Vectors in Two and Three Dimentions

Chap 09 SM Page 379 Thursday, October 12, 2000 1:44 PM
Vectors in two
and three
dimensions
9
VCE co
covverage
Area of study
Units 3 & 4 Vectors in two
and three
dimensions
In this cha
chapter
pter
9A Vectors and scalars
9B Position vectors in two
and three dimensions
9C Multiplying two vectors
the dot product
9D Using vectors in
geometry
9E Resolving vectors
scalar and vector
resolutes
9F Time-varying vectors
380
Specialist Mathematics
Vectors and scalars

Introduction
In mathematics, one of the important distinctions that we make is between scalar quantities and vector quantities. Scalar quantities have magnitude only; vectors quantities
have direction as well as magnitude. Most of the quantities that we use are scalar, and
include such measurements as time (for example 1.2 s; 15 min), mass (3.4 kg; 200 t)
and area (3 cm2; 400 ha).
However, consider the measurement of velocity. A velocity of 100 km/h has both
magnitude and direction. Mary may travel 100 km/h north from Geelong, while Sam
travels 100 km/h east from the same point. Although they both are travelling at the
same speed (magnitude) they are travelling in different directions; they do not end up in
the same place!
A vector is a quantity that has magnitude and direction.
Vector notation
A vector is written graphically as a line, with a head (end) and
B
tail (start). The length of the line indicates the magnitude and the
orientation of the line indicates its direction.
In the figure, the head of the vector is at point B (indicated A
with an arrow), while the tail is at point A.
When writing this vector we can use the points A and B to indicate the start and endpoints and a special arrow to indicate that it is a vector: AB . Some textbooks use a
single letter, in bold, such as w, but this is difficult to write using pen and paper, so w
can also be used. The symbol (~) is called a tilde.
381
C h a p t e r 9 Ve c t o r s i n t w o a n d t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s
Equality of vectors
Since vectors are defined by both magnitude and direction:
Two vectors are equal if both their magnitude and direction are equal.
In the figure, the following statements can be made:
u = v
uw
(directions are not equal)

uz
(magnitudes are not equal).

w
~
~u
~v
~z
Addition of vectors
Consider a vector u which measures the travel from A to B and

C
w
another vector, v , which
measures the subsequent travel from B
~
is as if the person travelled directly from A to
to C. The net result
~v
A
C (vector w ). Therefore we can say that w = u + v .

~u
B
To add two vectors, take the tail of one vector and join it to
the head of another. The result of this addition is the vector from the tail of the first
vector to the head of the second vector.
The negative of a vector

If u is the vector from A to B, then u is the vector from B to A. A
We can subtract vectors by adding the negative of the second

vector to the first vector.
u
~
B
~u
WORKED Example 1
Using the vectors shown at right, draw the result of:
a u+v
b u
c uv
d v u.

THINK
WRITE
a
Move v so that its tail is at the head

of u .
~v
~u
a
~v
~v
~u
Join the tail of u to the head of v to
find u + v

~u + ~v
Figure 8.7
~v
~u
b Reverse the arrow on u to obtain u .
u
~
~u
Reverse v to get v .
c
v
~
~u
Continued over page
382
THINK
2 Join the tail of v to the head of u to
get v + u which is the same as u v

or u + ( v ) .
WRITE
u
v
~+~
v
~
~u
Reverse u to get u . The vectors are

properly
with the head of
now aligned
u joining the tail of v .
d
~v
u
~
Join the tail of u to the head of v to
get v u .
Note that this is the same as ( u + v ) .

~v ~u
~v
u
~
Multiplying a vector by a scalar

Multiplication of a vector by a number (scalar) affects only the
magnitude of the vector, not the direction. For example, if a
vector u has a direction of north and a magnitude of 10, then
3u has a direction of north and magnitude of 30.
the vector
is negative, then the direction is reversed. ThereIf the scalar
fore, 2u has a direction of south and a magnitude of 20.
W
S
~u 3u
~
WORKED Example 2
Use the vectors shown at right to draw the result of:

a 2r + 3s
b 2s 4r .
THINK
WRITE
a 1 Increase the magnitude of r by a factor
a
of 2 and s by a factor of 3.
Move the tail of 3s to the head of 2r .
2r to the head of
Then join the tail of
3s to get 2r + 3s .
Increase the magnitude of s by a factor

of 2 and r by a factor of 4.
Reverse the arrow on 4r to get 4r .
Join the tail of 4r to the head of 2s .
3s
~
2u
~
~s
~r
3s
~
2r~
2r~ + 3s
~
3s
~
2r~
2s~
4r~
2s~
4r~
2s~ 4r
~
2s~
4r~
383
WORKED Example 3
The parallelogram ABCD can be defined by the two vectors b
and c .
In terms of these vectors, find:

a the vector from A to D
b the vector from C to D
c the vector from D to B.
THINK
WRITE
a The vector from A to D is equal to the

vector from B to C since ABCD is a
parallelogram.
b The vector from C to D is the reverse of D
to C which is b .
c The vector from D to B is obtained by

adding the vector from D to A to the vector
from A to B.
a AD = c
C
~c
~b
b CD = b
c DB = c + b
= b c

WORKED Example 4
A cube PQRSTUVW can be defined by the three vectors a , b and c

as shown at right.
Express in terms of a , b and c :
a the vector joining P to V
b the vector joining P to W
c the vector joining U to Q
d the vector joining S to W
e the vector joining Q to T.
THINK
All of the opposite sides in a cube are equal in
length and parallel. Therefore all opposite
sides can be expressed as the same vector.
a The vector from P to V is obtained by
adding the vector from P to Q to the vector
from Q to V.
b The vector from P to W is obtained by
adding the vectors P to V and V to W.
c The vector from U to Q is obtained by
adding the vectors U to P and P to Q.
d The vector from S to W is obtained by
adding the vectors S to R and R to W.
e The vector from Q to T is obtained by
adding the vectors Q to P, P to S and S to T.
WRITE
a PV = a + b

b PW = a + b + c

c UQ = b + a
= a b

d SW = a + b

e QT = a + c + b
= b + c a

T
R
S
~c
P
V
~b
~a
384
WORKED Example 5
A boat travels 30 km north and then 40 km west.

a Make a vector drawing of the path of the boat.
b Draw the vector that represents the net displacement of the boat.
c What is the magnitude of the net displacement?
d Calculate the bearing (from true North) of this net displacement vector.
THINK
WRITE
a 1 Set up vectors (tail to head), one
a
W
~ (40 km)
pointing north, the other west.
N (30 km) W
2 Indicate the distances as 30 km and
~
40 km respectively.
b Join the tail of the N vector with the head
of the W vector.
Let R km = length of N + W .
Indicate the angle between N and
N + W as .
W
~ (40 km)
Use trigonometry to find .
The true bearing is 360 minus 53.13.
R =
N (30 km)
~
~N + W
~
The length (magnitude) of R can be

calculated using Pythagoras theorem.
W
~ (40 km)
N (30 km)
~
R=~
N+W
~
~
2
30 2 + 40 2
= 900 + 1600
= 50 km
W
~ (40 km)
~N + W
~
N (30 km)
~
40
sin = -----50
= 0.8
= 53.13
Therefore the true bearing is:
= 360 53.13
= 306.87
remember
remember
1. Definition: A vector is a quantity that has magnitude and direction.
2. Equality of vectors: Two vectors are equal if both magnitude and direction are equal.
3. Addition of vectors: To add two vectors, take the tail of one vector and join it
to the head of the other. The result of addition is the vector from the tail of the
first vector to the head of the second.
4. Subtraction of vectors: Subtract vectors by adding the negative of the second
5. Multiplication of a vector by a scalar: Multiply the magnitude of the vector
by the scalar; maintain the direction of the original vector.
385
9A
WORKED
1
WORKED
Example
2
WORKED
Example
1 a Draw the result of:

i r+s
ii r s

Cabri Geom
iii s r

etry
Example
Vectors and scalars
~s
b Draw the result of:
i 2r + 2s
ii 2r 2s
iii 3s 4r
2 The pentagon ABCDE at right can be defined by the four

vectors, s , t , u and v .
these 4 vectors:
of
Find in terms
a the vector from A to D
b the vector from A to B
c the vector from D to A
d the vector from B to E
e the vector from C to A.
Vector
addition
~r
~v
C
~u
D
~t
A
~s
3 multiple choice
A girl travels 4 km north and then 2 km south. What is the net displacement vector?
A 6 km north
B 6 km south
C 2 km north
D 2 km south
E 2 km north
4 In the rectangle ABCD, the vector joining A to B is denoted B
by u and the vector joining B to C is v . Which pairs of points
are joined by:

~u
a u + v?
b u v?

c v u?
d 3u + 2v 2u v ?
A
WORKED
Example
~v
5 multiple choice
Consider the following relationships between vectors u , v and w .

i u = 2v + w
ii w = v u
of the following statements is true?
Which
A u = w
B u = v
C u = 2--3- v
D u = 3--2- v
E u = 3v
J
I
6 A rectangular prism (box) CDEFGHIJ can be defined by
F
three vectors r , s and t as shown at right.
of r , s and t :
Express in terms
H
~t
G
a the vector joining Cto H
b the vector joining C to J
~s C
~r
c the vector joining G to D
d the vector joining F to I
e the vector joining H to E
f the vector joining D to J
g the vector joining C to I
h the vector joining J to C.
Spreadshe
et
EXCEL
386
Position
vector
WORKED
Example
7 A pilot plans to fly 300 km north then 400 km east.

