1 CELL STRUCTURE AND ITS ORGANIZATION

1.1 Plant Cells and Animal Cells:

Fig.1.0 Basic structures of an animal cell and a plant cell.

1.

Cell wall:
Porous.
Permeable.
Non-living structure made of cellulose.

2. Cell membrane/Plasma membrane

Semi-permeable/Partially permeable (Only
certain parts can pass through it and some aren't
able).
3.

Cytoplasm
Contains cell organelles.
Food substances.
Mostly H2O.

4. Vacuole/Sap vacuole/Large central vacuole

Mostly H2O.

5. Nucleus
Controls all activities of a cell.
6. Chloroplasts
Contains green pigment called Chlorophyll
which is important for doing Photosynthesis.
7. Differences between plant cells and animal
cells
Only plant cells have cell wall.
Only plant cells have chloroplasts.
Plant cells have a large central vacuole
while some animal cells have small
vacuoles and some doesn't have any.
Plant cells have a regular shape while
animal cells have irregular shape.

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1.2 Specialized/Modified cells:

Fig.1.2 Root hair cell.

1. Root Hair Cell:

To absorb water and minerals.
Finger-like projection:
Increases surface area for absorption.
Has a larger vacuole to store more H2O.
2. Red blood cell:
To carry/transport oxygen.
Packed with haemoglobin (red pigment).
No nucleus.
Biconcave shape.

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3. Xylem vessels:
To transport H2O and minerals.
Supporting plant body.

Fig.1.3 Red blood cells.

Fig.1.4 (a) Whole plant, (b) plant stem and (c) xylem vessel

2. DIFFUSION AND OSMOSIS

2.1 Diffusion
The movement of particles form an area of higher concentration to another area of lower concentration down a
concentration gradient.

Fig. 2.1 Representation of diffusion.

2.2 Osmosis
The movement of water molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration through a semi
permeable membrane

Fig. 2.2 (a)The sugar solution in the bag is more concentrated than the water
outside the bag. (b)The water in the bag is more dilute than the sugar solution
outside the bag. (c)The sugar solution in the bag is of the same concentration as that of the solution outside the bag.

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2.3 Cells and Osmosis:

Fig. 2.3 The behaviour of cells in solutions of different concentrations.

2.4 Active Transport:
3. Active Transport:
The movement of particle from an area of lower
concentration to an area of higher concentration by using
energy.
4. Active transport is involved in a number of processes
occurring within an organism. This includes the absorption
of:
Dissolved mineral salts by the root hairs,
Glucose and amino acids by cells in the small intestine of
humans.

Fig. 2.4 Active transport-molecules diffuse

against the concentration gradient from B to A.

Concentration gradient:
The difference in concentration between a region of a solution or gas that has a high density of
particles and a region that has a relatively lower density of particles.

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3. ENZYMES
3.1

What are enzymes?

1.

Enzymes:
They are biological catalysts made of protein. They alter the rate of chemical reactions without themselves being chemically
changed at the end of the reaction.

Catalysts are substances that can change the speed of a chemical reaction.
3.2 Characteristics of enzymes & Factors affecting enzyme activity.
1. Characteristics of enzymes:
They alter or speed up the rates of chemical reactions that occur in a cell.
They remain unchanged after a chemical reaction.
They are specific. "Lock & Key" hypothesis (One enzyme act on one substrate)
They are affected by temperature.
They are affected by pH.
They may need other enzymes to work (Coenzymes).
They catalyse reversible reactions.

2. Factors affecting enzyme activity:

1) Temperature.

Fig. 3.1 Effect of temperature.

A) The enzyme activity is increasing from its inactive state as the temperature increases

2)

B) The enzyme is at its most active state at optimum/optimal temperature (the temperature of which enzyme is
most active).
C) The enzyme activity decreases as it is exposed to temperature above the optimum/optimal temperature. And at
extreme temperature, the enzyme stopped because they are denatured.
pH.

Fig. 3.2 Effect of pH.

A)
B)
C)
D)
E)
F)

The enzyme activity is increasing from its inactive state as the pH (acidity/alkalinity) increases.
The enzyme is at its most active state at optimum/optimal pH (optimum acidity/optimum alkalinity).
The enzyme activity decrease when it is exposed to above the optimum/optimal pH. And at extreme pH (too
acidic/too alkaline), the enzyme stopped because they are denatured.
Most enzymes work best at neutral pH.
Some enzymes work best at acidic pH.
Some enzymes work best at alkaline pH.

Page 4

4. Plant Nutrition
4.1 Photosynthesis
1. Photosynthesis:
It is the process of making food by using carbon dioxide, water, with the help of sunlight and chlorophyll by green plants.
2. Photosynthesis required:
Carbon dioxide(CO 2) Water, Chlorophyll, Sunlight.
Word Equation for photosynthesis: Carbon dioxide + water
Chemical equation for photosynthesis:

6(CO 2) + 6(H2 0)

sunlight

glucose + oxygen.
chlorophyll

sunlight

C 6 H12 O6 + 6 O 2

chlorophyll

,
3. Factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis:
1) Light intensity (The strength of light).

Fig 4.1 Graph of rate of photosynthesis against light intensity

A) Between regions A and B, an increase in the brightness of light increases the rate of photosynthesis.
B) This indicates that the speed at which photosynthesis is taking place is limited by the amount of light available.
C) At higher light intensities (i.e. after point C) a further increase in light intensity would not increase the rate of
photosynthesis

D) This implies that the photosynthetic process is receiving the maximum amount of light it can make use of.
Hence, an increase in light intensity will not increase the rate.
2) Temperature.
A) At low temperature, photosynthesis is inactive.
B) As the temperature increase, the rate of photosynthesis
also increase.
C) At optimum temperature, photosynthesis is in its most
active state.
D) Above optimum temperature, the rate of photosynthesis
decreases.
E) At extreme temperature, photosynthesis stops, because
the enzymes involved in this process are denatured.

3)

Since photosynthesis can be affected negatively by heat,

enzymes must be involved.
Concentration of CO2.

A)

As there are more CO2, the faster the rate of photosynthesis.

