Anatomy: a cutting open, the study of structures.

1. Gross anatomy

2. Microscopic anatomy
a. Cytology: study on a single cell.
b. Histology: study from tissues to organ.

Physiology: principle of life, the study of functions.

Ch. 18 The Endocrine System

Intercellular Communication:

Through

mediators

1. Direct Com.

Gap junctions

ions, etc.

2. Paracrine Com.

Extracellular fluids

paracrine factors

3. Endocrine Com.

Circulatory system

hormones

4. Synaptic (Nervous) Com.

Synaptic clefts

neurotransmitters

(ps.) Hormone: from Greek hormon (to set in motion)

Nervous System

Endocrine System

1. faster action (< sec)

slower action

2. short-lived action

long-term action

3. for crisis management

for physiological processes

4. affect limited cells

affect more or most cells

Endocrine: chemicals released onto blood or circulatory system.

Exocrine:

onto epithelial surface or digestive tract

Paracrine:

onto local tissues.

 Target Cells
Are specific cells that possess receptors
needed to bind and read hormonal
messages

Hormones
Produced by endocrine cells, transported by
blood circulation.
Stimulate or inhibit synthesis of enzymes or
structural proteins
Turn existing enzyme or membrane channel
on or off

Figure 18-1 Organs and Tissues of the Endocrine System

Hypothalamus

Pineal Gland

Production of ADH, oxytocin, and

regulatory hormones

Melatonin

Parathyroid Glands
Pituitary Gland
Anterior lobe:
ACTH, TSH, GH, PRL, FSH, LH,
and MSH

(located on the posterior surface of

the thyroid gland)
Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

Posterior lobe:
Release of oxytocin and ADH

Figure 18-1 Organs and Tissues of the Endocrine System

Organs with Secondary

Endocrine Functions
Heart: Secretes natriuretic peptides. See
Chapter
Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)
21
Brain natriuretic peptide (BNP)

Thyroid Gland
Thymus: (Undergoes atrophy
during adulthood)
Secretes thymosins

Thyroxine (T4)
Triiodothyronine (T3)
Calcitonin (CT)

See
Chapter
22

Adipose Tissue: Secretes

Leptin

Adrenal Glands
Adrenal medulla:
Epinephrine (E)
Norepinephrine (NE)

See
Digestive Tract: Secretes
numerous hormones involved in the Chapter
25
coordination of system functions,
glucose metabolism, and appetite

Adrenal cortex:
Cortisol, corticosterone,
aldosterone, androgens

Kidneys: Secrete
Erythropoietin (EPO)
Calcitriol

See
Chapters
19 and 26

Gonads:
Testes (male):

See
Chapters
28 and 29

Pancreas (Pancreatic Islets)

Testis

Androgens (especially testosterone),

inhibin

Insulin
Glucagon

Ovaries (female):
Estrogens, progestins, inhibin

Ovary

Classes of hormones:
1. Amino acid derivatives:
ex. thyroid hormones, dopamine, epinephrine, NE
2. Peptide hormones:
ex. GH, TSH, oxytocin
3. Lipid derivatives:
a. Eicosanoids: prostaglandins, leukotrienes
b. Steroids: androgens, estrogens, progestins,
cortisol, glucocorticoids.

(NE)

10

11

Lipophobic (water-soluble)

= Adrenal cortex

Lipophilic (lipid-soluble)
12

Eicosanoids:
1.They are derived from lipids.
2.Their receptors are located in the cell membrane.
3.They can not pass the cell membrane directly.
4.They are lipophobic (water-soluble) hormones.
5.They need G-proteins and 2nd messengers to
carry out their biological functions.
6.The statement of eicosanoids in our textbook (p. 599, 9th
edition, or p. 614 in 10th edition) is wrong.

13

(Tortora A&P, 13th edition)

(= Lipophilic )

14

(= Lipophobic )

Hormones:

(Tortora A&P, 13th edition)

15

Machanisms of hormone action 1:

First messengers:

hormones
Target cells
Receptors:

Lipophobic hormones

Second messengers:
1. c-AMP:
2. c-GMP:
3. Calcium:

Nucleus (DNA)

16

Important compounds linked between 1st. and 2nd. messengers:

1. G-proteins: activates the enzyme adenylate cyclase.
2. Adenylate cyclase (AC): converts ATP to c-AMP.
3. Calmodulin: binds to calcium.