a Make a vector drawing of her flight plan.
b Show the resulting net displacement vector.
c Calculate the length (magnitude) of this net displacement vector.
d Calculate the bearing (from true north) of this net displacement vector.
8 Another pilot plans to travel 300 km east, then 300 km north-east. Show that the
resultant bearing is 67.5 degrees. How far east of its starting point has the plane
travelled?
9 An aeroplane travels 400 km west, then 600 km north. How far is the aeroplane from
its starting point? What is the bearing of the resultant displacement?
10 On a piece of graph paper draw a vector, a , that is 3 units east and 5 units north of the
origin. Draw another vector, b , that is 5 units

east and 3 units north of the origin.
On the same graph paper, draw

the following vectors.
a a+b
b a + 3b
c ab
d ba
4a

+ 2.5b
e 3b
f 0.5a
g a 2.5b
h 4a
i 2.5a 1.5b
j b 2.5a
11 Find the direction and magnitude of a vector joining point A to point B, where B is
10 m east and 4 m north of A.
12 Consider a parallelogram defined by the vectors a and b ,
and its associated diagonals, as shown at right. Show

that
the sum of the diagonal vectors is 2a .
13 Show, by construction, that for any vectors u and v :
3 ( u + v ) = 3u + 3v

(This is called the distributive law.)
387
~b
~a
14 Show, by construction, that for any three vectors a , b and c :

(a + b) + c = a + (b + c)

(This is called the associative law.)
15 Show, by construction, that for any two vectors r and s :
3r s = ( s 3r )

16 As you will learn shortly, vectors can be represented by two values: the horizontal
(or x) component and the vertical (or y) component.
Consider the vector w , defined by joining the origin to the point (4, 5), and the
the origin to (2, 3). Find the horizontal and vertical comvector v defined by joining
ponents of each vector.

Demonstrate, graphically, that the sum w + v has an x-component of 6 (that is,
4 + 2), and a y-component of 8 (that is, 5 + 3).
17 Using the same vectors, w and v , as in question 16, demonstrate graphically that the
difference vector, w v , has an x-component of 2 and a y-component of 2.

18 Using the same vectors, w and v , as in question 16, demonstrate graphically that:
a the vector 4w has an x-component of 16 and a y-component of 20.
b the vector 2v has an x-component of 4 and a y-component of 6.
19 Using the results from questions 16, 17 and 18, what can you deduce about an
algebraic method (as opposed to a graphical method) of addition, subtraction and
multiplication of vectors?
20 multiple choice
D
~a O b
~
In terms of vectors a and b in the figure above, the vector joining O to D is given by:
+ 3b
A 3a + 3b
B 2a
C 3b 2a
D 2a 3b
E none of these
21 multiple choice
E
~a O b
~
In terms of vectors
A 3a + 4b
B
a and b , the vector joining E to O above is:

3a
C 3a 4b
D 3 a 4b E none of these
4b
388
22 A girl walks the following route: 400 m north 300 m east 200 m north
500 m west 600 m south 200 m east
Make a vector drawing of these six paths. What is the net displacement vector?
23 Which of the following are vector quantities?
speed velocity displacement force volume angle
24 Which of the following are scalar quantities?
speed time acceleration velocity length displacement
25 A 2-dimensional vector can be determined by its length and its angle with respect to
(say) true north. What quantities could be used to represent a 3-dimensional vector?
Showing vectors on a grid using
Graphics Calculator tip! parametric plots
1. Clear or turn off any graph plots or stat plots. Press 2nd [FORMAT], scroll to GridOn
and press ENTER . Press ZOOM and select 4:ZDecimal to obtain a grid as shown.
2. Press MODE , scroll to Par and press ENTER .

3. To show vector 3i + 2 j (without the arrowhead!) press Y= then at X1T= enter 3T and
enter
T, use the X,T,,n key.)
at Y1T= enter 2T. (To
4. Press WINDOW and set Tmin= to 0, Tmax= to 1, Tstep= to 1 and then press GRAPH .
5. Press TRACE and scroll to verify that the vector has coordinates (3, 2).
6. You can enter other vectors from the Y= menu. Here is a clever way.
This shows all three vectors 3i + 2 j , 2i j and 4i j .
389
Position vectors in two and three

dimensions
Introduction
As a vector has both magnitude and direction, it can be represented in 2-dimensional
planes or 3-dimensional regions in space. (It is easier to discuss 2-dimensional vectors
as they fit the page nicely!)
Position vectors in two dimensions

In the figure at right, the vector u joins the point A to point B.
y
B
An identical vector can be considered
to join the origin with the
u
~
point C.
A
It is easy to see that u is made up of two components: one along
to the y-axis. Let i be a vector along the
the x-axis and one parallel
x
x-axis, with magnitude 1. Similarly, let j be a vector along the
y-axis, with magnitude 1.

We can say the vector u is the position vector of point C relative
y
C
to the origin.
~u
With vectors, it is equivalent to travel along u from the origin
j
~
directly to C, or to travel first along the x-axis to D and then along the
i~
D x
y-axis to C. In either case we started at the origin and ended up at C.
Clearly then, u is made up of some multiple of i in the x-direction and some multiple
of j in the y-direction.
y
C
For example, if the point C has coordinates (6, 3) then
3
u = 6i + 3 j .
u
~
3j
~
O
Position vectors in three dimensions
6i~
In 3 dimensions, a point in space has 3 coordinates, so a third

component, along the z-axis, is needed. Let k be a vector along
the z-axis, with magnitude 1. The orientation is now such that the
x-axis is coming directly out from the page as shown at right.
D x
For example, if the point C has coordinates

(6, 2, 4), then its position vector would be denoted
by v = 6i 2 j + 4k .
z
C (6, 2, 4)
~v
4k
~
2j
~
6i~
O
y
The magnitude of a vector

By using Pythagoras theorem on a position vector, we can find its length, or magnitude.
Consider the vector u at right.
y
C (6, 3)
The magnitude of u , denoted as u or u, is given by:
~u
2
2
3j
u = 6 +3
~
x
6i~
u = 45
= 3 5
390
Consider, now, the general position vector relative to the origin, for the point with
coordinates (x, y):
u = xi + y j
The magnitude of a vector, u = xi + y j , is given by u = x 2 + y 2 .
The direction of a vector

From what we already know about trigonometry, we can work out y
the angle ( ) that u makes with the positive x-axis (that is anticlock
wise from the positive
x-axis). This gives us the direction of u .
This angle can be calculated as:
C (6, 3)
~u
3j
~
6i~
= tan1 3--6-
= tan1 0.5
= 0.464 radians
= 26.6
The result obtained by this method needs to be adjusted if the angle is in the 2nd,
3rd, or 4th quadrants.
y
The direction of a vector, u = xi + y j , is given by = tan1 --- with appropriate
x
involved.
adjustment depending on the quadrant
WORKED Example 6
Using the vector shown at right, find:
a the magnitude of u
b the direction of u (express the angle with respect to the positive
x-axis)
c the true bearing of u .
THINK
WRITE
a
Use Pythagoras theorem or the rule

for magnitude of a vector with the
x- and y-components 3 and 5
respectively.
Simplify the surd.
1
2
3
The angle is in the 4th quadrant

since x = 3 and y = 5.
Use trigonometry to find the angle ,
from the x- and y-component values.
Use a calculator to simplify.
The negative sign implies that the
direction is 59 clockwise from the
x-axis.
The true bearing from north is the
angle measurement from the positive
y-axis to the vector u .
a u =
u =
x
~u
(3, 5)
3 2 + ( 5 )2
9 + 25
34
(= 5.831 to 3 decimal places)
5
= tan1 ----3
= 59
c
true bearing = 90 + 59
= 149.
391
Unit vectors
As we have seen, any vector u is composed of x and y (and in 3 dimensions, z)
components denoted by xi , y j (and zk ). The vectors, i , j and k are called unit
vectors, as they each have a magnitude

of 1. This allows us to resolve a vector into its
components.
If a 2-dimensional vector u makes an angle of with the positive x-axis and it has
can find its x and y components using the formulas:
a magnitude of u then we
x = u cos
y = u sin
WORKED Example 7
Consider the vector, u , whose magnitude is 30 and whose
bearing (from N) is 310.

Find its x- and y-components and
write u in terms of i and j .
THINK
Change the bearing into an angle with
respect to the positive x-axis ().
The angle between u and the positive
y-axis is 360 310.
~u
W
x
WRITE
E
S
310
y
~u
50
Calculate .
= 90 + 50
= 140
Find the x- and y-components using

trigonometry.
x = u cos
= 30 cos 140
= 22.98
y = u sin
= 30 sin 140
= 19.28
5
Express u as a vector.
u = 22.98i + 19.28 j
Clearly, in 3 dimensions, this is much more difficult as you need two angles (for
instance, an angle with respect to the x-axis and another with respect to the z-axis).
Unit vectors can also be found in the direction of any vector. This is merely the
original vector divided by its magnitude.
The unit vector of any vector u , in the direction of u denoted by u , is:
u
u = ----u
392
WORKED Example 8
Find the unit vector in the direction of u .
C (6, 3)
~u
THINK
WRITE
Express the vector in component form.
Compute the magnitude of the vector, u .
3j
~
6i~
u = 6i + 3 j
2
u = 6 + 32
= 45
= 3 5
6
3
u = ---------- i + ---------- j
3 5 3 5
Divide each component of the original

vector by the magnitude to get u .
2 5
5
= ---------- i + ------- j
5 5
u =
Comfirm that u has a magnitude of 1.
x2 + y2
20 5
------ + -----25 25
25
-----25
= 1
Locating vectors
y
A
a
~
B
b
~
In the figure above, a is the position vector of point A ( OA ) and b is the position
vector of point B ( OB ) relative to the origin.