Fig.4.2 Effect of temperature

B) CO2 concentration cannot exceed 0.03%, because that is the amount of CO 2 in the air.
C) It can only exceed 0.03% under experimental conditions.
4. Importance of photosynthesis:
It reduces the amount of CO2 in the air which is the main cause of global warming.
It produces oxygen to support other organisms for doing respiration.
It produces food which is the source of energy of other organism and itself.
5. The leaf:

Page 5

Fig.4.3 The external structure of a leaf

Fig.4.4 The internal structure of a leaf

6. The important features about leaves:

The cells in the palisade layer are packed with chloroplasts which contain lots of chlorophyll. This is where the photosynthesis
goes on.
The palisade and spongy layers are full of air spaces to allow CO2 to reach the palisade cells.
The cells in the epidermis make wax which covers the leaf structures, especially the top surface. This is to prevent water loss.
The lower surface is full of biddy little holes called stomata. They are there to let CO2 in. They also allow water to escape - this
is how the transpiration stream comes about.
Xylem and phloem vessels cover the whole leaf like tiny "veins", to deliver water to every part of the leaf and then to take
away the food produced by the leaf.
7. The stomata:
Stomata closes automatically when supplies of water from the roots start to dry up.
The guard cells control this. When water is scarce, they become flaccid, and they change shape, which closes the stomatal
pores.
This prevents any more water being lost, but also stops CO2 getting in, so the photosynthesis stops as well.
4.2 Plant Mineral Nutrition
1. Nitrogen:
Plants need nitrogen to make proteins. They got nitrogen from the compounds of
nitrogen from the soil.
2. Magnesium:
Important for making chlorophyll.
3. Plants lacking of magnesium:
They will have leaves not healthily green.
4. Nitrogen

proteins

5. Nitrogen-containing ions + carbohydrates

proteins.

new cells.
amino acids

6. Plants lacking of nitrogen:

They will not grow properly.

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5. ANIMAL NUTRITION
5.1 Food
1. There are 7 types of food:
Carbohydrates. Fats. Proteins. Minerals. Vitamins. Fibre or roughage. Water.
2. Carbohydrates can be divided into two:
Starch (To test for starch, use iodine solution, the colour will change from orange to blue Black if Starch is present).
Glucose (To test for glucose, use benedict's reagent, the colour of the reagent will change if glucose is present).
3. Proteins:
To test for the presence of proteins, use biuret's reagent. If the colour of the reagent changes to violet, it means that proteins
are present.
4. Fats:
Its presence can be tested by using the filter paper experiment or the alcohol test. A grease spot can be seen if fats are present
using the filter paper experiment.
5. Minerals:
They are the inorganic salts which do not provide energy but are indispensable to bodily functions.
Examples of minerals are calcium, phosphorus, sodium, chlorine, potassium and iron.

6.Vitamins:
They are not energy - providing food nor are they body - building food.
They are for maintaining normal health and development.
Lack of vitamins can cause diseases such as scurvy and rickets.
7. Fibre or roughage:
They are the indigestible fibrous materials, e.g. cellulose, present in the diet.
It provides bulk to the intestinal contents and helps peristalsis.
Insufficient of fibre can cause constipation.
8. Water:
They are the essential constituent of protoplasm.
Insufficient of fibre can cause constipation.
9. A balanced diet is a type of diet which consists of all types of food at the correct amount.
10.

Factors affecting the diet of individuals:

Activity.
Age.
Sex.
Body size.

11.
Malnutrition (Unbalanced diet):
Obesity - extremely overweight.
Constipation - difficulty to remove faeces.
12. Carbohydrates and fats are the main source of energy. While proteins are used for growth i.e. to make new cells
and repairing damaged tissues.
13. Carbohydrates are from glucose and starch. Fats are from fatty acids and glycerol. Proteins are from amino acids.
Cholesterol is a kind of sterol which is essential for the formation cell membrane.
14. Vitamin C maintains healthy skin, gum and the lining of blood vessels. Lack of Vitamin C can cause scurvy. Vitamin
C helps our cells to stick together.
15. Vitamin D helps the absorption of calcium. Lack of Vitamin D can cause rickets.
16. Calcium is a type of mineral, it has the function:
1) For strong bones and teeth. 2) Clotting of blood.
17. Lack of calcium can cause rickets.
18. Iron is also a type of mineral, it has the function of making haemoglobin in red blood cells.
19. Lack of red blood cells can cause anaemia.

Page 7

20. Stages of nutrition:1)

2)
Digestion.
3)
Absorption.
4)
Assimilation. 5)

Ingestion.

Egestion.

5.3 Digestion and the digestive system

1. Digestion is the process of breaking down food into its simplest form. This is necessary so that food substances
are small enough to be carried by the blood and able to pass into the cells.
2. Mouth:
Chews food up into easy-to-swallow balls.
3. Salivary glands:
Produce an enzyme called amylase to start the breakdown of starch.
Saliva contains mucous (sticky, slippery substance).
4. Oesophagus (Gullet):
The food chutes from the mouth to the stomach.
5. Stomach:
It pummels food with its muscular walls.
It produces pepsin (an enzyme for digesting proteins) and renin (an enzyme for digesting milk proteins), they are
also called the protease enzyme.
It produces hydrochloric acid for three reasons:
1)
To kill bacteria.
2)
To give the right pH for pepsin and renin to work (pH2acidic). 3) To neutralise the alkaline effect of saliva.
Hydrochloric acid, pepsin and renin are called the gastric juice.
6. Small intestine:
Duodenum:
1) Secretion of pancreatic juice which consists of the pancreatic amylase, trypsin (protease), lipase and bile.
2) Bile are emulsifying agent created in the liver, stored in the gall bladder and transferred to the duodenum
through the bile duct to emulsify fats.
3) Sodium bicarbonate are secreted into the duodenum to neutralise the acidic effect of hydrochloric acid.
Ileum:
1) Secretion of intestinal juice which consists of the intestinal amylase, maltase, lipase and protease.
2) It is where the foods are completely digested into its simplest form.
3) Carbohydrates are digested into glucose, proteins are digested into amino acids, and fats are digested into
glycerol and fatty acids.
4) This is also where the "food" is absorbed into the blood.
5) It is long and folded to increase surface area. Tiny finger-like things called villi cover the inner surface to
increase the surface area for absorption.
7. Large intestine:
Colon:
1) Excess water is absorbed from the food.
Rectum:
1) To store faeces.
8. Anus:
The faeces (the indigestible food) are expelled.

Page 8

A)
Tongue.
B)
Salivary
gland. C) Buccal cavity
D)
Oesophagus/gullet.
E) Stomach.
F) Duodenum.
G) Ileum.
H) Small intestine.
I) Colon;

Ascending colon.

Transverse colon.

Descending colon.
J)
Rectum.
K) Large intestine.
L) Anus.
M) Gall bladder.
N) Liver.
O) Pancreas.
5.4 Absorption.
1.

Absorption is the process by which digested

food are transferred into the blood stream
through the villi of the ileum.

2.

The capillaries of the villi will join up to form the hepatic portal vein which carries blood to the
liver.

3.

Glucose & amino acids will be sent to parts of the body that need them.

4.

Excess glucose will be converted by the liver into a storage substance called glycogen & stored in
the liver.

5.

Glycogen can be converted back to glucose when the body needs more glucose.

6.

Any more excess glucose will be converted to fats and stored in the adipose tissues under the skin.

