumbusbeforehim,
MagellanbelievedhecouldgettotheSpiceIslandsbysailingwest.
HeknewhewouldhavetosailaroundorthroughtheNewWorldto
doso.Likesomanyexplorersbeforehim,hethoughttheearthwas
muchsmallerthanitactuallyis.SnubbedbythePortugueseking,
MagellaneasilyconvincedtheteenagedSpanishking,CharlesI(also
knownastheHolyRomanemperorCharlesV)thatatleastsomeof
theSpiceIslandslayintheSpanishhalfoftheundiscoveredworld.
KingCharlesapprovedMagellan'splanandgrantedhimgenerousfundsonMarch22,1518.
Withmoneyfromtheking,theexplorerwasabletoobtainfiveships(possiblynaos)calledthe
Trinidad,theSanAntonio,theConcepcion,theVictoria,andtheSantiago.InSeptember[1519],
hesetsailwith270men.
AgooddealofwhatweknowofthevoyageofMagellancamefromanItaliancrewmember,
AntonioPigafetta.Pigafettakeptadiaryofthevoyageandremainedastaunchsupporterofthe
Portugueseexplorer.LikeColumbus,MagellanwasaforeignerinchargeofSpanishcaptains,
andlikeColumbus,hisvoyagewasfraughtwithproblems.SpanishcaptainsJuandeCartegena
oftheSanAntonio,GaspardeQuesadaoftheConcepcion,andLuisdeMendozaoftheVictoria
wereplottingtokillMagellan.
AfterabriefstopattheCanaryIslands,Magellan'sfleetsetsailforBrazilonasouthwestcourse.
Cartegena,theringleaderofamutinyattempt,wasrelievedofhiscommandoftheSanAntonio
andheldprisoneraboardtheVictoria.AftercrossingtheequatoronNovember20,1519,the
crewsightedBrazilonDecember6.MagellanthoughtitunwisetogonearthePortuguese
territorysincehewassailingundertheSpanishflag.Hisfleeteventuallyanchoredoffthecoast
ofpresent-dayRiodeJaniero,outofthewayofthePortuguese,onDecember13th.After
stockinguponfreshfoodandwater,thefleetmadeitswaydowntheeastcoastofSouth
AmericalookingforapassagetothePacificOcean.Thefarthersouththeysailed,thecolderthe
weather.Theweatherwassobad,thefleetdecidedtospendthewinterinPatagonia.Thearea
wheretheysettledonMarch31,1520,wascalledSanJulian.
WhenMagellanreachedPatagonia(present-dayArgentina),anothermutinywasattempted.
Cartegena,releasedbycaptainMendoza,attemptedonceagaintotakeoverthefleetandhave
Magellankilled.ThePortugueseexplorerwasabletoputdowntherebellionbymarooning
CartegenainthebarrenPatagonia,imprisoningsome,andhavingQuesadaandotherrebels
executed.
Thestraitwasatrickypassagethattookthefleet38daystopassthrough.Whilesailingatnight,
thecrewsawcountlessfiresfromdistantIndiancamps.TheycalledthelandTierradelFuego
(landoffire).Duringthepassage,thecaptainoftheSanAntoniosailedhisshipbacktoward
Spain,takingwithhimmostofthefleet'sprovisions.ThelossoftheSanAntoniowasasevere
blowtothemenontheremainingships.Theyhadtodoubletheireffortstohuntgameandfish
tokeepfromstarving.
DuringthelastweekofNovemberthethreeshipsemergedfromthestraittotheopenseaofthe
Pacific.MagellanmistakenlythoughttheSpiceIslandswereashortvoyageaway.Hehadno
ideaoftheimmensesizeoftheoceanandthoughthecouldcrossitintwotothreedays.The
voyagetookapproximatelyfourmonths.

Conditionsaboardtheshipswereabominable.Thecrewbegantostarveasfoodstoreswere
depleted.Thewaterturnedputridandyellowincolor.Thecrewsurvivedonsawdust,leather
stripsfromthesails,andrats.WithoutthebenefitofvitaminCinfreshfruitsandvegetables,the
menalsocamedownwithscurvy.