The vector describing the location of A relative to B ( BA ) is easily found using
vector addition as b + a or a b .

Similarly, the vector describing the location of B relative to A ( AB ) is b a . This

result applies in 3 dimensions also and can be formalised as follows.
If A and B are points defined by position vectors a and b respectively, then
AB = b a

393
WORKED Example 9
a Find the position vector locating point B (3, 3) from point A (2, 5).
b Find the length of this vector.
THINK
WRITE
Express the point A as a position vector a .
a Let
OA = a = 2i + 5 j
Express the point B as a position vector b .
Let
OB = b = 3i 3 j
The location of B relative to A ( AB ) is b a .

AB = b a

= 3i 3 j ( 2i + 5 j )
= i 8j
b AB = b a

= 1 2 + ( 8 )2
b The length of AB is b a .

65 (or 8.06)
Magnitudes in three dimensions

Pythagoras theorem also applies in the case of a 3-dimensional line or vector. Let x, y
and z be the components of a vector, u , in 3-dimensional space,
i.e. u = xi + y j + zk
then
u = x2 + y2 + z2
WORKED Example 10
Consider the point in 3-dimensional space given by the coordinates
(2, 4, 3).
Find the magnitude of the position vector, u , joining this point to
the origin.
z
(2, 4, 3)
~u
y
x
THINK
1
2
WRITE
u = 2i + 4 j + 3k
Express u as a position vector.
2
2
Since the vector is in 3-dimensional space, u = x + y + z 2
use the 3-D version of Pythagoras

theorem to find the magnitude.
Substitute the components for each
direction and compute the magnitude.
u =
22 + 42 + 32
29
(= 5.39 to 2 decimal places)
394
Finding the magnitude and direction of
Graphics Calculator tip! a plane vector using parametric plots
1. Press MODE , scroll to Degree and press ENTER ; scroll to Par and press ENTER .
2. To show vector 3i 2 j press Y= and at X1T= enter 3T; at Y1T= enter 2T.
3. Press WINDOW and set Tmin= to 0, Tmax= to 1, Tstep= to 1 and then press
GRAPH . (You may need to alter other WINDOW settings to get a good view.)
4. Press TRACE and scroll to verify that the

vector has coordinates (3, 2).
5. Press 2nd [FORMAT], scroll to PolarGC
and press ENTER .
6. Press GRAPH and TRACE . Note that the

magnitude of the vector is stored in R and
the angle in so that you can use them
from the HOME screen.
7. At the HOME screen, enter R (press

ALPHA [R], and press ENTER , and then
(press ALPHA [ ]) and press ENTER .
Vector 3i 2 j has magnitude 3.606 and
direction 33.7 to the positive x-direction.

If you wish to obtain the magnitude and
direction of a vector directly from the HOME
screen, use the following steps:
1. Make sure the MODE setting is for degrees.
2. To find the magnitude of the vector 3i 2 j , press 2nd [ANGLE], select
5: R Pr(, enter 3, 2) and press ENTER .

3. To find the direction of the vector
3i 2 j , press 2nd [ANGLE], select
6: R P(, enter 3, 2) and press ENTER .
Vector 3i 2 j has magnitude 3.606 and
direction 33.7 to the positive x-direction.

Note: R Pr symbolises going from rectangular coordinates to polar form (which
gives the coordinates of the vector as its magnitude and direction).
395
remember
remember
1. Magnitude of a vector: If u = xi + y j + zk , the magnitude is given by
2
u = x + y2 + z2
Speed is the magnitude of velocity which is a vector quantity.

2. Direction of a vector (2-D only): If u = xi + y j , the direction is given by
= tan1 --yx
3. The x- and y-components of a vector: Given magnitude and direction, the xand y-components are given by:
x = u cos
y = u sin
4. Unit vector: The unit vector of a vector u , in the direction of u , is denoted by
u and is:
u
u = ----
u
5. Locating vectors: If A and B are points with position vectors a and b
respectively then AB = b a .

Position vectors in two and

three dimensions
9B
6a, b
~v
w
~
x
~a
(3.4, 3.5)
WORKED
Example
6c
3 Find the true bearing of each vector in question 2.
x
~b (320, 10)
sheet
Example
WORKED
1 State the x, y and z components of the following vectors:

a 3i + 4 j 2k
b 6i 3k
c 3.4i + 2 j + 1--2- k
2 For each of the following find:

L Spread
XCE
i the magnitude of the vector
ii the direction of each vector. (Express the direction with respect to the positive Position
vector
x-axis.)
a
b
y
(4, 7) y
(6, 6)
396
WORKED
Example
4 Consider the vector w shown at right. Its magnitude is

y
100 and its bearing is 210 True. Find the x- and y-components of w , and express them as exact values (surds).
State the answer

in the form w = xi + y j .
100
5 multiple choice
N
W
210
x
S
w
~
A vector with a bearing of 60 degrees from N and a magnitude of 10 has:

A x-component =
3
------- ,
2
y-component =
B x-component = 1--2- , y-component =
1
--2
3
------2
C x-component = 5 3 , y-component = 5
D x-component = 5, y-component = 5 3
E none of the above
6 An aeroplane travels on a bearing of 147 degrees for 457 km. Express its position as
a vector in terms of i and j .
d
hca
WORKED
Mat
Example
Unit
vector
in 2D
A ship travels on a bearing of 331 degrees for 125 km. Express its position as a vector
in terms of i and j .
8 Find unit vectors in the direction of the given vector for the following:
a
b
y
y
(3, 4)
c
e
b = 4i + 3 j
c = i + 2j
~a
x
~d
(3, 4)
d e = 4i + 3 j
f f = 3.5i + 2.7 j
397
9 multiple choice
A unit vector in the direction of 6i 4 j is:
C i j
B 3--5- i 4--5- j
A 3--5- i + 4--5- j
3
------ i
25
4
-j
----25
E none of these
10 Not all unit vectors are smaller than the original vectors. Consider the vector
v = 0.3i + 0.4 j . Show that the unit vector in the direction of v is twice as long as v .
11 Find the unit vector in the direction of w = 0.1i 0.02 j .
12 Find a unit vector in the direction of w for the vector of question 4.
13 Consider the points A (0, 1) and B (4, 5) in the figure at right. A

vector joining A to B can be drawn.
B
(4, 5)
a Show that an equivalent position vector is given by:

(0, 1) A
4i + 4 j .
b Similarly, show that an equivalent position vector joining B to A is given by:

4i 4 j .
Example
14 For each of the following pairs of points find:

i the position vectors locating the second point from the first point
ii the length of this vector.
a (0, 2) (4, 5)
d (5, 4) (2, 3)
b (2, 3) (5, 4)
e (3, 7) (5, 7)
c
f
(4, 5) (0, 2)
(7, 3) (3, 3)
15 Find the position vectors from question 14, by going from the second point to the first.
16 Find unit vectors in the direction of the position vectors for each of the vectors of
question 14.
u+e

Vectors
Math
cad
Vector
addition
GC pro
u+e

19 To find the distance between two vectors, a and b , simply find a b .

Find the distance between these pairs of vectors:
a 3i + 2 j and 2i + 3 j
b 5i 2 j and 2i + 5 j
gram
18 Let u = 3i + 4 j and e = 5i j . Find:
a u
b e
c
d e
e u+e
f

g Confirm or reject the statement that u + e = u + e
L Spread
XCE
sheet
17 Let u = 5i 2 j and e = 2i + 3 j . Find:
a u
b e
c
d e
e u+e
f

g Confirm or reject the statement that u + e = u + e
WORKED
Vector
addition
398
20 A river flows through the jungle from west to east at a speed of 3 km/h. An explorer
wishes to cross the river by boat, and attempts this by travelling at 5 km/h due north.
Find:
a the vector representing the velocity of the river
b the vector representing the velocity of the boat
c the resultant (net) vector of the boats journey
d the bearing of the boats journey
e the magnitude of the net vector.
21 Consider the data from question 20. At what bearing should the boat travel so that it
arrives at the opposite bank of the river due north of the starting position?
WORKED
Example
10
22 Find the magnitude of the following 3-dimensional vectors.

a
b
z
z
(3, 4, 5)
y
0
c
e
(3, 4, 5)
0.5i 2k + 3 j
7i + 14 j 21k
d
f
2i 2 2 j + k

i+ j+k

399
23 An aeroplane can travel at a speed of 120 km/h when theres no wind. Today theres a
wind velocity of 3i + 2 j km/h. Find:
a the speed of the wind

b the position vector required if the aeroplane is to end up due north of its starting
point after 1 hour
c the actual bearing required.
24 Another aeroplane can travel at a speed 240 km/h when theres no wind. Today theres
a wind velocity of 3i 7j km/h. Find:

a the speed of the wind
b the position vector required if the aeroplane is to end up due east of its starting
point after 2 hours
c the actual bearing required.
25 By calculating the difference between two position vectors, a vector representing the
separation of the two vectors can be defined. Find the distance between the
following 3-dimensional vectors.
a 4i + 3 j 2k and 5i 2 j + k
b 2i + j k and 5i + j + k

c i + 2 j + 3k and 3i + k
d i + 3 j k and 8i + 5 j + 2k
26 If four points C, D, E and F in 3-dimensional space are located as follows:

C = (2, 6, 0), D = (3, 1, 2), E = (4, 8, 10), F = (2, 6, 6), show that CD is parallel
to EF.
27 A boat travels east at 20 km/h, while another boat travels south at 15 km/h. Find:
a a vector representing each boat and the difference between the boats
b the magnitude of the difference vector
c the bearing of the difference vector.
28 Consider the vector u = 3i + 4 j and the vector v = 4i 3 j . Find the angles of each
respect
to the x-axis. Show that these two vectors are

of these vectors with
perpendicular to each other. Also show that the products of each vectors
corresponding x- and y-components add up to 0. Can you confirm that this is a pattern
for all perpendicular vectors?
29 A river has a current of 4 km/h westward. A boat which is capable of travelling at 12
km/h is attempting to cross the river by travelling due north. Find:
a a vector representing the net velocity of the boat
b the bearing of the actual motion of the boat
c how long it takes to cross the river, if the river is 500 m wide (from north to
south).
(Hint: The maximum speed of the boat is still 12 km/h.)
400
Multiplying two vectors the dot

product
Introduction
In a previous section we studied the result of multiplying a vector by a scalar. What
happens if a vector is multiplied by another vector? There are two possibilities: either
the result is a scalar (called the scalar product or dot product) or the result is a vector
(called the cross, or vector product). In Specialist Mathematics we study only the former.
The scalar or dot product of two vectors, u and v , is denoted by u
v .
Calculation of the dot product

There are two ways of calculating the dot product. The first method follows from its
definition. (The second method is shown later.) Consider the two vectors u and v below.
By definition, the dot product, u v is given by:

u v = u v cos
~u
[1]
directions

where is the angle between (the positive

of) u and v .
~v
Note: The vectors are not aligned as for addition or subtraction, but their two tails are joined.
Properties of the dot product

1. The dot product is a scalar. It is the result of multiplying three scalar quantities: the
magnitudes of the two vectors and the cosine of the angle between them.
2. The order of multiplication is unimportant (commutative property), thus
uv = vu

3. The dot product is distributive, thus
a (u + v) = a u + a v
itself
is 0
4. Since the angle between u and
uu = u 2

WORKED Example 11
Let u = 3i + 4 j and v = 6i . Find u v .
THINK
1
Find the magnitudes of u and v .
Draw a right-angled triangle showing

the angle that u makes with the
positive x-axis since v is along the
x-axis.
3
4
5
Find cos , knowing that u = 5 and the

x-component of u is 3.
Find u v using equation 1.

Simplify.
WRITE
u = 32 + 42
= 5
v = 62
= 6
y
~u
5
x
cos =
3
--5
u v = u v cos

= 5 6 3--5= 18
401
Note: An easier method for finding the dot product will now be shown.
Unit vectors and the dot product

Consider the dot product of the unit vectors i , j and k . Firstly, consider i i in
between
them is 0, cos = 1, thus
detail. By definition, i = 1 and, since the angle
i i = 1 . To summarise these results:

i i = 1 (since = 0)

j j = 1 (since = 0)

k k = 1 (since = 0)

i j = 0 (since = 90)

i k = 0 (since = 90)

j k = 0 (since = 90)

Using this information, we can develop another way to calculate the dot product of
any vector. Let u = x 1 i + y 1 j + z 1 k and v = x 2 i + y 2 j + z 2 k , where x1, y1, z1, x2, y2, z2
wecan write
u v as:
are constants. Then

u v = ( x1 i + y1 j + z1 k ) ( x2 i + y2 j + z2 k )

= x1 x2 ( i i ) + x1 y2 ( i j ) + x1 z2 ( i k ) + y1 x2 ( j i ) + y1 y2 ( j j )

+ y1 z2 ( j k ) + z1 x2 ( k i ) + z1 y2 ( k j ) + z1 z2 ( k k )

Considering the various unit vector dot products (in brackets), the like products
( i i , j j and k k , shown underlined) are 1; the rest are 0. Therefore:

[2]
u v = x1 x2 + y1 y2 + z1 z2

The importance of this result cannot be underestimated:
We have only to multiply the corresponding x, y and z components of two vectors
to find their dot product.
WORKED Example 12
Let u = 3i + 4 j + 2k and v = 6i 4 j + k . Find u v .

THINK
WRITE
1
2
3
Write down u v using equation 2.

Multiply the corresponding
components.
Simplify.
u v = ( 3i + 4 j + 2k ) ( 6i 4 j + k )

uv = 36+44+21

= 18 16 + 2
= 4
Finding the angle between two vectors

Now that we have two formulas (equations 1 and 2) for calculating the dot product, we
can combine them to find the angle between the vectors:
u v = x1 x2 + y1 y2 + z1 z2

= u v cos

402
Rearranging the final two equations, we obtain the result that:

x1 x2 + y1 y2 + z1 z2
cos = ---------------------------------------------u v

[3]
Note: The angle will always be between 0 and 180 as 180 is the maximum angle
between two vectors.
WORKED Example 13
Let u = 4i + 3 j + k and v = 2i 3 j 2k . Find the angle between them to the nearest degree.
THINK
WRITE
Find the dot product using equation 2.

Simplify.
u v = ( 4i + 3 j + k ) ( 2i 3 j 2k )

= 4 2 + 3 3 + 1 2
= 3
Find the magnitude of each vector.
u =
42 + 32 + 12
26
v =
Substitute results into equation 3.
Simplify the result for cos .
Take cos1 of both sides to obtain and

round the answer to the nearest degree.
2 2 + ( 3 )2 + ( 2 )2
17
3
cos = -------------------26 17
3
= ------------442
= 0.142 695
= cos1 (0.142 695)
= 98
Special results of the dot product

Perpendicular vectors
If two vectors are perpendicular then the angle between them is 90 and equation 1
becomes:
u v = uv cos 90

since cos 90 = 0
= uv 0
= 0
If u v = 0 , then u and v are perpendicular.
WORKED Example 14
Find the constant a if the vectors u = 4i + 3 j and v = 3 i a j are perpendicular.
THINK
WRITE
1
Find the dot product using equation 2.
Simplify.
Set u v equal to zero since u and v are perpendicular.

Solve the equation for a.
3
4
u v = ( 4i + 3 j ) ( 3i + a j )

= 12 + 3a
u v = 12 + 3a = 0
a = 4
403
Parallel vectors
If two vectors are parallel (||) then the angle between them is either 0 (if acting in the
same direction) or 180 (if acting in opposite directions).
For = 0 equation 1 becomes:
u v = uv cos 0
= uv (since cos 0 = 1)
u = kv (or v = ku )
where k > 0
because u v = kv v = uv

( v v = v2 )
kv2 = uv

u
and k = --v
u
Therefore u = --- v if the angle between u and v is 0.

v
For = 180 equation 1 becomes

u v = uv cos 180
= uv
(since cos 180 = 1)
u
Similarly, for the case = 0, it follows that u = --- v .
These results can be generalised as:

u
If u = kv , then u ||v where k = --- R
v
WORKED Example 15
Let u = 5i + 2 j . Find a vector parallel to u such that the dot product is 87.
THINK
WRITE
1
2
3
4
5
6
Let the required vector v = ku .
Find the dot product of u v .

Simplify.
Equate the result to the given dot product 87.
Solve for k.
Substitute k = 3 into vector v .
remember
remember
Let v = k ( 5i + 2 j )
= 5k i + 2k j
u v = ( 5i + 2 j ) ( 5k i + 2k j )

= 25k + 4k
= 29k
29k = 87
k=3
v = 15i + 6 j
1. Scalar (dot) product: The scalar or dot product of two vectors, u and v is
denoted by u v .
2. Calculation of dot product: u v = u v cos (where is the angle between

the two vectors).
3. Algebraic calculation of dot product: Let u = x 1 i + y 1 j + z 1 k and
v = x2 i + y2 j + z2 k .
Then u v = x x + y y + z z .
1 2
1 2
1 2
4. Special results:
(a) If u v = 0 , then u and v are perpendicular.
(b) If u = kv , k R ,then u and v are parallel.
404
9C
WORKED
d
hca
Mat
Example
Dot
product
11
WORKED
Example
12
Multiplying two vectors

the dot product
1 Find the dot product of the vectors 3i + 3 j and 6i + 2 j using equation 1.
2 Compare the result from question 1 with that obtained by finding the dot product
using equation 2. Which is probably the most accurate?
3 Find u v in each of the following cases.

a u = 2i + 3 j + 5k , v = 3i + 3 j + 6k
b u = 4i 2 j + 3k , v = 5i + j 2k
c u = i + 4 j 5k , v = 3i 7 j + k

d u = 5i + 9 j , v = 2i 4 j
e u = 3i + j , v = j + 4k
f u = 10i , v = 2i
g u = 3 j + 5k , v = i
h u = 6i 2 j + 2k , v = i 4 j k

4 multiple choice
The dot product of u = 3i 3 j + 3k and v = i 2 j + 6k is:
D 21
C 12
A 0
B 3
5 multiple choice
Consider the two vectors shown at right. Their dot product is:
A 30
B 21.2
C 21.2
D 0
E There is insufficient data to determine the dot product.
E 27
45 v
~u
5 ~
6
6 Consider the vectors u and v at right. Their magnitudes are

~v
u v .
7 and 8 respectively. Find
50

2
2
7 Let u = xi + y j . Show that u u = x + y .
~u
8 Let u = 2i 5 j + k and let v = i 2 j + 4k . Find their dot product.
9 Let u = 3i + 2 j , v = i 2 j and w = 5i 2 j . Demonstrate, using these vectors,
the property:
w (u v) = w u w v
are distributive
over
subtraction.
Formally, this means that vectors
10 Repeat question 9 for the property:
w (u + v) = w u + w v
distributive
over
addition.
are
Formally, this means that vectors
11 multiple choice
If u = 5i + 4 j + 3k , which of the following is perpendicular to u ?
A 5i 4 j 3k
B 3i + 4 j + 5k
C 5i
D 3i + 5k
E 5i + 3k
405
12 multiple choice
If ( u v ) ( u + v ) = 0 then:

A u is parallel to v
B u and v have equal magnitudes
C u is perpendicular to v
D u is a multiple of v
E None are true.