7.

Excess amino acids will undergo a process called deamination which is done by the liver.

8.

Deamination is the process by which amino acids are broken down into glucose and urea. Urea is a
nitrogenous substance which is sent to the kidneys for disposal.

9.

Another function of the liver is the breakdown of alcohol: Alcohol

+ water + energy.

carbon dioxide

10. Too much alcohol in the body can make the person unconscious.
5.5 Assimilation.
1. Assimilation is the process by which some of the absorbed food materials are converted into new
protoplasm or used to provide energy.
2.

Uses of glucose and fats:

For energy (to respire).
Making new cells.
Repair & replace damaged tissues.
Production of other proteins such as enzymes and hormones.
Fats are used to form part of a cell such as the cell membrane and the nuclear membrane.
Fats are used as insulators.

Page 9

6. TRANSPORT IN PLANTS
6.1 Water and ion uptake.
Ion is taken up into the plants by:
Osmosis.
Active transport.
Water is taken up into the plants by:
Root pressure.
Transpiration pull.

Page 10

6.2 Transpiration and translocation.

Transpiration is the process by which water is lost from the leaves of the plants.
Factors affecting the rate of transpiration: Humidity. Temperature. Wind. Light.
3. Light:
The rate of transpiration will be high when there is light.
4. Temperature:
The higher the temperature, the higher the rate of transpiration.
5. Humidity & wind:
The lower the humidity, the higher the rate of transpiration.
The wind blows away the water vapour surrounding the leaves, in other words, the humidity
surrounding the leaves become low, so the rate of transpiration is high.
6.

Higher rate of transpiration when it is:

Windy.
Hot.
Less humid.
Daylight.

7. How to measure the rate of transpiration:

Using a potometer.
8. Translocation is the process by which food substances (glucose) are transported to other parts of the
plant through the phloem.
9. The foods are transported to
other parts of the plant because:
For energy.
To make new cells.
--------------------------------------------------------------

7. TRANSPORT IN HUMANS
7.1 The Heart.
Fig.7.1 The structure of the heart.
The thickest part of the cardiac muscle
indicates that it is the left part of the
heart.

1.

2.

Functions of valves:
To allow the blood to flow in one direction only.
To prevent the backflow of blood.
The Double circulation:
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Fig.7.2 (a) Pulmonary and (b) systemic circuit.

3. The blood which carries oxygen is called oxygenated blood (from lungs to body).
The blood which doesn't carry oxygen is called deoxygenated blood (from body to lungs).
4. The left side of the heart is more muscular and thicker because it pumps blood to all parts of the body.
7.2 The Blood Vessels.
1.

There are three types of blood:

Arteries.
Veins.
Capillaries. (smallest)

2. Differences between arteries and veins:

1) Arteries have smaller central cavity than veins.
2) Arteries have thicker elastic and muscular wall than veins.
3) Veins have valves while arteries don't have valves.
4) The blood flows slower, smoother and at low pressure than arteries.
5) All arteries carry oxygenated blood except pulmonary artery while all veins carry deoxygenated blood except
pulmonary veins.
6) Arteries carry blood away from the heart to the body while veins carry blood to the heart from the body.
7) The blood carried by arteries are bright red in colour while the blood carried by veins are dark red in colour.
8) Blood in arteries flow due to the pumping action of the heart while veins flow due to the contraction of the
heart.
Veins are big, slow and evil.
7.3 The Blood.
1.Components of the blood: Plasma. Blood cells. Platelets.
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2.

Plasma is the liquid part of the blood, it contains:

Blood cells.
Platelets.
Water.
Blood proteins.
Waste products.
Hormones.
Food substances; glucose, proteins, vitamins, etc.

3. The blood cells consist of two parts:

Red blood cells.
White blood cells.
4. Red blood cells are also known as erythrocytes which have the function of transporting
oxygen.
5. White blood cells are also known as leucocytes which have the function as a defense
mechanism.
6. Platelets which are also known as thrombocytes have the function to clot blood.
(involving the use of fibrinogen) 7. Fibrinogen work together with platelets to form fibrin.
8. Factors that may cause heart diseases:
1) Smoking.
2) Stress.
3) Malnutrition i.e. obesity.
4) Lack of physical exercise.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

8. RESPIRATION
8.1 Respiration.
Respiration is the process of breaking down food to release energy in the presence of oxygen.
There are two types of respiration:
1) Aerobic respiration.
2) Anaerobic respiration.
Aerobic respiration is the process of breaking down food in living cells to release a large amount of energy
in the presence of oxygen.
Anaerobic respiration is the process of breaking down food in living cells to release a small amount of
energy in the absence of oxygen.
Aerobic respiration:
Glucose + oxygen
C6H12O6 + 6O2

'E' + carbon dioxide + water

6CO2 + 6H2O + 'E'

Anaerobic respiration:
Page 13

Glucose

'e' + ethanol(alcohol) + carbon dioxide (Microorganism and plants)

Glucose

'e' + lactic acid (Humans)

8.2 Human Respiratory System.

1. Breathing is a mechanical process that involves taking in air into the lungs & takes out air from
the lungs.
2. Inspired and expired air:
Substance

Inspired air Expired air

1. Nitrogen

78%

78%

2. Oxygen

21%

16%

3. Carbon dioxide 0.03%

4. Noble gases
5. Water vapour

4.5%

1%

1%

Varies

Saturated

3. Temperature of:
1) Inspired air is lower than body temperature.
2) Expired air is about the same as body temperature.
8.3 Human Gaseous Exchange.
1.The respiratory system consists of: Lungs, Nose, Mouth, Trachea, Bronchi, Bronchioles, Alveoli
2. The gas exchange system in man:

Fig.8.1 The gas exchange system in man (left lung cut open to show alveoli)
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3. Inspiration & Expiration:

Fig.8.2 (a) Inspiration and (b) expiration.

A) Inspiration is an active process involving the contraction of: The external intercostal muscles; and
The diaphragm muscles.
B) Contraction of the external intercostal muscles pulls the rib cage upwards and outwards, while
contraction of the diaphragm muscles result in the flattening of the diaphragm.
C) The net result is an increase in the volume of the thorax (the part of the body between the neck and
the abdomen where the heart and lungs lie). D) Pressure in the thorax is thus reduced.
E)

Air is then sucked into the lungs, inflating the alveoli until the internal pressure equals that of

the atmosphere.
F)

Expiration is a passive process.

G) During expiration, only the internal intercostal muscles contract. The rib cage drops, mainly due to its
own weight.
H) The diaphragm relaxes and is forced into a dome shape by the falling rib cage.
I)

The volume of the thorax is decreased.

J)

Pressure is then exerted on the air in the lungs, forcing it out.