FinallyinJanuary,1521,thecrewstoppedoffatanislandtofeastonfish,crabs,andseabird
eggs,butwithoutfreshfruitandvegetables,scurvystillplaguedthecrew.InMarch,thecrew
stoppedinGuamandwereabletosupplytheshipswithfoodincludingfreshfruit,vegetables,
andwater.TheysailedontothePhilippines,arrivingonMarch28.Afterbefriendinganisland
king,Magellanfoolishlygotinvolvedinthenatives'tribalwarfareandwaskilledinbattleon[April
27,1521].
SebastiandelCanotookovertheremainingthreeshipsand115survivors.Becausetherewere
notenoughmentocrewthreeships,delCanohadtheConcepcionburned.Thetworemaining
shipssailedfromthePhilippinesonMay1andmadeittotheMoluccas(SpiceIslands)in
November.Bothshipsloadedwithvaluablespices.

FrancisDrake
Thesecondcircumnavigationoftheglobewasaccomplishedbya
pirate-turned-explorernamedFrancisDrake.Bornin1540,Drakewas
destinedtobecomeanadventurer,pirate,andexpertseaman.
Duringhislifetime,EnglandandSpainwerebitterrivals.SeeingSpain
amassingavastempiretothewest,QueenElizabethIofEngland
sentDrakeonamissiontoexploreandtoseektreasureandspices.
ThismeantthattheexplorerwouldhavetoharassEngland'srivalsin
Spanish-heldterritory.HesetsailfromEnglandin[1577]with165
crewmenandfiveships,thePelican(laterrenamedtheGoldenHind),
theMarigold,theElizabeth,theSwan,andtheChristopher.Like
Magellan,Drakeandhiscrewsufferedhardshipssuchasstormsat
sea,starvation,illness,andattemptedmutinies.
HeabandonedtwoofhisshipsoffthecoastofSouthAmericaandwasseparatedfromthe
othertwoshipsintheStraitsofMagellan.HewasabletoestablishthattheTierradelFuego
areawasanislandandnotacontinent,asmanyEuropeansbelievedfollowingMagellan's
expedition.DrakeplunderedSpanishshippingintheCaribbeanandinCentralAmericaand
loadedhisshipwithtreasuretotakebacktoQueenElizabeth.
InJune,1579,Drakelandedoffthecoastofpresent-dayCaliforniaandsailedasfarnorthasthe
areathatwouldbecometheUnitedStates-Canadianborder.Hethenturnedsouthwestand
crossedthePacificOceanintwomonthstime.Ittookanotheryeartomakehiswaythroughthe
Indies,acrosstheIndianOcean,aroundtheCapeofGoodHopeandbacktoEngland.Upon
arrival,thequeenknightedDrakeaboardtheGoldenHind.
SirFrancisDrakedevotedtherestofhislifetotheharassmentoftheSpanish.Hemounted
anotherexpeditiontotheCaribbeanandledtheattackontheGreatSpanishArmada.Hedied
fromdysenterynearPanamain1596.

JamesCook
JamesCookwasbornonOctober27,1728,inMarton-in-Cleveland,
Yorkshire,England.HewasthesonofafarmerofScottishdecent.As
ayoungteenager,Cookwasapprenticedtoaseafaringfamily.In
1755,hejoinedGreatBritain'sRoyalNavyandsoonprovedhimself
anexpertnavigator.Justaftermakingofficerrank,LieutenantCook
waschosenbytheRoyalSocietyofLondontoundertakeascientific
journeytoTahititoobserveanddocumenttheplanetVenusasit
passedbetweentheearthandthesun.Theseobservationswould
helpscientistscalculatethedistanceoftheearthfromthesun.
OnAugust25,[1768],CookdepartedEnglandaboardtheEndeavourwith94crewmenand
scientists.HewascarryingsecretordersfromtheRoyalNavytobeopeneduponcompletionof
hisscientificmission.