17

 G Protein
Enzyme complex coupled to membrane
receptor
Involved in link between first messenger and
second messenger
It is not a 2nd messenger.

It activates
adenylate cyclase (AC) c-AMP
or phospholipase C (PLC) Ca++

18

Machanisms of hormone action 2:

First messengers:

hormones
Target cells
Receptors:

(Lipophilic hormones:
Steroids & T 4, T 3)

Nucleus (DNA)
19

20

Receptors: (binding with hormones)

1. Cell membrane receptors: bind to lipophobic hormones:
(ex. peptides, EPI or NE).
2. Intracellular receptors: bind to lipophilic hormones:
(ex. steroids, T3 or T4).
a. cytoplasm receptors
b. nucleus receptors

Down-regulation of receptors:
Too much hormones decreasing number of receptors

Up-regulation of receptors:
Too less hormones increasing number of receptors

21

Machanisms of hormone action:

First messengers:

hormones
Target cells
Receptors:

Lipophobic hormones
or water-soluble H.

(Lipophilic hormones:
or lipid-soluble H.
Steroids & T 4, T 3)

Second messengers:
1. c-AMP:
2. c-GMP:
3. Calcium:

Nucleus (DNA)

Nucleus (DNA)

22

1. Lipophobic hormones
The Process of Amplification
binding of a small number of lipophobic
hormone to membrane receptors
Leads to thousands of second messengers in
cell
Magnifies effect of hormone on target cell

23

2. Lipophilic hormones
(Thyroid and Steroid Hormones)
Remain in circulation much longer
In bloodstream : More than 99% become attached to
special transport proteins.
Bind with intracellular receptors.
Do not need a second messenger.

24

Endocrine reflexes (usually, it is negative feedback)

1. Including neural & endocrine reflexes
2. Triggered by :

humoral (fluid) stimuli

hormonal stimuli
neural (neurotransmitter) stimuli.
3. Neuro-endocrine reflex: hypothalamus is an example.

25

26

Functions of hypothalamus:
1. Secrets regulatory hormones
(releasing or inhibiting hormones, RH/IH) to control activity of the
anterior pituitary gland.
(ex.TRH, GnRH, GH-RH, GH-IH, PRF, PIF, CRH)
2. Produces ADH and oxytocin and releases them into
posterior pituitary gland.
3. Exerts direct neural control of sympathetic output to adrenal medulla
for secretion of epinephrine and norepinephrine (NE).

27

Figure 18-5 Three Mechanisms of Hypothalamic Control over Endocrine Function

Production of ADH
and oxytocin

Secretion of regulatory
hormones to control activity
of the anterior lobe of the
pituitary gland

Control of sympathetic
output to adrenal
medullae

HYPOTHALAMUS

Preganglionic
motor fibers

Adrenal cortex

Infundibulum

Adrenal medulla

Anterior lobe
of pituitary gland

Hormones secreted by the anterior

lobe control other endocrine organs

Posterior lobe
of pituitary gland

Release of ADH
and oxytocin

Adrenal gland

Secretion of epinephrine
and norepinephrine

28

Hypophyseal portal veins:

1.Hormones pass through 2 capillary networks directly.
(bypass the heart)
Endocrine cells (hypothalamus only

capillary net #1

capillary net #2

portal veins
target cells

2. Maintain RH/IH in high concentration when they reach

anterior pituitary gland.
(prevent RH/IH from being diluted by general circulation).

(ps.): another portal vein in the body:

hepatic portal vein in liver.
29

General circulation in endocrine system:

(ex. Pancreas)

Endocrine cells

heart

capillary network

arteries

capillary

veins

target cells

30

LE 18-7

Supraoptic
nuclei

Paraventricular
nuclei

Neurosecretory
neurons

HYPOTHALAMUS

Optic
chiasm
Capillary
beds

Mamillary body
Superior hypophyseal artery
Infundibulum
Portal veins

ADENOHYPOPHYSIS
OF PITUITARY GLAND

Inferior hypophyseal artery

NEUROHYPOPHYSIS
OF PITUITARY GLAND
Endocrine cells
Hypophyseal veins
31

Median Eminence
1. Lower part of hypothalamus near the
infundibulum of pituitary gland
2. Where hypothalamic neurons release
regulatory factors
Into interstitial fluids
Through fenestrated capillaries