Page 15

K) During forced breathing, such as during exercise or sneezing, expiration becomes a much more active
and forceful process as the ribs are moved more vigorously downwards and the diaphragm is moved
upwards.
4. Structure of the alveolus:

A) The alveoli are where gaseous exchange takes place between the air in the sacs and the blood in the
capillaries surrounding each alveolus.
B) The distance over which the gases must diffuse is about 0.01 mm - two cell layers thick.
C) A thin film of moisture covers the surface of the alveolar wall. This has been found to contain a
chemical which lowers surface tension. This makes it easier for the lungs to be inflated during
breathing in. Without this chemical or surfactant, the alveoli would collapse and become stuck
together each time air passes out of the lungs.
5.

Diffusion across the alveoli is enhanced by the following features:

Large surface area of the alveoli;
Short distance between the air and the blood;
Steep concentration gradient maintained by constant movement of blood through the tissues and
ventilation of the lungs; and
Ability of blood to carry oxygen and carbon dioxide.
6. Exchange of oxygen:
Each haemoglobin molecule present in red blood cells can combine reversibly with up to four molecules of
oxygen, forming the compound oxyhaemoglobin.
As the red blood cells move through the blood capillaries surrounding the alveoli, the narrowness of the
capillaries forces them to slow down and become distroted.
This increases the time available for gaseous exchange to take place, as well as exposes a larger surface
area of the cell.
7. Exchange of carbon dioxide:
Carbon dioxide is transported in a variety of ways by blood.
Page 16

 A very small percentage is dissolved in plasma as carbonic acid.

Some carbon dioxide becomes attached to haemoglobin to form the compound carbamino haemoglobin.
Most of the carbon dioxide is carried by the plasma as hydrogen carbonate ions.

9. EXCRETION
9.1 Excretion.
1. Excretion is the process by which waste products and toxic materials are removed from the body of an
organism.
2. Excretory organs:
3.

Kidneys; Lungs; Liver.

The urinary system in man:

Fig.9.1 The urinary system in man.

Fig.9.2 The structure of the kidney.

4. Lungs:
The lungs supply the body with oxygen, but they are also excretory organs because they get rid of carbon dioxide. They also
lose a great deal of water vapour, but this loss is unavoidable and is not a method of controlling water content of the body.
5. Kidneys:
The kidneys remove urea and other nitrogenous waste from the blood. They also expel excess water, salts, hormones and
drugs.
6. Liver:
The liver breakdown haemoglobin to produce yellow/green bile pigment, bilirubin. Bilirubin is excreted with the bile into the
small intestine and expelled with the faeces. The pigment undergoes changes in the intestine and is largely responsible for the
brown colour of the faeces.
7. Skin:
Sweat consists of water, with sodium chloride (salt) and traces of urea dissolved in it. These substances are excreted when we
sweat. But, sweating is a response to rise in temperature and not a change in the blood composition. Therefore, skin is not an
excretory organ.
8. Kidney failure may result from an accident involving a drop in blood pressure, or from a disease of the kidneys. A dialysis
machine is required to replace the function of the kidneys should the kidneys are damaged.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

10. HOMEOSTASIS
10.1 Homeostasis.
1. Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment.
2. For any homeostatic control to occur there must be:
a stimulus which is a change in the internal environment,
a receptor which can detect the stimulus,

Page 17

an automatic or self-regulatory corrective mechanism, which bring about a negative feedback.

3. Homeostasis may include the regulation of the following:

Blood glucose level,

Blood water potential,

Temperature.

10.2 Blood glucose regulation.

1. The regulation of blood glucose level is done by the pancreas.
2. Homeostatic control of blood glucose level:

Fig.10.1 Homeostatic control of blood glucose level.

3. The two hormones, insulin and glucagon have different effects on the glucose level in the blood. They are produced by the same
region of the pancreas, the islets of Langerhans, but by different cells. Their secretion into the blood is controlled by the negative
feedback mechanism depicted in Figure 10.1.
4. Insulin converts glucose to glycogen which reduces the blood glucose level.
5. Glucagon converts glycogen to glucose which increases the blood glucose level.
10.3 Regulation of blood water potential.
1. The regulation of blood water potential is done by the kidneys.
2. Homeostatic control of water potential:

Page 18

Fig.10.2 Homeostatic control of water potential.

3. On a cold day, if you don't sweat, you'll produce more urine which will be pale and dilute.
4. On a hot day, you sweat a lot, your urine will be dark-coloured, concentrated and little of it.
10.4 Temperature regulation.
1. The regulation of temperature is done by the skin.
2. The skin:

Fig.10.3 The structure of the skin.

3. When the body is exercising vigorously or when the surrounding is hot:
1) Thermoreceptors in the skin detect an increase in environmental temperature or heat sensors in the hypothalamus detect a rise
in the temperature of the blood.
2) The sweat glands increase the production of sweat.
3) Vasodilation, increases the internal diameter of blood vessels so that more blood is brought to the capillaries.
4) Body loses heat as sweat evaporates.
5) Body loses heat as more blood is brought to the skin surface, leading to increased heat loss by conduction, convection and
radiation.

Page 19

6) Metabolic rate is lowered leading to the decreased heat production by cells.

7) Body temperature is lowered.
4. When the body is at rest or when the surrounding is cold:
1) Thermoreceptors in the skin detect decrease in the environmental temperature or heat sensors in the hypothalamus detect drop
in temperature of blood.
2) The sweat glands stop production of sweat.
3) Vasoconstriction, reduces the internal diameter of blood vessels so that less blood is brought to the capillaries.
4) Body gains heat as erector muscles in the skin contract causing the hairs to stand up, creating a layer of air which will act as
insulation.
5) Skeletal muscles contract and relax repeatedly; this shivering resulting in production of heat.
6) Less blood is brought to the skin surface so that less heat will be lost.
7) Metabolic rate is raised leading to increased heat production by cells.
8) Body temperature is raised.
5. The skin is:
A waterproof structure;
One of the organs of the sense of touch.
6.

The skin has three parts: 1)

2) Dermis.
3) Hypodermis.

Epidermis: Cornified layer; Granular layer; Malphigian layer.

Page 20

11. Coordination & Response

11.1 The Nervous System.
The nervous system of a mammal consists:
The central nervous system (CNS) comprising the brain and the spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system
(PNS) comprising the cranial nerves, spinal nerves and sense organs.
A neurone is a nerve cell. A nerve fibre is a long protoplasmic extensions of the cell body of a neurone. It
serves to transmit impulses.
A nerve is a collection of nerve fibres.
1)Sensory neurones: It is a receptor neurone,
It transmits impulses from the sense organ (receptor) to the CNS.
2)Motor neurone: It is an effector neurone.
It transmits impulses from the CNS to the effectors.
3)Relay neurone: It connects sensory neurones to motor neurones.
5. A synapse is a junction between two neurones. A dendron transmits impulses towards the cell
body of a neurone. An axon transmits impulses away from the cell body of a neurone.
6. Structure and functions of the human brain:

Parts of mammalian

Function(s) brain

1. Cerebral hemisphere

Intelligence, memory, voluntary actions, sensations. (Cerebrum)

2. Hypothalamus
appetite and emotions.

Regulation of body temperature and osmotic pressure in blood;

3. Pituitary gland

Secretes a number of hormones.