Cookwasdeterminedtokeephiscrewhealthy.Heinsistedhismeneatonionsandpickled
cabbageeveryday,andmadesurethattheshipkeptfreshfruitandvegetablesonboard.He
orderedhismentobatheeveryday,tocleantheirclothing,andtoairouttheirbedding.Hedid
notknowthescientificreasonsbehindthesemeasures,butheknewtheyworkedtoprevent
scurvyandotherdiseasesinhiscrew.
OnApril11,1769,theEndeavourarrivedontheshoresofTahiti,sevenweeksearly.Afterviewing
thepassingofVenusbetweentheearthandsunforseveralweeks,Cookopenedasealed
envelopewiththeRoyalNavy'sorders.Hewastoseekoutthefabledsoutherncontinentand
claimitforEngland.Earlymapmakersinthe1570sassumedthereweretwomajorcontinentsat
eachoftheearth'spoles.Dutchexplorerssearchedforthesoutherncontinentinthe
seventeenthcentury.Sincethecontinentshadnotyetbeenfound,theRoyalNavytrustedthat
Cookwouldfindthesouthernoneifitexisted.HeleftTahitionJuly13andheadedsouthwest
WhenCookreachedNewZealandonOctober6,thenativeMaoripeopleprovedtobe
unfriendlyandhiscrewwasforcedtofireonthem.TheEndeavourspentafewmonthsexploring
NewZealandandproveditwasnotpartofthegreatsoutherncontinent.OnApril9,[1770],Cook
exploredanddocumentedthelocationofAustralia.Whilesailingaroundthisgreatcontinent,
theEndeavourranagroundontheGreatBarrierReef(extending150milesfromAustralia's
northeastcoastandthelargestreefintheworld)onJune11.Ittookadaytofreetheshipafter
thecrewthrewfiftytonsofship'sballast,ironcannons,firewood,andbarrelsoverboard.Once
free,thecrewquicklymaderepairstothebadlyleakingshiptokeepitfromsinking.After
monthsofexploringthecoastlineofAustralia,Cookconcludedthatthiscontinentwasnotthe
greatsoutherncontinent.
TheEndeavourmadeitswaytoJavaintheEastIndiesinOctober,1770.Oncethere,Cook's
menbecameveryillwithMalariaanddysentery.Despiteallhiseffortstokeephiscrewsafeand
healthy,theywerenomatchforthesediseases.Helost30menandhadtosignonnewcrewin
SouthAfricainordertomakeitbackhometoEngland.TheEndeavourmadeitbacktoDover,
England,onJuly13,1771,afterathree-yearvoyage.Cookwasformallypresentedtohis
majesty,KingGeorgeIIIfollowingthehistoricjourneyandmadeanavalcommander.
Cook'sSecondVoyage
Cook'ssecondvoyagebeganonJuly13,1772fromPlymouth,England.HetooktwoWhitby
colliers(refittedcoalships),theResolutionandtheAdventure.TheAdventuremeasured97feet
inlengthwith80crewmenandscientistsaboard.TheResolution,Cook'sflagship,was111feet
inlengthwith110crewmenandscientistsaboard.Hisordersweretofindthesouthern
continent.Heplanwastosearchforthecontinentandcircumnavigatetheglobe.Hewasbound
tofindthefabledcontinentthisway.

PriortoCook'sday,anaccuratemeasurementoflongitudewasvirtuallyimpossible.Therewas
nowaytodeterminetheexacttimeofday,theship'sposition,andtheexacttimeatafixedpoint
onshore.After1735,adeviceinventedbyEnglishmanJohnHarrisonmadethispossible.He
inventedaseaclockcalledachronometer,whichkeptperfecttimeunderroughseaconditions.
Becauseofthisinstrument,Cookwasoneofthefirstship'scommanderstoknowhisexact
positionontheglobewhilesailingunchartedseas.Hecarriedfourchronometersaboardthe
ResolutionandtheAdventure.