13 multiple choice
If ( u v ) ( u + v ) = v 2 then:

A u = v
B u must be equal to the zero vector, 0
C u is perpendicular to v
D u is a multiple of v
E None are true.

14 Find the dot product of the following pairs of vectors.
a 4i 3k and 7 j + 4k
c 8i + 3 j and 2i 3 j + 4k
WORKED
Example
b i + 2 j 3k and 9i + 4 j k

d 5i 5 j + 5k and 5i + 5 j 5k
15 Find the angle between each pair of vectors in question 14 to the nearest degree.
13
16 multiple choice
The angle between the vectors
A 0
B
D 113
E
2i + 3 j and 2i 3 j is closest to:
67
C 90
180
17 multiple choice
The angle between the vectors
A 0
B
D 111
E
WORKED
Example
14
WORKED
Example
15
2i 3 j and 4 i + 6 j is closest to:
69
C 90
180
18 Find the constant a, if the vectors v = ai + 3 j and u = 6i 2 j are perpendicular.
19 Find the constant a, such that v = ai 2a j + 3k is perpendicular to
u = 4i 3 j + 2k .
20 Let u = 2i + 4 j . Find a vector parallel to u such that their dot product is 40.
21 Let u = 4i 3 j . Find a vector parallel to u such that their dot product is 80.
406
Using vectors in geometry

The rules for addition, subtraction and dot product of vectors can be used to prove
theorems and other general statements in geometry.
WORKED Example 16
In the drawing at right, ABC is a triangle. Point D is along the line
BC such that BD = 1--3- BC. The vectors q , r and t are as shown in the
diagram. Prove that: t = 1--3- (2 q + r ).
THINK
WRITE
~t
q
~
Express the line joining B to D as a vector v and the
line joining B to C as a vector s .
Redraw the diagram with v and s indicated.
r
~
t
~
s
~
vD
~
q
~
Express s as the vector sum of q and r .
Since D is one-third of the way from B to C, v =
Express t as the vector sum of q and v .
Substitute v = 1--3- s into the expression for t .
Substitute s = q + r into t = q + 1--3- s .
Simplify by expanding the bracket.
Collect like vectors.
10
Factorise the vectors, by removing common scalar

factors. The required expression for t is obtained.
4
5
6
7
1
--3
s.
D
B
~r
= q+r

= 1--3- s
= q+v

= q + 1--3- s
= q + 1--3- ( q + r )

= q 1--3- q + 1--3- r
= 2--3- q + 1--3- r
1
-= 3 ( 2q + r )

WORKED Example 17
Consider the isosceles triangle at right, where AB = BC. Show, using

the properties of vectors only, that line BD, drawn such that BD is
perpendicular to AC, divides AC in half, that is: AD = DC .

THINK
1
Express AD as a vector, in terms of

other vectors. (In this example, AD is
the vector joining A to D.)
Take the dot product of this expression
with AD itself.
WRITE
AD = AB + BD
AD AD = ( AB + BD ) AD
THINK
WRITE
2
Simplify, and recall that AD AD = AD .
Since BD is perpendicular to AD ,
But BD AD = 0
BD AD = 0 .
so
Express AB AD in equation 1 form.
Divide both sides by AD .
407
AD
= AB AD + BD AD
AD
= AB AD
= AB AD cos
AD = AB cos
where is the angle between AB and AD .
Express CD as a vector in terms of other

vectors.
Take the dot product of this expression
7
8
CD = CB + BD
CD CD = ( CB + BD ) CD
with CD itself.
9
Simplify.
10
Since BD and CD are perpendicular,
CD
= CB CD + BD CD
But BD CD = 0 .
BC CD = 0 .
11
Express CB CD in equation 1 form.
CD
= CB CD
= CB CD cos
12
CD = CB cos
Divide both sides by CD .
where is the angle between CB and CD .

13
AD = AB cos
Write down the respective expressions for
CD = CB cos
AD and CD .
14
But AB = CB and =
Since the triangle is isosceles,

AB = CB and = .
15
It can be concluded that AD = CD .
Therefore AD = CD .
WORKED Example 18
Use a vector method to show that the diagonals of a rectangle bisect each other.
THINK
WRITE
B
C
1 Construct a rectangle ABCD.
~b
A
2
Let the vector from A to D be a and
the vector from A to B be b .
E
a
~
Let AD = a
Let AB = b
D
Continued over page
408
THINK
WRITE
Let E be the midpoint of diagonal AC.
Let E be the midpoint of AC.
Find AC in terms of a and b .
Find AE which is half of AC in terms
AC = a + b

1
AE = --2- ( a + b )

of a and b .
Determine BE in terms of a and b .
Determine ED in terms of a and b .
Note that ED = BE .
10
BE = b + 1--2- ( a + b )

= 1--2- ( a b )

1
ED = --2- ( a + b ) + a

= 1--2- ( a b )

= BE
So E is the midpoint of BD.
This means that BE and ED are

collinear and of equal length since they
are equal vectors.
State your conclusion.
The diagonals of a rectangle bisect each other.
Three-dimensional non-zero vectors

If a , b and c are 3-dimensional non-zero vectors:

1 Show geometrically that:

a+b+c a + b + c

2 Prove algebraically that:

a + b a+b

3 Prove algebraically that:
ab a b

Under what circumstances are all of the above statements equal?
remember
remember
In vector proofs, it is simpler to use pronumerals to represent vectors, but not
essential. Use as few vectors as necessary in completing a proof and apply the
rules for vector addition, subtraction and dot products as appropriate.
409
9D
WORKED
Example
16
1 In the triangle ABC, point D is the midpoint of BC. The vectors q , r and t are defined as indicated. Show that:

A
t = 1--2- r + 1--2- q
~r
~t
q
~
2 ABC is a triangle with point D along the line BC such that:

1
A
BD = --- BC
n
The vectors q , r and t are as shown in the diagram. Prove

that:
1
(n 1)
t = --- r + ----------------q
n
n
3 Consider the triangle ABC. Point D is the midpoint of line AB

and E is the midpoint of line BC.
Show, using vectors to represent various lines, that line DE
is parallel to AC and DE = 1--2- AC.
t
~
C
C
17
~a
6 Consider the equilateral triangle at right. Show, using the

properties of vectors only, that line BD, drawn such that BD is
perpendicular to AC, divides AC in half, that is:
5 In the figure at right, a is the vector joining point A to point B, b
joins B to C and c joins C to A.
Prove that a + b + c = 0 .

Example
q
~
4 In the figure at right, D is the midpoint of CB and AD is perpendicular to CB. Let u be the vector joining D to A and v the
vector joining D to B.
Find, in terms of u and v only:
D to C
a the vector, a , joining
b the vector, b , joining C to A

c the vector, c , joining B to A
b b and c c .
d the dot products,

Hence, show that AC = AB.
WORKED
B
C
r
~
~b
~c
B
AD = DC .
7 Show that the diagonals of a non-square rhombus intersect at
C
A
D
right angles.
(Hint: Make a drawing; a rhombus is a parallelogram with all 4 sides of equal length.)
410
8 If the length of a vector, a , is given by a , show geometrically that for any two
vectors a and b :
a + b a+b

This is known as the triangle inequality.
WORKED
Example
18
9 Use vectors to show that the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
10 Use vectors to show that the angle subtended by a diameter of a circle is a right angle.
11 Use a vector method to show that by joining the midpoints of a parallelogram, the
figure formed is a parallelogram.
12 Consider any two major diagonals of a cube. Use a vector method to show that:
a the diagonals bisect each other
b the acute angle between the diagonals is 70.53.
History of mathematics
CHARLES LUTWIDGE DODGSON (27.01.1832 - 14.01.1898)
During his
lifetime ...
The Braille
reading system
is invented by
Louis Braille.
Morse code is
developed.
Famine
devastates
Ireland.
Edison develops
the light bulb.
Charles Dodgson was an English writer and
mathematician. He wrote several mathematics books
but is best known for his fictional works produced
under the pen name Lewis Carroll. Dodgson was the
son of a clergyman and was the third of eleven
children. His education included a period at Rugby, a
school where the game of Rugby originated in 1823.
Dodgson went on to study at Christ Church College
at Oxford University. After completing his studies he
lectured in mathematics at Oxford from 1855 until
1881. He also became a clergyman in 1861 but did
not take up a position in the church, possibly because
he had a stutter.
Dodgsons most famous achievements were two
books which have become classics of childrens
literature: Alices Adventures in Wonderland and
Through the Looking-Glass. His main character was
inspired by Alice Liddell who was the second