4. Optic lobes

Concerned with sight and movement of eyeball.

5. Cerebellum

Muscular coordination and bodily balance.

6. Medulla oblongata

Involuntary actions, e.g. heartbeat, respiratory movements, peristalsis.

7. Reflex actions involve messages being transmitted from the sensory neurone to the motor neurone without
involving the conscious part of the brain.
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8. A reflex arc is the shortest pathway by which impulses travel from the receptor to the effector in a reflex
action.
11.2 The Eye.
1. Structure and functions of the eye:

Fig.11.2 Structure of the eye.

Parts of the eye

Function(s)

1). Aqueous humour

Refracts light; keeps eyeball firm. 2). Vitreous

humour Refracts light; keeps eyeball firm.

3). Cornea

Refracts light rays into pupil.

4). Suspensory Attaches lens to ciliary body. ligament

5). Iris

Controls amount of light entering the eye.

6). Pupil
7). Lens

Allows light to enter the eye.

Focuses light rays into retina.

8). Ciliary muscle

Controls curvature or thickness of the lens.

9). Rectus muscle

Movement of eyeball.

10). Sclera

Protection against mechanical injury.

11). Choroid

Pigmented black to prevent internal reflection of

light.

12). Yellow spot (fovea) Region of acute vision.

13). Optic nerve

Transmits impulses from eye to brain.

14). Blind spot

No photoreceptor cells; no vision when image falls on

it.

15). Retina

Light sensitive layer, contains:

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(i). Cones concerned with colour vision in bright light. (ii). Rods
concerned with vision in dim light.
2. Accommodation is the ability to change the curvature of the lens, so that light rays continue to
be focused on the retina.
11.3 Hormones.
1. Hormones are chemical substances produced by a gland, carried by the blood, to the target organ(s), and
produce a response, and destroyed in the liver.
2. Since hormones are proteins, therefore they are affected by pH and temperature.
3. The pituitary gland plays an important role as a "controller". It secretes a number of hormones, each of which
controls the activity of a particular gland, hence the pituitary gland is sometimes referred to as the "master
gland".
4. Location of endocrine gland:

5. The islets of Langerhans are the special group of cells in the pancreas which secrete the hormone insulin into
the bloodstream.
6. Adrenaline:

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7. Insulin:

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11.4 Diabetes Mellitus.

1. Signs of diabetes mellitus:
A persistently high blood glucose level and glucose in the urine after a meal are signs of diabetes mellitus.

2.An insulin-dependent person is a person who needs daily injections of insulin.

3. An insulin-independent person is a person who doesn't usually require any injections of insulin.
Type 1 diabetes (Juvenile-onset diabetes=early-onset diabetes=insulindependent diabetes)
Type 2 diabetes (Adult-onset diabetes=late-onset diabetes=insulin-dependent diabetes)
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12 REPRODUCTION
12.1 Key definitions
Asexual reproduction formation of a new organism, without the involvement of gametes.
Sexual reproduction- formation of new organism by the fusion of gametes.
Pollination transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma.
Dispersal a means of moving fruits or seeds away from the parent plant.
Growth an increase in dry mass of an organism as a result of cell growth and division.
Development an increase in complexity through the differentiation of cells.
12.2 Asexual reproduction
Advantages
1. The process is quick
2. Only one parent is needed
3. No gametes are needed
4. All the good characteristics of the parent are passed on to the offsprings
5. Where there is no dispersal offspring will grow in the same favourable environment as the parent
6. Plants that reproduce asexually usually store large amounts of food that allow rapid growth when conditions
are suitable.
Disadvantages
1. There is little variation created, so adaptation to a changing environment is unlikely.
2. If the parent has no resistance to a particular disease, none of the offsprings will have resistance
3. Lack of dispersal can lead to competition for nutrients, water and light.
12.3 Sexual Reproduction
Advantages
1. There is variation in the offspring so adaptation to a changing or new environment is likely enabling survival of
the species
2. New varieties can be created, which may have resistance to disease.
3. In plants, seeds are produced, which allow dispersal away from the parent plant, reducing competition
Disadvantages
1. Two parents are usually needed
2. Growth of a new plant to maturity from a seed is slow.
12.4 Functions of parts of a flower
Petal often large and coloured, to attract insects.
Sepal protects the flower while in bud
Petiole supports the flower to make it easily seen by insects, and to be able to withstand wind
Nectary- produces nectar to attract insects
Stamen the male reproductive part of the flower, made up of anther and filament
Anther contains pollen sacs, in which pollen grains are formed. Pollen contains male sex cells.
Filament supports the anther
Carpel the female reproductive part of the flower, made up of stigma, style and ovary
Stigma A sticky surface that receives pollen during pollination.
Style links the stigma to the ovary, through which pollen tubes grow
Ovary contains ovules, which develop into seeds when fertilized.
12.5 Pollination
Insect pollination
1. Petals present (often large, coloured and scented, with guidelines to guide insect into the flower).
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2.
3.
4.
5.

Nectar produced by nectaries to attract insects

Stamen Present inside the flower
Stigmas Small surface area, inside the flower
Pollen smaller amounts grains are often round and sticky, or covered in spikes to attach to the furry bodies of
insects.
6. Bracts Absent.
Wind pollination
1. Petals Absent, or small and inconspicuous.
2. Nectar absent, or small and green.
3. Stamen long filaments, allowing the anthers to hang freely outside the flower so the pollen is exposed to the
wind
4. Stigmas large and feathery, hanging outside the flower to catch pollen carried by the wind.
5. Pollen larger amounts of smooth and light pollen grains, which are easily carried by the wind.
6. Bracts sometimes present.
12.6 Fertilization in flowering plants
1. Fertilization: when a male sex cell and a female sex cell meet and join together (they are said to fuse together).
2. In flowering plants, the male gamete is in the pollen grain. The female gamete, called the egg cell is in the ovule.
3. When the pollen grain arrives on the stigma of the same species of plant, the sugary solution on the stigma forms
a medium in which pollen grain germinate.
4. Germination of pollen grain involves the growth of a Pollen tube.
5. Pollen tube releases enzymes at the tip in order to digest the cells of the style beneath.
6. Thus, the cells of the style are removed to allow the pollen tube to grow down the style towards the ovary.
7. At the ovary, the end of pollen tube enters an ovule through a small hole called Micropyle.
8. Inside the ovule is the embryo sac which contains the female gamete, within which is the female nucleus.
9. The end of the pollen tube then bursts to release the male gamete, which has travelled down the pollen tube
from the pollen grain.
10. Thus the nuclei of male gamete and female gamete fuse together.