TheshipsheadedsoutharoundtheCapeofGoodHopeandtowardAntarctica.Theycrossed
theAntarcticCircleforthefirsttimeinJanuary1773.ToomuchiceblockedCook'swaytofind
thecontinentofAntarcticaandeventuallyhisshipsheadedforwarmerwaterstotheeast.
AfterstopsinNewZealandandTahiti,CookdiscoveredmoreislandsinthesouthPacific.By
November1773,theResolutionwasunderwayonceagaininsearchofthesoutherncontinent.
AfterreachingtheAntarcticCircleinJanuary1774,Cookhadsailedfarthersouththanany
otherexplorer.ButheneversightedthecontinentofAntarctica.Havingbeenseparatedfromits
sistership,theAdventuremadeitswaybacktoEngland.Cookreturnedtowarmerwatersand
continuedexplorationsofthePacific.HearrivedbackinEnglandonJuly29,1775.
Cook'sFinalVoyage
Cook'sfinalvoyagebeganonJuly12,1776.HewasaboardtheResolutionwithacrewof112.
HissistershipwastheDiscoverywith70menaboard.Thepurposeofhisthirdvoyagewasto
findthefabledNorthwestPassage.Unlikeotherexplorerswhoattemptedtofindthisareaofthe
world,CookattemptedaroutefromthePacificside.Cookvisitedsomeofhisfavoriteislandsin
thePacificandmadestopsinNewZealandandTahiti.
OnJanuary18,[1778],CooksightedtheHawaiianIslandsforthefirsttime.Henamedthemthe
SandwichIslandsafterhisfriend,theEarlofSandwich.Thenativesrowedouttomeethisships
andwereveryfriendly.AfterdiscoveringsomanyislandsinthePacificwherethepeoplehada
commonlanguageandsimilarcustoms,CookmarveledathowthePolynesianpeoplehad
spreadthemselvesfromislandtoisland.Europeanswerenottheonlyocean-faringpeople.
Indeed,thePolynesianshadmadetheirownexplorationsthousandsofyearsbefore.The
HawaiiansthoughtthatCookwasagodandthathismenweresupernaturalbeings.
Aftertwoweeksoftradingandgoodrelations,theshipsdepartedheadingnorth.ByMarch7,
Cookreachedthecoastofpresent-dayOregonandfollowedthecoastlinenorthtoAlaskaand
westthroughtheBeringStrait.ByAugust,CookconcludedtherewasnoNorthwestPassage
anddecidedtoheadforwarmerwatersforthewinter.
ByJanuary17,[1779],thetwoshipsonceagainlandedofftheshoresoftheHawaiianIslands.
TheEnglishmenappearedtohavewornouttheirwelcomewiththenatives.Tensionswere
increasingasCaptainCookdecidedtodeparttheislandsonFebruary4.Asfatewouldhaveit,a
stormbroketheforemastoftheResolutionandCookwasforcedtoreturntotheHawaiian
IslandsonFebruary11tomakerepairs.Thenativeswerenothappytoseethevisitorsonce
again.Oneoftheship'sboatswasstolen,andCooktookaHawaiianchiefashostageuntilthe
boatwasreturned.
OnFebruary14,Cookwasheadingbacktohisshipwithhishostagewhenheandhismenwere
surroundedbyshouting,angrynatives.AsCooksignaledhisboatsoffshoretocomeintoassist,
hewasstabbedinthebackbyoneofthenatives.Ashefell,dozensofnativesattackedhisbody
withknivesandclubs.
ThecontributionsofJamesCookwereextraordinary.Hewasthefirstexplorertomapthe
coastlineofAustralia.HechartedmuchofthePacificOceananddiscoveredseveralisland
groups.Heusedachronometertocharthisexactpositionontheglobe.Hewasoneofthefirst
seacaptainstodiscoverthecureforscurvy.Hesailedfarthersouththananyotherexplorer
beforehim,andheprovedonceandforallthattherewasnoNorthwestPassage.