daughter of the Dean of his college. Alices
Adventures in Wonderland was published in 1865 and
became a huge success. Through the Looking-Glass,
published in 1872, was equally successful.
Dodgson also wrote humorous poetry. His poem
Jabberwocky is a masterpiece, although it is often
thought of as being just a piece of nonsense verse.
The word chortle which is used for the first time in
this poem was invented by Dodgson and is derived
from the two words chuckle and snort.
Dodgsons mathematical works include Euclid and
his Modern Rivals, A Syllabus of Plane Algebraical
Geometry, and An Elementary Treatise on
Determinants. These were well written but have not
survived the test of time.
Dodgson was interested in logic and loved puzzles.
His books contain many mathematics and logic
puzzles including this example from Through the
Looking-Glass: Contrariwise, said Tweedledee, if it
was so, it might be; and if it were so, it would be; but
as it isnt, it aint. Thats logic. One of the puzzles he
invented was If 6 cats kill 6 rats in 6 minutes, how
many will be needed to kill 100 rats in 50 minutes?
Questions
1. What was Dodgsons job at Oxford University?
2. Name his two most famous works.
3. Who was the inspiration for the character of
Alice?
4. If 6 cats kill 6 rats in 6 minutes, how many will be
needed to kill 100 rats in 50 minutes?
411
Resolving vectors scalar and vector

resolutes
Introduction
Consider the two vectors, u and v , shown at right. The angle between
by . It can be shown that v is
them, as for a dot product, is given
made up of a component acting in the direction of u and another
component acting perpendicular to u .
Firstly we wish to find the component

in the direction of u .
~v
~u
The scalar resolute

To obtain the component of v in the direction of u , we perform the following
construction:
1. Drop a perpendicular from the head of v to u (this is perpendicular to u ). This line
joins u at point A.
2. We wish to find the length of the line OA.

This construction is shown at right.
~v
Let the length of v (its magnitude) be denoted by v . Then,
from trigonometry:
OA = v cos
O
A
dot product:
~u
But from the definition of the
u v = u v cos
u v = u OA
(from the first equation)
Therefore, solving for OA:

uv
OA = ------- u
= ----v
u
u
But we know that ---- = u , the unit vector in the direction of u , and therefore
u
OA = u v
This quantity, the length OA, is called the scalar resolute of v on to u . It effectively
indicates how much of v is in the direction of u .
The scalar resolute of v on u is given by u v , where u is the unit vector in the
direction of u .
WORKED Example 19
Let u = 3i + 4 j and a = 6i 2 j . Find:

scalar
resolute
u
of a on
a the
b the scalar resolute of u on a .
THINK
WRITE
a 1 Find the magnitude of u .
a u = 32 + 42
=5
u
by dividing u by u .
u = ----2 Find u
u
= --5
Continued over page
412
THINK
WRITE
Simplify.
Find the scalar resolute of a on u using u a .

Simplify.
( 3i + 4 j )
= 3--5- i + 4--5- j

u a = ( 3--5- i + 4--5- j ) ( 6i 2 j )

8
------ --= 18
5
5
=
1
--5
10
-----5
=2
b
Find the magnitude of a .
Find a by dividing a by a .
Find the scalar resolute of a on u using a u .

Simplify.
6 2 + ( 2 )2
b a =
40
a
a = ----
a
1
- ( 6i 2 j )
= --------40
1
a u = ---------- ( 6i 2 j ) ( 3i + 4 j )
40

1
--------( 18 8 )
=
40
10
---------40
10
---------2
Notes:
1. The two scalar resolutes are not equal.
u
2. The scalar resolute of v on u can easily be evaluated as v ---- .
Vector resolutes
Consider, now, the vector joining O to A at right. Its magnitude

~v
is just the scalar resolute ( u v ), while its direction is the same
~v
as u , that is u . This quantity is called the vector resolute of v ,
parallel
to u and is denoted by the symbol v || .
O
A ~u
~v
The vector resolute of v parallel to u is given by:
[4]
v || = ( u v )u

Consider the geometry of the above figure. The original vector v can be seen to be
the sum of two other vectors, namely v || and v . This second vector is called the vector
be computed simply as follows:
resolute of v perpendicular to u and can
v = v || + v (by addition of vectors)
v = v v || (by rearranging the vector equation)

By substitution for v || from equation 4, the vector resolute of v perpendicular to u
is given by:
v = v ( u v )u
[5]

In practice, once v || has been calculated, simply subtract it from v to get v .
||
413
WORKED Example 20
Let u = 2 i + 3 j + k and v = 3i + 2 j k . Find:

scalar
resolute
of v on u

a the
b the vector resolute of v parallel to u, namely v ||

to u , namely
c the vector resolute of v perpendicular

v .
THINK
WRITE
a
Find the magnitude of u .
a u
( 2 )2 + 3 2 + 1 2
14
u
= ----
u
1
- ( 2i + 3 j + k )
= --------14
Find u .
Find the scalar resolute using u v .

u v =

Simplify.
+ 3 j + k ) ( 3i + 2 j k )

1
= ---------- ( 6 + 6 1 )
14
=
b
1
---------- ( 2i
14
1
---------14
Find v || using equation 4.
b v || = ( u v )u

1
1
= ( --------- ) ( ---------- ( 2i + 3 j + k ) )
14
14
Simplify.
Find v by subtraction of v || from v
as in equation
5.
1
- ( 2i + 3 j + k )
= ----14

3
1
- j ------ k
= 1--7- i ---- 14 14
c v = v v ||

3
1
- j ------ k )
= 3i + 2 j k ( 1--7- i ----
14 14

Simplify by subtracting i , j , and k

components.
v =
20
------ i
7
13
------ j ------ k
+ 31
14
14
remember
remember
1. Scalar resolute of v on u is given by:
u v

2. Vector resolute of v , parallel to u is:
v || = ( u v )u

3. Vector resolute of v , perpendicular to u :
v = v ( u v )u

or
v = v v ||

414
9E
WORKED
d
hca
Mat
Example
Vector
resolutes
19
WORKED
Example
20
Resolving vectors scalar and

vector resolutes
1 For each of the following pairs of vectors, find:

i the scalar resolute of a on u .
ii the scalar resolute of u on a .
a u = 2i + 3 j and a = 4i + 5 j
b u = 5i 2 j and a = 3i j
c u = 2 i + 6 j and a = i 4 j
d u = 3i 2 j and a = 4 i 3 j
e u = 8i 6 j and a = 5 i + j
2 For each pair of vectors u and v , find:
i the scalar resolute of v on u .
ii the vector resolute of v , parallel to u , namely v || .
iii the vector resolute of v , perpendicular to u , namely v .
a u = 3i j ; v = 2i + 5 j
b u = 4i + 5 j ; v = 8i + 10 j
c u = 4i + 3 j ; v = 3i + 4 j
d u = i + j + k ; v = 2i + j k
e u = 2i + 3 j + 4k ; v = 2i 3 j 4k f u = 3i + j k ; v = 2 j 3k
An injured bushwalker is located at a position relative to a camp given by the vector

2i + 3 j . A searcher heads off from the camp in a direction parallel to the vector
3i + 4j . All measurements are in kilometres.
a How far is the searcher from the camp when closest to the bushwalker?
b What is the minimum distance between the searcher and the bushwalker?
Work
ET
SHE
9.1
4 A distressed yacht is located at a position given by the vector 5i 2 j relative to a
cruiser. A rescue boat is sent off from the cruiser and travels in a direction
parallel to
the vector 3i j . If all measurements are in kilometres find, to the nearest metre, how
boat gets to the yacht.
close the rescue
415
Time-varying vectors
Introduction
Consider a vector where the x- and y-components are not constants, but vary with time.
So, instead of writing u = xi + y j , we write u = x ( t )i + y ( t ) j .
can be
any
often there is a limitation in that t 0.
functions, but
In theory, x(t) and y(t)
Over the domain of possible t values, both x(t) and y(t) are continuous and differentiable. For example, suppose x(t) = t2 and y(t) = t. Thus, u = t 2 i + t j .

We can tabulate values for u at various values of time t.
t
x(t)
y(t)
u
0
0
0
0
i+ j
1
1
1

4i + 2 j
2
4
2
9i + 3 j
3
9
3
16i + 4 j
4
16
4
So at each point of time we get a new vector; thus we y

4
can talk about a vector function of time.
We can join the heads of each of these vectors, as shown 3
2
at right. The dashed line indicates the path that the head 1
of the vector takes. Note that the tail of all these vectors is
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
the origin. How can we find the equation of this path?
Finding the equation of the path
Consider a vector function of time u = x ( t )i + y ( t ) j .
as parametric
The expressions x(t) and y(t) are referred

to
equations.
If we can solve these simultaneous equations, by eliminating t, we can get an
expression in terms of x and y only. This is best seen by example.
WORKED Example 21
Let a particles position, as a function of time, be given by u = t 2 i + t j . Find the equation

of the path, assuming t 0.
THINK
WRITE
1
2
Express the i and j components of u

time
functions.
in terms of their
Express each equation in terms of an
identical function of t.
Equate the two expressions.
Make y the subject.
x = t2
y=t
x = t2
y2 = t2
t2 = x = y2
So x = y 2, or
y=
The most difficult work is often in step 2, finding equivalent functions of t for both x
and y. Sometimes squaring (or taking the square root of) one or more of the x(t) and y(t)
functions will yield successful results. Otherwise the simultaneous equations can be
solved using substitution as demonstrated in the following example.
416
WORKED Example 22
Find the equation of the path of a particle whose position is given by:
v = 2ti + ( t 2 t ) j , t 0
the graph of its path.
Sketch
THINK
1 Express the i and j components in terms
of their timefunctions.
2
Express t as a function of x.
Substitute for t in the equation y = t2 t.
Simplify.
5
6
7
x
Since t 0, --- 0.
2
State the domain of the equation.
Use a graphics calculator to sketch the
graph over the domain [0, ).
WRITE
x = 2t
y = t2 t
x
t = --2
x 2 x
y = --- -- 2
2
x2 x
= ----- --4 2
x
Since t 0, --- 0
2
x0
y
(1, 1)
2 3
WORKED Example 23
Let a particles position as a function of time be given by

a Find the equation of the path.
b Sketch the graph of the motion of the particle.
c State the period of the motion.
THINK
a 1 Express the i and j components of u in terms of
their time functions.