12.7 Development of the Fruit

1. After fertilization, the ovule is then called seed.
2. The ovary wall becomes the Pericarp.
3. The pericarp with the seed inside is called the fruit.
Seed Structure
1. Sugars and amino acids travel through the phloem of the parent plant and enter the seed.
2. Sugars are converted to starch and some case fat and amino acid are converted to protein.
3. Starch and protein are then stored in the storage organs called cotyledons.
4. Between two cotyledons lie the plumule (Young Shoot) and the radicle (Young Root) of the embryo plant.
5. The embryo is made up of cotyledons, plumule and radicle.
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6. The embryo is protected within a seed coat or testa.

12.8 Dispersal of seeds
1. Once the fruits get developed, the seed containing embryo plant must break free from the parent and dispersed.
2. Thus, the plant species are able to colonize new areas.
3. It also prevents overcrowding and avoids competition.
4. There are two main agents of dispersal responsible for carrying away the seed
a. Wind and
b. Animals
Wind Dispersal
1. Light in weight and
2. Have their testa or pericarp extended to provide a large surface area.
3. This allows the seed or fruit to catch in the wind and be pulled clear of the parent.
4. It also slows the seeds fall to the ground allowing the wind to carry it for a considerable distance.
Animal Dispersal
1. It relies on color, sweet and juicy pericarps around them to entice an animal to eat them.
2. The seed will also have enzyme resistant testas, so that they can pass through the animals intestine intact.
3. And the seeds are dropped through the animal faeces at a distance from the parent plant.
4. Some seeds have hook on their testas or on the surrounding pericarps.
5. The hooks catch on small mammals fur and the seeds can be carried to the distance.
12.9 Germination of seeds
The seeds will germinate under the following suitable environmental condition.
1. Water to activate the enzymes
2. Oxygen To allow for the release of great deal of energy from respiration to increase the growth rate
3. Temperature it operates efficiently in the optimal temperature.
4. Light Not necessary sometimes optional
Male reproductive system
1. Epididymis a mass of tubes in which sperms are stored
2. Penis can become firm, to insert into the vagina of the female during sexual intercourse, to transfer sperm.
3. Prostate gland adds fluid and nutrients to sperm, to form semen.
4. Scrotum a sac that holds the testes outside the body, keeping them cooler than body temperature.
5. Seminal Vesicle adds fluid and nutrients to sperm, to form semen
6. Sperm duct muscular tube which links the testis to the urethra to allow the passage of semen containing sperm
7. Testis Male gonads that produce sperm
8. Urethra to pass semen containing sperm through the penis, also carries urine from the bladder at different
times.
Female reproductive system
1. Cervix a ring of muscle that separates the vagina from the uterus.
2. Funnel of oviduct directs an ovum from the ovary into the oviduct
3. Ovary contains follicle in the ova are produced.
4. Oviduct 9carries an ovum to the uterus, with propulsion provided by tiny cilia in the wall, also the site of
fertilization.
5. Urethra carries urine from the bladder
6. Uterus where the fetus develops
7. Vagina receives the male penis during sexual intercourse, sperm are deposited here

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Menstrual Cycle
1. It occurs in females between the onset of Puberty and Menopause.
2. It is regulated by hormones secreted by the anterior lobe of pituitary gland and the ovaries (Oestrogen &
Progesterone).
3. Menstruation is the monthly discharge of blood lasting 3-5 days Beginning of the Menstrual Cycle.
a. Menstruation normally contains uterus lining, unfertilized Ovum, blood & Mucus.
4. Ovulation normally occurs in 14 days after the onset of menstruation.
a. Before the ovulation, spongy lining of uterus will be ready.
5. Under normal circumstances only one mature ovum is produced each month.
6. If Fertilization occurs:
a. Implantation of fertilized ovum in the uterus lining occurs.
b. Level of progesterone is high, to Maintain pregnancy and helps in the formation of placenta.
7. When the woman becomes pregnant, her menstrual cycle stops until after the baby is born.
8. If No fertilization: Level of progesterone is low Menstruation Starts.
Diagram of Menstrual Cycle

Role of Hormones
Endocrine
Gland

Hormone

Target

Function

Pituitary

FSH

Ovary

To stimulate ovary to produce mature ova

Pituitary

LH

Ovary

To stimulate ovary to release of ova

ovary

Oestrogen

Uterus

ovary

Progesterone

Uterus

To prepare the uterus for the implantation of fertilized

ova
To stimulate the maintenance of the uterus for the
survival of the fertilized egg

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Factors affecting the Menstrual Cycle

1. Stress Emotional stress leads to an irregular
menstrual cycle.
2. Diet Inadequate diet leads to an irregular
menstrual cycle and starvation suppress the
cycle.
Fertile and Infertile Phases
Fertile Phase: From a few days before ovulation
to a few days after ovulation.
Infertile Phase: No ovum in oviducts, if ovum is
not in the correct position in oviduct and
outside the time of before ovulation and after
ovulation.
Human Fertilization
1. During copulation/ mating, sensitive cells near
the end of the penis are the receptors for a reflex
action leading to the release of sperm
(ejaculation).
2. Sperms are deposited near the cervix of the
female, and then swim through the uterus and
up the oviducts.
3. If sperms meet an ovum around one third of its
oviduct from the ovary then it fuses to form a
zygote. This is the moment of fertilization.
Development of the embryo
The zygote, a single cell formed from equal
nuclear contributions from both parents.

Diffusing from mother to fetus

Dissolved nutrients
Glucose
Aminoacids
Ions
Vitamins
Water
The Dietary Needs of Pregnant Woman
1. Embryo development depends on the food
eaten by its mother.
2. So, pregnant woman must adjust her diet
accordingly,
3. She should ensure the levels of the constituents
are higher than in her normal intake
a. Protein - the manufacture of embryonic
tissues.