32

33

From hypothalamus

From anterior
pituitary

1. TRH (thyrotropin RH): sti the release of TSH

2. CRH (corticotropin RH): sti the release of ACTH
3. GnRH (gonadotropin RH): sti --------------- LH & FSH
4. GHRH (growth hormone RH): sti ------------ GH
5. GHIH (= somatostatin): inhibit --------------- GH
6. PIF (prolactin inhibiting factor) = dopamine: inh. PRL
7. PRF (prolactin RF):
sti the release of PRL
8. MSH-IH =MIH (melanotropin IH): inh. the release of MSH
34

Pituitary gland: (= Hypophysis)

1. Anterior lobe = Adeno-hypophysis (produces & releases 7 hormones)
a. Pars tuberalis
b. Pars distalis (major part) : TSH, ACTH, PRL, LH , FSH, & GH
c. Pars intermedia (intermedia lobe): produces MSH

2. Posterior lobe = Neuro-hypophysis (releases 2 hormones)

a. ADH (anti-diuretic hormone):
(+) water reabsorption in the kidney,
(+) water intake (drinking behavior).
b. Oxytocin:
(+) smooth muscle contraction in uterus & prostate ,
(+) ejection of milk.

35

Anterior

36

LE 18-9-0
KEY TO PITUITARY HORMONES:

Direct control by Direct release

ACTH
TSH
GH
PRL
FSH
LH
MSH
ADH
OXT

nervous system of hormones

Indirect control through release
of regulatory hormones

Suprarenal
medulla

Adrenocorticotropic hormone

Thyroid-stimulating hormone
Grow th hormone
Prolactin
Follicle-stimulating hormone

Luteinizing hormone
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone
Antidiuretic hormone
Oxytocin

Neurohypophysis
of pituitary gland

Adenohypophysis of
pituitary gland

ADH
ACTH

Suprarenal
gland

Kidneys

Suprarenal
cortex

GH

TSH

OXT

Liver

MSH

PRL

FSH

Epinephrine and
norepinephrine

Males: Smooth
muscle in ductus
deferens and
prostate gland

LH

Somatomedins

Thyroid
gland

Females: Uterine
smooth muscle and
mammary glands

Glucocorticoids
(cortisol,
corticosterone)

Melanocytes (melanin
disperson)
Bone, muscle,
other tissues

Thyroid
hormones (T3, T4)

Mammary
glands

Inhibin

Ovaries
of female

Testes
of male

Testosterone

Estrogen

Progesterone

Inhibin

37

Thyroid gland:

1. Thyroid follicles:
a. Follicle cells: (simple cuboidal epithelium) produce
thyroglobulin, thyroxine (T4) & T3.
b. Follicle cavity: viscous colloid (stored thyroglobulin)
2. C cells: outside of follicle (produce calcitonin =CT):
decrease calcium in blood.
3. T4,T3: bind to thyroid-binding globulin(TBG), transthyretin,
albumin or free form.

38

4. Functions

of the thyroid gland :

a. (+) oxygen & energy consumption, (+) body heat

(calorigenic effect)
b. (+) Heart rate (HR) & Blood pressure (BP).
c. Maintenance of respiratory functions in lungs

d. Sti. RBC formation -- (+) oxygen delivery

e. Sti. other endocrine tissues
f. (+) bone mineral turnover & bone growth

g. (+) brain development

39

40

Parathyroid glands: (2 pairs)

1. Located in the posterior surface of the thyroid gland.
2. Chief cells: produce PTH (parathyroid hormone)
(+) calcium in blood.
3. Functions:
a. (+) Osteoclast (release of calcium from bone)
b. (+) calcium reabsorption at kidney
c. (+) calcitriol formation in kidney:
(+) Ca+2 & PO4 absorption by digestive system

41

42

43

Adrenal glands: (Suprarenal glands)

