11.

CHEMICAL RECOVERY CYCLE

Table of content
CHEMICAL RECOVERY CYCLE .................................................................................................................................. 1
EVAPORATION OF BLACK LIQUOR ............................................................................................................................ 1
Black liquor properties....................................................................................................................................... 2
Terminology used in the evaporation of black liquors ....................................................................................... 4
Evaporation process........................................................................................................................................... 8
RECOVERY BOILER ................................................................................................................................................. 11
Combustion of black liquor .............................................................................................................................. 13
Recovery of heat in the recovery boiler ............................................................................................................ 16
Recovery boiler operation ................................................................................................................................ 19
WHITE LIQUOR PREPARATION ................................................................................................................................ 22
Dregs removal from green liquor ..................................................................................................................... 23
Lime slaking and causticizing........................................................................................................................... 25
Lime handling and washing.............................................................................................................................. 26
Lime drying and reburning............................................................................................................................... 29
QUESTIONS ............................................................................................................................................................ 33

Kaj Henricson
Professor Pulping Technology
Lappeenranta University of Technology
August 2005

Educational course material and only for internal and personal use during
the course: An introduction to chemical pulping technology.

Chemical recovery cycle

One of the main advantages of the kraft process is the efficient recovery of chemicals as
compared to, for instance, sulfite pulp production. Picture 1 shows the principal unit operations
of the kraft recovery process: evaporation of weak black liquor; combustion of thick black liquor
in a recovery furnace to form a smelt, which is dissolved in water forming green liquor;
causticizing sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) in green liquor to form white liquor containing sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) and sodium sulfide (Na2S); and regeneration of lime mud in a limekiln.
Black liquor is recovered with a high recovery rate after cooking and the black liquor is
combusted in the recovery boiler to produce heat and power in amounts that exceed their
consumption at the kraft pulp mill. There is no need for external heat or power in the production
of kraft pulp. The only exception is the limekiln, where usually oil or natural gas is used. In the
lime kiln, the use of fossil fuels can be replaced with for instance combustion gases produced by
gasifying bark. The water evaporated in the evaporation plan can be reused in white liquor
preparation and in the fiber line as purified condensates.

Picture 1. Recovery cycles of chemicals for a kraft mill

BAT

Evaporation of black liquor

The amount of water that has to be evaporated during black liquor evaporation depends on the
amount of water introduced into the chemical recovery system, especially into the cooking and
brown stock handling systems. The water to be evaporated originates from:

water content of wood

water formed during cooking
steam condensed during direct steam heating for instance in cooking and oxygen bleaching
water in white liquor
water used in brown stock washing. The excess water is determined by the dilution factor.
various other water sources such as sealing water to leaking seals etc.
1

The amount of water that normally has to be evaporated from the weak black liquor after
cooking and brown stock washing in order to produce thick black liquor for combustion in the
recovery boiler is in the range of 7-9 m3/ton of pulp.
Black liquor properties
Black liquor is composed of the organic material dissolved from the wood in the digester and at
the oxygen delignification plant and of the chemicals used in cooking and oxygen bleaching. In
the case of re-circulation of bleach plant effluents from final bleaching, also the dissolved
material from bleaching and used chemicals in bleaching will be found in black liquor. In
addition, non-process elements circulating with the active cooking chemical have accumulated
in the chemical recovery cycle.
Black liquor contains extractives originating from the wood raw material. Extractives are
removed from black liquor in the form of soap. The volatile components are removed from the
condensates by stripping. Soap separation is important in order to avoid scaling of heat transfer
surfaces during evaporation and to avoid foaming. Black liquor has a strong tendency to foam at
low dry solids concentrations and the soap content contributes to the foaming tendency. The dry
solids content of black liquor from the cooking and washing plant can be increased by adding to
it some intermediate liquor from the evaporation plant before entering the evaporation plant in
order to avoid foaming.
The scaling of heat transfer surfaces occurs in particular at high dry solids concentrations. The
scaling tendency of black liquor depends for instance on the content of calcium soap in the black
liquor. The contents of inert components like sodium sulfate and sodium carbonate also affect
the scaling behavior of black liquors.
Table 1 shows the composition of a hardwood kraft black liquor. Table 2 shows the elementary
composition of a softwood kraft black liquor. The composition of black liquor always depends
on the used raw material and process conditions at the mill.
Table 1.

Composition of black liquor dry solids from the kraft pulping of birch

Organics, % by weight
Degraded lignin, including Na and S, %
Isosaccharinic acids, including Na, %
Aliphatic acids, including Na, %
Resins and fatty acids, including Na, %
Polysaccharides, %
Inorganics, % by weight
NaOH, %
NaHS, %
Na2CO3 and K2CO3, %
Na2SO4, %
Na2S2O3, Na2SO3 and Na2Sx, %
NaCl, %
Non-process elements (Si, Ca, Fe, Mn, Mg, etc), %

78
37.5
22.6
14.4
0.5
3.0
22
2.4
3.6
9.2
4.8
0.5
0.5
0.2

Fapet 6B: p.B13

Table 2.