4. It begins to divide, eventually to form a hollow

ball of cells. This stage of embryonic
development is called the BLASTOCYST.
5. The embryo initially absorbs nourishment
secreted by cells of the uterus, but it soon
embeds itself (implantation) spongy lining of the
uterus.
6. Further division of the cells turns the blastocyst
into a FETUS.
7. The fetus is surrounded by a membrane (the
Amnion) which forms the Amniotic sac enclosing
the fetus in a water bath (the Amniotic fluid)
The Nutrition and Excretion of the fetus
1. Both nutrition and excretion are carried out
through a special structure called the Placenta.
2. This is made up partly of material from the fetus
and partly of material from the spongy lining of
the uterus.
3. In the placenta, blood in the mothers capillaries
runs very close to blood in the capillaries of the
fetus.
4. However, their blood does not mix mother and
child may be different blood groups.
5. The placenta is connected to the fetus by the
Umbilical cord, inside which run fetal blood
vessels.
6. The umbilical vein brings substance to the fetus;
the umbilical artery carries substances from the
fetus.
Dissolved gas
Oxygen
Diffusing from mother to fetus
Nitrogenous Waste
Urea
Dissolved gas
Carbon dioxide
o Carbohydrate - additional respiration in
embryonic tissues.
o Vitamin C - making proteins in the
embryo.
o Vitamin D and calcium - making bones
and teeth of embryo.
o Iron - making embryos blood.

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Sexually transmitted diseases

Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are diseases that are transferred by sexual contact. They are very common and widely
spread.
1. AIDS
1. HIV/AIDS is known as the killer of the twenty-first century. It is caused by a retrovirus called the human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which in turn causes acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS).
2. AIDS is the final stage of the HIV infection where opportunistic diseases infect the body and the person finally
dies.
3. The virus is transmitted in body fluids like sperm, breast milk, vaginal fluid and blood.
4. The HIV is transferred from an infected mother to her unborn child.
5. Touching, kissing, shaking hands, tears do not transfer HIV, sneezing, coughing or mosquito bites.
Causes
1. The virus attacks the lymphocytes, which weakens the immune system thereby reducing the bodys resistance to
illness.
2. The infected person has no resistance to any diseases that may attack the body and will contract an illness like
flu, TB, diarrhoea, some cancers or pneumonia.
3. The immune system eventually stops working completely. It is the infection from the contracted diseases that
causes death and not the HIV.
Symptom
HIV shows no symptoms for up to 10 years. This time span from infection to symptoms depends on various factors:
1. genetic make-up
2. level of immune function
3. physical health condition at time of infection
For several weeks after initial infection, there are no signs of infection. This is called the window period where all tests
will show negative. It can take up to six months for the test to show positive, inspite of the HIV being present. When HIV
positive people show symptoms, it means that the disease has progressed to AIDS.
The most common symptoms are:
1. severe weight loss
2. diarrhoea and fevers
3. skin cancer may develop beginning with small swollen spots which spread over the whole body
4. organs begin to swell, especially lymph nodes
5. secondary illness infection that results in severe symptoms. For this reason, AIDS is often confused with
malnutrition, skin cancer, TB, a bad cold or flu, and blood cancer.
Treatment
At present, a drug called AZT is used to block the HIV replication in the early stages. AZT works by blocking the action of
reverse transcriptase, the enzyme needed by the retrovirus for incorporation into the host cells DNA. Pregnant mothers
are given AZT and babies are treated with AZT after birth.
1. Keep cuts and wounds covered
2. Do not share needles, toothbrushes, razors or blades with an infected person
3. Always use rubber gloves when cleaning sores, wounds, vomit, faeces or blood of an infected person
Prevention
Education programmes conducted across the world to inform people of HIV/AIDS. Multiple sex partners are discouraged
and monogamy (one sexual partner) is promoted. People are advised to practice safe sex and use condoms at all times.
Condoms are being made readily available at clinics, hospitals, places of work and most public toilets. Sterile hypodermic
needles are distributed free of charge to drug addicts

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2. Gonorrhoea
This is the most common of the STDs, as there are many strains of the bacteria that cause this disease. A person may
develop immunity to one strain but be infected with another. Infected pregnant women may give birth to babies with eye
diseases, which can lead to permanent blindness.
Cause
Gonorrhoea is caused by a bacterium called Neisseria gonorrhoeae.
Infection results from direct sexual contact. It is rarely transmitted by indirect contact with toilet seats or towels.
Symptoms
Within 7 to 20 days after exposure the bacteria produce an antigen called exotoxin and causes redness and swelling of
the genitalia.
1. Males: infection begins in the urethra with frequent urination, severe burning sensation and a discharge of mucus.
Infection then spreads to the prostrate gland, seminal vesicles and epididymis. Abscesses develop which may lead
to sterility.
2. Females: no immediate symptoms occur. The infection spreads to the uterus and fallopian tubes, leaving dense
scar tissue, which can result in sterility. If untreated, the gonorrhoea spreads to other organs affecting the heart
valves, the joints and also the meninges of the brain.
Treatment
Antibiotic: penicillin and tetracycline spectinomycin
3. Syphilis
Syphilis causes death in 5 to 10 per cent of infected people if untreated. Pregnant women transmit the syphilis to the
unborn baby through the placenta prenatal syphilis. About 50 per cent of the infected babies die shortly before or after
birth.
Cause
A bacterium called Treponema pallidum is transferred during direct sexual contact. It generally enters the body through
a break in the skin or mucus membrane. Within 24 hours, it invades the lymph and circulatory systems, spreading
throughout the body.
Symptom: There are four stages:
1. Primary stage: three weeks after infection with a primary chancre, a small, painless ulcer on the genitals. This
chancre is very infectious and any sexual contact leads to infection of the sexual partner. The chancre heals
quickly.
2. Secondary stage: two months after infection with flu-like symptoms and a mild rash. In some cases lesions develop
in the mucus membrane of the mouth and the genitals. This stage is highly contagious as the lesions contain
millions of bacteria.
3. Latent Stage: there are no apparent symptoms now. The bacteria begin to invade the organs of the body.
4. Advanced stage: lesions called gummas develop on the heart, the skin, liver and spleen. The central nervous
system may become infected and this leads to insanity and finally death. Severe lesions of the organs will cause
death.
Treatment:
Scrapings of the chancre and blood tests will identify the bacteria. Blood tests show the presence of an antibody called
regain, produced when a person is infected. An antibiotic like penicillin is prescribed during the primary stage of infection.
Once lesions occur, permanent damage to the organs cannot be repaired.
Birth control:
Natural Method
Prevent copulation during 5 days before and after ovulation (fertile period)
Chemical method
Chemical which kill sperms are put into the vagina of the female before intercourse.
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Mechanical Method
Condom:
1. Have male and female condom
2. As a barrier to prevent sperms from entering vagina
Diaphragm
1. Fitted over the cervix
2. To be used together with spermicides
Intra-uterine device (IUD)
1. A form of coil / loop
2. Insert it into the uterus
3. Regular medical examination
a. Remain in place
4. Irritation to the lining of the uterus
Hormonal Method
Contraceptive pills:
1. Contains female sex hormones which inhibit ovulation
2. Must be taken daily
3. May have side effects
Surgical Method
1. Vasectomy: Cutting and tying up of sperm ducts
2. Tubal ligation: Cutting and tying up of oviducts.
Advantages of breast feeding over bottle feeding
1. There are antibodies present in breast milk, giving the baby protection against infection.
2. Foodstuffs are present in breast milk in the correct proportions.
3. There is no risk of an allergic reaction to breast milk.
4. Breast milk is produced at the correct temperature.
5. There are no additives or preservatives in breast milk.
6. Breastfeeding builds a bond between mother and a baby.
7. Breast milk does not require sterilization as there are no bacteria present that could cause intestinal disease.
8. There is no cost involved in using breast milk
9. Breast milk does not need to be prepared.
10. Breast feeding triggers a reduction in the size of the mothers uterus.
Birth
1.
2.
3.
4.