1. Adrenal cortex: yellow color (Stimulated by ACTH)

a. Zona glomerulosa: outer layer
* produce mineralo-corticoids: ex. Aldosterone
* Function: (Table 18-5)
b. Zona fasciculata: middle layer, 78% of the cortex
* produce gluco-corticoids: ex. Cortisol
* Functions:
c. Zona reticularis: inner layer
* produce androgens
* Functions:

2. Adrenal medulla:
* produce epinephrine (75-80%) & NE.
* Functions: (crisis management)
44

Adrenal Gland
Capsule
Zona Glomerulosa
= Aldosterone
Zona Fasciculata
= Cortisol

Zona Reticularis
= Androgens

Adrenal Medulla
= NE, Epinephrine
45
(75%)

Pancreas:
1. Pancreatic acini: exocrine cells (produce digestive enzymes)
2. Pancreatic islets (or Islets of Langerhans): 1 %, endocrine cells
a. Alpha cells produce glucagon: (+) glucose in blood
b. Beta cells produce insulin: (-) glucose in blood
c. Delta cells produce somatostatin (= GH-IH)
d. F cells
pancreatic polypeptide (PP)

(ps.) Hyperglycemia: High levels of glucose in blood.

Hypoglycemia: Low levels of glucose in blood.

46

47

Pancreatic islet

Pancreatic acini

48

Functions of insulin :
(+) glucose uptake

(+) ATP production

(+) glycogen formation

(+) amino acid absorption and protein synthesis

(+) triglyceride formation in adipose tissue

49

Functions of Glucagon
(+) breakdown of glycogen in skeletal muscle
and liver cells.
(+) breakdown of triglycerides in adipose tissue.

(+) production of glucose in liver from amino

acids (a. a.) & fat. (gluconeogenesis)

50

Hormones produced by kidney:

1. EPO= Erythropoietin: (+) RBC production.
2. Calcitriol: Produced from vitamin D3 (= cholecalciferol) with the
presence of PTH.
3. Renin: (an enzyme and also a hormone)
a. Converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I (in liver)
b. Angiotensin I changes to Angiotensin II (by another enzyme)
c. Angiotensin II (+) Aldosterone, ADH & drinking
(+) Blood volume, BP

51

52

Heart:
Produce Natriuretic peptides (NP): (+) water loss in urine.
1. ANP: (Atrian natriuretic peptides)
2. BNP

Adipose tissues (fat):

1. Leptin: (-) appetite & food intake,

(+) FSH & LH synthesis

53

Stomach & intestines:

Produce hormones to coordinate digestive activities.
[ex. Gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin (CCK)]

Thymus:

Produce thymosins for the differentiation of T-lymphocytes.

54

Gonads:
1. Testes:
a. Interstitial cells (Leydig cells): produce androgens
b. Sustentacular cells (= Nurse cells = Sertoli cells):
produce inhibin to inhibit FSH secretion.
2. Ovaries:
a. Follicular cells: produce estrogens & inhibin
b. Corpus luteum: produce progesterone

55

Pineal gland: (contains pinealocytes)

a. Stimulated by neural input from hypothalamus
( supera-chiasmatic nucleus, SCN)
b. SCN serves as a biological clock
(active at darkness, inactive at light)

c. Produce melatonin (released during darkness):

** Setting circadian rhythms
** Promoting sleep
** Suppressing reproductive function

56

57

(NE)

58

Hormonal Interactions:
1. Antagonistic (opposing) effect
2. Synergistic (additive) effect: ex. GH & cortisol
3. Permissive effect: ex. Epinephrine & T4

4. Integrative effects: ex. PTH & calcitriol

Hormones in Growth:
1. GH
2. Thyroid hormones (T4)
3. Insulin
4. PTH & CT
5. Reproductive hormones (androgens & estrogens)

59

Ps. GH and cortisol all have the glucose-sparing effect.

But the glucose-sparing effect (breakdown fatty acids to produce
glucose) for GH is working on adipose tissues only.
The glucose-sparing effect of cortisol (breakdown fatty acids
and proteins) is working on adipose and muscular tissues.
Cortisol (glucocorticoids) is the dominant hormone for the
Glucose-sparing effect.