2 Square both sides of each equation so that a
trigonometric identity can be used to eliminate t.
Add the two equations.
2
2
4 Use the trigonometric identity cos + sin = 1 to
simplify the equation.
b The equation represents a circle of radius 1 and centre
(0, 0).
3
u = cos ti + sin t j .
WRITE
a
x = cos t
y = sin t
x2 = cos2 t
y2 = sin2t
2
x + y2 = cos2t + sin2t
y
x2 + y2 = 1
1
b
1
c The period of cos t and sin t is 2 (the path makes one

revolution every 2).
c Period = 2.
0
1
1 x
417
WORKED Example 24
Let a particles position as a function of time be given by u = 2 cos ti + 3 sin t j . Find the
equation of the path and sketch its graph.

THINK
WRITE
x = 2 cos t
1 Express the i and j components of u in terms of
their functions.
y = 3 sin t
x
--- = cos t
2 In this case, first eliminate the constants in front of
2
the trigonometric functions.
y
--- = sin t
3
3
Square both sides of the equation.
x2
----- = cos2 t
4
y2
----- = sin2 t
9
Add the 2 equations.
x2 y2
----- + ----- = cos2 t + sin2 t
4
9
Use the trigonometric identity cos2 + sin2 = 1.
x2 y2
----- + ----- = 1
4
9
This is the equation of an ellipse of centre (0, 0)

where a = 2 and b = 3.
y
3
These techniques work well for 2-dimensional vectors, but 3-dimensional vectors
usually are more difficult as the paths are much more complicated. Three-dimensional
vectors are not taught in this part of the course.
WORKED Example 25
Let u = (2t + 1) i + (3t 4) j be the position vector of Ship A.

Let v = (3t 2) i + (2t + 3) j be the position vector of Ship B.
Find where the ships paths cross.
THINK
WRITE
Ship A: x = 2t + 1
1 Express the i and j components for the path
of Ship A intermsof their time functions.
y = 3t 4
x1
----------- = t
2 Make t the subject of each equation.
2
y+4
------------ = t
3
Continued over page
418
THINK
WRITE
Simplify the equation and make y the

subject. Call this equation A.
Express the i and j components of

of their time functions.
Ship B in terms
Make t the subject of each equation.
Simplify the equation and make y the

subject. Call this equation B.
x1 y+4
----------- = -----------2
3
3x 3 = 2y + 8
3x 11
y = -----------------2
Ship B: x = 3t 2
y = 2t + 3
x+2
------------ = t
3
y3
----------- = t
2
x+2 y3
------------ = ----------3
2
2x + 4 = 3y 9
2x + 13
y = -----------------3
The ships paths will cross when the two

equations (equations A and B) are equal.
10
Solve for x.
11
Substitute x = 1.8 into equation B to

find y.
Substitute into equation B:

2 ( 11.8 ) + 13
y = ------------------------------3
= 12.2
State the solution.

Note: Although the paths cross, the ships
might not be there at the same time!
The ships paths cross at the point with

coordinate (11.8, 12.2).
12
[A]
[B]
Equating equations A and B:

3x 11 2x + 13
------------------ = -----------------2
3
9x 33 = 4x + 26
5x = 59
x = 11.8
Note: Time-varying vectors will be considered in more depth in Chapter 10.
remember
remember
If u = x ( t )i + y ( t ) j , t 0, then the equation of the path of a particle can be found

equations
by solving the
x(t) and y(t) simultaneously.
9F
419
Use a graphics calculator to assist where appropriate in the following exercise.
WORKED
Example
21
WORKED
Example
22
1 For each of the following, find the equation of the path, assuming t 0.
a u = 2t i t j

b u = ( t 1 )i 3t j
c u = ( t + 3 )i + 4t 2 j
d u = 2t i + t 3 j
2 multiple choice
The value of u when t = 0, for the vector u = ( t + 3 )i + 4t 2 j is:
A 0
B 3i
C 3i + 4 j
D 4i + 4 j
E none of these
3 a Find the equation of the path of a particle whose position is given by:
t
v = --2- i + ( t 2 + t ) j
b Sketch the graph of its path.

4 a Find the equation of the path of a particle whose position is given by:
v = ( t + 1 )i + ( t 2 2t ) j
b Sketch the graph of its path.
WORKED
Example
23
5 A particles position as a function of time is given by u = cos 2t i + sin 2t j .

b Sketch its graph.
c State the period of the motion of this particle.
6 A particles position as a function of time is given by u = 3cos 2t i + 3sin 2t j .

b Sketch its graph.
7 A particles position as a function of time is given by
u = ( 1 + cos t )i + ( 2 + sin t ) j .

b Sketch its graph.
WORKED
Example
24
8 Let a particles position, as a function of time, be given by:

u = 3cos 2t i + sin 2t j
Find the equation of the path and sketch its graph.

9 Let a particles position, as a function of time, be given by:
u = 2cos t i 4sin t j
Find the equation of the path and sketch its graph.
420
10 Find the equation of the paths described by each of the following vector functions:
4t
t2 + 4
a u = -----------------2- i + -----------------2- j (Hint: Add x -and y-components and factorise.)
(t + 2) (t + 2)
What is the initial position of u ?
When does x = y? What is the position at this time?
WORKED
Example
25
b u = ( t + 2 )i + ( t + 1 ) 2 j
c u = ( 2 cos t + 3 )i + ( 3 sin t 1 ) j
11 Ship As position vector is given by u = ( 3t + 1 )i + ( 4t 2 ) j . Ship B has a position

ships paths
cross.
vector of v = ( 2t + 3 )i + ( 5t + 1 ) j . Find where the
12 Let u = t i + t 2 j . Find the equation of the path. Consider vector v = e t i + e 2t j .
Show that the path

of this vector is the same as u s path. Assuming both vectors
equations start when t = 0, do these vectors ever coincide?
Graphics Calculator tip! Vector functions of time

1. Make sure the MODE settings are for radians and parametric plotting.
Suppose the path of an object is given by r = 2 cos t i + 3 sin t j , 0 < t < 2.
2. Press Y= and at X1T= enter 2 cos(T), and at Y1T= enter 3 sin(T).

3. Press WINDOW and set Tmin= to 0, Tmax= to 2, Tstep= to 0.1 and then press GRAPH .
(You may need to alter the other window settings to get a good view this window uses
ZDecimal.)
4. The path appears to be that of an ellipse some algebra will verify this. Press TRACE
to verify that the object starts at (2, 0). (You can change the plotting speed by changing
Tstep.)
5. Note that the plot may not look correct in a poor window. For example, the left screen
below shows the plot in the window [5, 5] by [5, 5]; it looks more like a circle than
an ellipse. To make sure that you have a true proportion scale in a plot like this where
it is especially important, use ZOOM and 5: ZSquare (see right screen below).
C h a p t e r 9 Ve c t o r s i n t w o a n d t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s s
421
summary
Vectors and scalars
Definition: A vector is a quantity that has magnitude and direction.
Equality of vectors: Two vectors are equal if both magnitude and direction are
equal.
Addition of vectors: To add two vectors, take the tail of one vector and join it to
the head of the other. The result of addition is the vector from the tail of the first
vector to the head of the second.
Subtraction of vectors: Subtract vectors by adding the negative of the second
Multiplication of vectors (by a scalar): Multiply the magnitude of the vector by
the scalar, maintaining the direction of the original vector.
Position vectors in 2 and 3 dimensions

Magnitude of a vector: If u = xi + y j + zk , magnitude = u =
x2 + y2 + z2
Direction of a vector (2-D only): If u = xi + y j , direction = = tan1 --xy
x- and y-components of a vector: Given magnitude and direction, the x- and ycomponents are given by:
x = u cos
y = u sin
Unit vector: The unit vector of a vector u , in the direction of u , denoted by u is:
u
u = ----
u
Locating vectors: If A and B are points with position a and b respectively then
AB = b a

Multiplying two vectors the dot product

Scalar (dot) product: The scalar or dot product of two vectors u and v is denoted
by u v .

Calculation of dot product: Where is the angle between two vectors:
u v = u v cos

Algebraic calculation of dot product: Let u = x 1 i + y 1 j + z 1 k and
v = x2 i + y2 j + z2 k .
Then u v = x 1 x 2 + y 1 y 2 + z 1 z 2 .