The first stage of the birth process is called labour, triggered by the hormone oxytocin.
The muscular walls of the uterus start to contract.
The pressure breaks the amniotic sac, releasing the amniotic fluid.
Contractions gradually become more frequent, pushing the baby down towards the cervix, which becomes dilated
to allow the baby to pass through.
5. The vagina stretches to allow the baby to be born.
6. The baby is still attached to the placenta by the umbilical cord so this cut and tied.
7. The placenta breaks away from the wall of the uterus and passes out.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------13 INHERITANCE
13.1 What are chromosomes?
1. Genetic materials found inside the nucleus of a cell
2. Made up of DNA & protein
3. Appear as very thin & thread-like structures called Chromatins
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4. Each cell in each type of organism has a definite number of chromosomes

5. Each cell has Diploid Number of chromosomes:
1 set of Paternal Chromosomes + 1 set of Maternal
Chromosomes
6. A gene is a short length of DNA on a chromosome which is a unit determining an inherited character
7. It consists of a chemical substance called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
8. DNA is responsible for telling the cell to make the right type of protein & control the metabolic activities of the
cells
13.2 Homologous chromosome
Members of homologous chromosomes carry the same genes (controlling the same character) in same loci
But the genes on the members of homologous chromosomes may be of different forms (effects)
Alleles An alternative form of a gene. Pairs of allele occupy the same relative positions on chromosome pairs.
13.3 Comparison between mitosis and meiosis

Heredity: tendency of an individual to resemble his parents.

Variation: the differences between individuals of the same species.
Genetics: the study of how characters are transferred or inherited from one generation to the next
Genotype - the genetic composition
Phenotype - the external appearance
Homozygous (pure-breeding)

with the same alleles in the same character

Heterozygous (hybrid)

with different alleles

Dominant gene (or character) - which expresses its effect even in heterozygous condition
Recessive gene (or character) - which expresses its effect only in homozygous condition
Pedigree - it shows the inheritance of one or more characters in different generations
Test cross

cross the organism with dominant character to an organism with homozygous recessive character
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to test whether the organism with the dominant character is homozygous or heterozygous

Back cross - cross an organism with one of its parent

Codominance

This term describes a pair of alleles, neither of which is dominant over the other. This means both can
have an effect on the phenotype when they are present in the genotype.

The result is that there can be three different phenotypes.

13.4 Sex Determination

in human : by sex chromosomes

male : XY

female : XX

a chromosomes other than sex chromosomes somatic chromosomes which control normal body characters
22 pairs are identical in both sexes autosomes
The 23rd pair is different in male and female sex chromosomes
13.5 Twins
identical twins

one embryo separates into two and each develops into a new individual

they should have same characters and same sex

non-identical twins

formed from two different zygotes from two separate fertilizations

they usually have different characters

they may have different sexes

13.6 Types of Variations

Continuous variation

with a continuous range of intermediate values

eg. height, weight, intelligence quotient, heart beat

Discontinuous variation

the character is clear-cut & not showing intermediates

eg. tongue rolling, ear lobes and colour of corn

13.7 Causes of Variations

Meiosis

Homologous chromosomes separate independently from each other and pass into a different gamete
(INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT). As a result, a great variety of gametes are produced

Random Fertilization
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since fertilization is a random process, there are many possible different combinations of genes in a zygote

Mutation

genetic make-up may suddenly change

sometimes occur naturally
rate may greatly increased if the organism is exposed to radiation, certain chemicals or neutron
bombardment
most mutation are harmful
Environmental Factors

13.8

cause variation in characters with continuous variation

Genetic Engineering
1. Human cells with genes for healthy insulin are selected
2. A chromosome is removed from the cell.
3. The insulin gene is cut from the chromosome using restriction endonuclease enzyme.
4. A suitable bacterial cell is selected. Some of its DNA is in the form of circular plasmids.
5. All the plasmids are removed from the bacterial cell.
6. The plasmids are cut open using the same restriction endonuclease enzyme.
7. The human insulin gene is inserted into the plasmids using ligase enzyme.
8. The plasmids are returned to the bacterial cell.
9. The bacterial cell is allowed to reproduce in a fermenter. All the cells produced contain plasmids with
the human insulin gene.

14 Ecology
Carnivore an animal that eats other animals
Consumer An organism that obtains its food by feeding on other organisms
Decomposer An organism that obtains its food by breaking down dead organisms.
Ecosystem A community of interdependent organisms and their environment.
Food Chain A list of organism that shows the feeding relationship between them and the direction of energy flow.
Food web A group of interlinking food chains that shows the feeding relationships between organisms
Herbivore An animal that eats plants
Producer An organism that makes its own food using energy from sunlight through the process of photosynthesis.
Trophic level an organisms position in a food chain, food web or food pyramid.

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Carbon cycle
It has four main processes are involved: Photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition and combustion.

Nitrogen Cycle
Role of Bacteria in three main types they are; Nitrogen fixing, nitrifying and denitryifying bacteria.
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1. Deforestation
Consequences
- soil erosion
- flooding
- loss of habitat
- loss of valuable species
- climatic changes
- upsets oxygen and carbon dioxide balance
2. Air pollution
Caused by
- burning of fossil fuel
- exhaust fumes from motor vehicles
- burning of garbage
3. Water pollution
Caused by
- discharge of untreated sewage
- discharge of inorganic waste
- excessive use of chemical fertilizers
- use of pesticides
Reasons for clearing forests/ deforestation
to provide:
- land for cultivation, urban development, grazing
- timber for construction and making paper
- firewood
Pollution
Pollution is the process by which harmful substances are added to the environment
- air pollution from: forest fires, volcanic eruptions, biological decomposition, human activities
- water pollution from: human activities
Conservation
Conservation is necessary for the protection of plant and animal species to maintain a stable and balanced ecosystem
Conservation measures:
- reducing or eliminating pollution through education and legislation
- controlling growth of human population
- conserving natural resources. Recycling important for conservation which conserves non-renewable natural
resources but also
- reduced the problem of waste disposal and environmental pollution
- is economical as it saves energy and money
- recovering wildlife, especially those species that are in danger of extinction

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