60

Response to stress:
1. Alarm phase: (dominant hormone: epinephrine)
2. Resistance phase: (few hours, days, or weeks):
dominant hormone: glucocortocoids
(ex. Cortisol)

3. Exhaustion phase:
failure of organs death

61

Figure 18-20 The General Adaptation Syndrome

Alarm Phase (Fight or Flight)

Immediate Short-Term
Responses to Crises

Brain
General
sympathetic
activation

Adrenal medulla

Sympathetic
stimulation
Epinephrine,
norepinephrine

Increased mental alertness

Increased energy use by
all cells
Mobilization of glycogen and
lipid reserves
Changes in circulation
Reduction in digestive activity
and urine production
Increased sweat gland
secretion
Increased heart rate and
respiratory rate

62

Figure 18-20 The General Adaptation Syndrome

Resistance Phase
Growth hormone
Pancreas
Glucagon
Sympathetic
stimulation
ACTH

Adrenal cortex

Glucocorticoids
Kidney
Mineralocorticoids
(with ADH)

Long-Term Metabolic
Adjustments
Mobilization of remaining
energy reserves: Lipids are
released by adipose tissue;
amino acids are released by
skeletal muscle
Conservation of glucose:
Peripheral tissues (except
neural) break down lipids to
obtain energy
Elevation of blood glucose
concentrations: Liver
synthesizes glucose from
other carbohydrates, amino
acids, and lipids
Conservation of salts and
water, loss of K+ and H+

Renin-angiotensin
system

63

Clinic terms:

1. Diabetes insipidus: inadequate production of ADH from

the posterior pituitary gland (water loss in urine).

2. Diabetes mellitus: (Glucose loss in urine)

a. Type I: inadequate production of insulin from beta cells

of pancreatic islets.
(insulin-dependent)
b. Type II: Cells are insensitive to insulin (receptor problem)
(insulin-independent)

64

Diabetes Mellitus
Diabetes mellitus marked by hyperglycemia
excessive urine production (polyuria)
excessive thirst (polydipsia)
excessive eating (polyphagia)

Type I----deficiency of insulin (under 20-yr old)

Type II---adult onset
drug stimulates secretion of insulin by beta
cells
cells may be less sensitive to hormone
65

Outcome of untreated Diabetes Mellitus

Kidney degeneration
Retinal damage
Early heart attacks
Peripheral nerve problems
Peripheral nerve damage

66

Addisons disease
Hyposecretion of glucocorticoids &
aldosterone (= adrenal cortex
destruction)
hypoglycemia, muscle weakness, low BP,
dehydration due to decreased Na+ in blood
mimics skin darkening effects of MSH
potential cardiac arrest

67

Cushings Syndrome
Hypersecretion of glucocorticoids
Redistribution of fat, spindly arms & legs due to
muscle loss
Wound healing is poor, bruise easily

68

69

Thyroid Gland Disorders

Hyposecretion during infancy results in
dwarfism & retardation called cretinism
Hypothyroidism in adult produces
sensitivity to cold, low body temp. weight
gain & mental dullness
Hyperthyroidism (Graves disease)
weight loss, nervousness, tremor &
exophthalmos (edema behind eyes)

Goiter = enlarged thyroid (dietary)

70

Pituitary Gland Disorders

Hyposecretion during childhood = pituitary
dwarfism (proportional, childlike body)
Hypersecretion during childhood = giantism
very tall, normal proportions

Hypersecretion as adult = acromegaly

growth of hands, feet, facial features &
thickening of skin
71

Clinical Note:
1.Androgen abuse:
A. Myth:
(+) muscle mass, (+) endurance, (+) sexual drive.

B. Side effects:
a. Premature closure of epiphyseal cartilage
b. liver damage
c. Prostate gland enlargement
d. Atrophy of testes & infertility
e. (+) heart diseases
2.EPO abuse:
A. Myth: (+) production of RBC, (+) oxygen transport
B. Side effects:
a. (+) blood viscosity (thickness)
b. (+) heart failure & stroke
72
c. May lead to death

Clinical Note:
3. Gamma hydroxybutyrate (GHB) abuse
A. myth: (+) Growth hormone, (+) muscle mass
B. side effects:
a. (-) Heart rate, (-) body temp
b. hallucination
c. Seizures or coma
d. CNS depressant
e. anesthetic (date rape drug)

73