If u v = 0 , then u and v are perpendicular.
If u = kv, k R , then u and v are parallel.
422

In vector proofs it is simpler (but not essential) to use pronumerals to represent
vectors.
Use as few vectors as necessary in completing a proof and apply the rules for vector
addition, subtraction and dot products as appropriate.
Resolving vectors scalar and vector resolutes

Scalar resolute of v on u : Let u be a unit vector in the direction of u . The scalar
resolute of v on u is given by u v .
Vector resolute of v parallel to u : Let u be a unit vector in the direction
of u .
v || = ( u v )u

Vector resolute of v perpendicular to u :
v = v ( u v )u or

v = v v ||

If u = x ( t )i + y ( t ) j , t 0, then the equation of the path of a particle can be found
equations
by solving the
x(t) and y(t) simultaneously.
423
CHAPTER
review
Multiple choice
1 If u = 4i 3 j + 0.2k and v = 2i + 4 j k , then 4u 2.5v is equal to:

A 11i 22 j + 3.3k
B 6i + j 0.8k
C 8i 12 j 0.2k
D 21i 13 j 2.3k
E 11i 13 j
9A
2 The vector with a magnitude of 5 is:
9B
A 3i + j + k

D 6i + 3 j 4k
C 5i + 5 j + 5k
B 2i + 5 j + 4k
E 25i
3 Let the position vector for point P be 3i + 4 j 5k and for point Q be i + 3 j 4k . Then
9B
the magnitude of the vector PQ is given by:

A 3 2
134
553
D 4
E 1
4 If u = 3i + 2 j 4k and v = 4i + 5 j + k , then u v is equal to:

A 10
B 0
C 480
D 6
E 33
5 The angle between u = 3i 2 j and v = 16i + 24 j is equal to:
A 0
B 12.3
C 45
D 60
E 90
6 A unit vector perpendicular to 3i 4 j is:
A 4i + 3 j
B 0i + 0 j
C 0.8i + 0.6 j
E 3i + 4 j
D 4i 3 j
9C
9C
9C
7 If u = 3i + a j , v = 2ai a j and it is known that u is perpendicular to v , then a is:
A 0
B 1
C 1
D 6
E cannot be determined with the given information
9C
8 The angle between u = 4i 2 j + 3k and v = 2i 2 j is:
9C
A cos 0
B
1
D cos1 --------10
1
cos1 --------58
6
E cos1 --------58
3
cos1 --------10
424
9E
Using the vectors a = i 2 j and b = 2i + 3 j answer questions 9 and 10.
9 The scalar resolute of a on b is given by:

4
4
4
B --------D -----A ----C 4--5E 4
13
13
5
9E
10 The vector resolute of b parallel to a is:
4
4
A -----B
--- ( i 2 j )
5
5
4
4
-( i 2 j)
--- ( 2i + 3 j )
D ----E
13
5
9F
11 Let u ( t ) be a position vector of an object, whose position varies with time. If
u = 3 sin t i + 2 cos t j then the path this object takes is:
A a straight line
B a parabola
C a circle
D an ellipse
E unable to be determined with the given information
4
------ ( 2i
13
+ 3 j)
Short answer
9A,B
1 A fire observation tower reaches 40 m above the ground. Susan is 400 m from the tower,
which is at a bearing of 60 (N 60 E) from her. State the position vector from Susans
current position to the top of the tower.
40 m
N
400 m
60
Susan
9B
2 A boat sails 5 km due east from H, turns northward at a bearing of 45 (N 45 E) for a

distance of 10 km and then travels due north for a further 5 km to point X.
a Find the position vector from H to X.
b Find the distance from H to X (correct to 2 decimal places).
9C
3 Let u = 4i + 3 j and v = i + 2 j . Find the angle between the two vectors, in radians, to 4
decimal places.
9AC
9C
9C
4 Let u = 3i 5 j and v = 4i + j . Find:
a u+v
b uv
c uv
d u

e the angle between u and v .
5 Find the angles that the vector v = 3i 2 j + 4k makes with the x, y and z axes.
6 Find value(s) of p, such that pi + 2 ( 1 3 p ) j is perpendicular to 2 pi + 3 j .
425
7 Show that the diagonals of a square intersect at right angles.

8 Show that for any two vectors u and v ,
( u + v ) ( u v ) = u 2 v 2

9 Let u = 2i + 3 j k and v = i + j 2k .

a Find a unit vector parallel to u .
b Resolve v into components parallel

and perpendicular to u .
1
10 Find the equation of the path of the time-varying position vector u = --- i + 2 ( t 2 1 ) j . State
t
the type of path (linear, parabolic, etc.). Hence, sketch its graph.
Analysis
1 A radar station tracks a jet fighter flying with constant speed. If the radar station is considered
to be at the origin, the fighters starting position is 2i + 8 j + k and 1 minute later it is at

8i 4 j + 13k . The units are in kilometres.
a State the vector which indicates the path of the fighter.

b State a unit vector in the direction of this path.
c Find a vector, in terms of a parameter m, which represents the position of the fighter at any
time along the path.
d Find the point along the path where the fighter is closest to the station.
e Find the distance from the station at this point.
f Find the speed of the plane in km/h.
g How fast is the plane rising (or falling)?
9D
9D
9E
9F
426
2 Consider the box shown below.

The coordinates (in cm) of point D are (3, 0, 4), while the coordinates of E are (0, 5.5, 4).
z
E
D
y
x
a Find the coordinates of point C.

b Express the line joining C to E as a vector.
c
Show that the two diagonals in the same plane as CE intersect with
an angle of 73.7.
d Find the volume of the box in litres.

e Express the longest diagonal, from the origin, as a vector.
f
Find the length of this diagonal.
g Find the angle that this diagonal makes with the other long diagonal.
3 The parallelogram OXYZ has O at the origin. The vector joining O to Z is given by 5i while
the vector joining O to X is given by 2i + 7 j .
a Sketch the parallelogram, labelling all vertices.

b State the vectors joining Z to Y and Y to X.
c
State the vectors which represent the diagonals of the parallelogram.
d Find the cosine of the angle between the diagonals. Express your answer in simplest surd form.
e Find the angle that OX makes with the x-axis.
f
State the vector resolute of the vector joining O to X in the direction of OZ.
g Let P be a point on the extended line of XY, such that the vector joining P to Z is
perpendicular to OY. Find the coordinates of P.
h Find the area of the parallelogram.
4 A river flows west-east at 5 m/s. A swimmer, in still water, can swim 3 m/s and tries to swim
directly across the river from south to north.
a Draw a vector diagram to illustrate this situation.
b Find the resultant speed of the swimmer.
c
CHAPTER
test
yyourself
ourself
Find the bearing of the swimmer.
d If it took the swimmer 2 minutes to reach the opposite bank, how wide is the river?
e How far downstream would the swimmer be carried?
f
Repeat parts b to e if the swimmer had started on the north bank.

Vectors in Two and Three Dimentions

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Vectors in Two and Three Dimentions

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Chap 09 SM Page 379 Thursday, October 12, 2000 1:44 PM

Chap 09 SM Page 380 Thursday, October 12, 2000 1:44 PM

Vectors and scalars

A vector is a quantity that has magnitude and direction.

can also be used. The symbol (~) is called a tilde.

Chap 09 SM Page 381 Thursday, October 12, 2000 1:44 PM

Consider a vector u which measures the travel from A to B and

The negative of a vector

We can subtract vectors by adding the negative of the second

Move v so that its tail is at the head

Join the tail of u to the head of v to

b Reverse the arrow on u to obtain u .

Chap 09 SM Page 382 Thursday, October 12, 2000 1:44 PM

Reverse u to get u . The vectors are

Join the tail of u to the head of v to

Note that this is the same as ( u + v ) .

Multiplying a vector by a scalar

Use the vectors shown at right to draw the result of:

Move the tail of 3s to the head of 2r .

Increase the magnitude of s by a factor

Reverse the arrow on 4r to get 4r .

Join the tail of 4r to the head of 2s .

Chap 09 SM Page 383 Thursday, October 12, 2000 1:44 PM

In terms of these vectors, find:

a The vector from A to D is equal to the

c The vector from D to B is obtained by

Chap 09 SM Page 384 Thursday, October 12, 2000 1:44 PM

A boat travels 30 km north and then 40 km west.

Indicate the angle between N and

Use trigonometry to find .

The true bearing is 360 minus 53.13.

The length (magnitude) of R can be

Chap 09 SM Page 385 Thursday, October 12, 2000 1:44 PM

1 a Draw the result of:

Vectors and scalars

b Draw the result of:

2 The pentagon ABCDE at right can be defined by the four

are joined by:

Chap 09 SM Page 386 Thursday, October 12, 2000 1:44 PM

7 A pilot plans to fly 300 km north then 400 km east.

origin. Draw another vector, b , that is 5 units

On the same graph paper, draw

Chap 09 SM Page 387 Thursday, October 12, 2000 1:44 PM

12 Consider a parallelogram defined by the vectors a and b ,

and its associated diagonals, as shown at right. Show

13 Show, by construction, that for any vectors u and v :

(This is called the distributive law.)

14 Show, by construction, that for any three vectors a , b and c :

ponents of each vector.

a the vector 4w has an x-component of 16 and a y-component of 20.

b the vector 2v has an x-component of 4 and a y-component of 6.

a and b , the vector joining E to O above is:

Chap 09 SM Page 388 Thursday, October 12, 2000 1:44 PM

Showing vectors on a grid using

Graphics Calculator tip! parametric plots

2. Press MODE , scroll to Par and press ENTER .

This shows all three vectors 3i + 2 j , 2i j and 4i j .

Chap 09 SM Page 389 Thursday, October 12, 2000 1:44 PM

Position vectors in two and three

Position vectors in two dimensions

y-axis, with magnitude 1.

Position vectors in three dimensions

In 3 dimensions, a point in space has 3 coordinates, so a third

For example, if the point C has coordinates