Typical composition of black liquor from Scandinavian wood

Carbon, %
Hydrogen, %
Nitrogen, %
Oxygen, %
Sodium, %
Potassium, %
Sulfur, %
Chlorine, %
Inert, %
Total, %

Softwood (pine)
Typical
Range
35.0
32-37
3.6
3.2-3.7
0.1
0.06-0.12
33.9
33-36
19.0
18-22
2.2
1.5-2.5
5.5
4-7
0.5
0.1-0.8
0.2
0.1-0.3
100.0
-

Hardwood (birch)
Typical
Range
32.5
31-35
3.3
3.2-3.5
0.2
0.14-0.2
35.5
33-37
19.8
18-22
2.0
1.5-2.5
6.0
4-7
0.5
0.1-0.8
0.2
0.1-0.3
100.0
Fapet 6B: p.B15

Heating value
The heating value of black liquor expresses the amount of heat that is released when combusting
a specified amount of black liquor dry solids. The types of organic compounds present in black
liquor and inorganic material in black liquor influence the heating value of black liquor. For
instance, the type of lignin and the ratio between lignin and carbohydrates affect the heating
value of black liquor as shown in Table 3. The reactions of inorganic material during
combustion influence the heating value, and for instance the reduction of sulfate to sulfide in the
recovery boiler consumes energy. All black liquors have to be tested separately to know the
heating value and combustion properties in a recovery boiler.
Table 3.

Heating values of black liquor components

Component
Softwood lignin
Hardwood lignin
Carbohydrates
Resins, fatty acids
Sodium sulfide
Sodium thiosulfate

MJ/kg
26.9
25.11
13.555
37.71
12.9
5.79

Btu/lb m
11.57
10.8
5.83
16.22
5.55
2.49
Fapet 6B: p.B18

Boiling point rise and viscosity

When dimensioning an evaporation plant, one needs to know the boiling point rise and the
viscosity of the liquor to be evaporated at the dry solids contents and the process conditions,
such as temperature, prevailing during evaporation.
The temperature where black liquor boils is higher than the boiling temperature of water at the
same pressure. The temperature difference is called the boiling point rise. As the dry solids
content of black liquor increases, the boiling point increases as shown in Picture 2 for some
black liquors.

Fapet 6B: p.B21

Picture 2. Black liquor boiling point rise vs. dry solids concentration
The viscosity of black liquor depends on the temperature and dry solids content. The viscosity
increases at higher dry solids contents, and a temperature increase decreases the viscosity as
shown in Picture 3 for one black liquor after evaporation to a high dry solids content. The
viscosity behavior varies from one black liquor to another. The evaporation of black liquors to
high dry solids concentrations above 75% to 80% usually requires that these black liquors are
heat treated at higher temperatures to reduce the viscosity of these liquors.

Modified by KH;
Fapet 6B: p.B23

Picture 3. Effects of temperature and dry solids on the viscosity of one high dry solids black liquor
Terminology used in the evaporation of black liquors
The evaporation stage or effect is one evaporator, or possibly several parallel evaporators
operating at the same steam pressure level. The effects are numbered in the direction of the
steam flow with the first effect operating at the highest steam pressure. Multiple-stage
evaporation means evaporation in a plant consisting of a number of evaporator effects connected
4

in series. An evaporation plant normally consists of 5-7 stages in series. Picture 4 shows a
typical configuration. The condensate streams are segregated into fractions A, B and C
according to their content of methanol and COD.
CONDENSERS
FRESH
STEAM

CONCENTRATED
BLACK LIQUOR

BLACK LIQUOR
FROM COOK

Picture 4. Typical configuration of a black liquor evaporation plant

KAM: p.28

The evaporator body or the evaporator itself is a heat exchanger unit used in the evaporation
stages. One stage or effect might have several bodies in parallel. Picture 5 shows some
commonly used evaporator designs in the evaporation of black liquors.

B
Modified by KH;
Fapet 6B: p.B46, 47, 51

Picture 5. Evaporators; A: rising film, B: falling film, C: forced circulation (or crystallizer)
The rising film evaporators [also called long-tube-vertical (LTV) or Kestner evaporator] were
widely used for the evaporation of black liquor in the pulp industry until the mid-1980s. In a
rising film evaporator, the forming steam causes the liquor to rise in the evaporation tubes. In
later installations, the falling film evaporator and forced circulation evaporator are more
common. In the falling film evaporator, the liquor is fed to the bottom of the evaporator from
where it is pumped to the top of the heating element by a circulating pump and flows
downwards on the heating surface by gravity. In the forced circulation evaporator, the black
liquor is pumped through the tube heat exchanger to a separate chamber where the vapor is
5

released. The power needed in black liquor evaporation and the dimensioning of the heat
transfer surfaces is dependent on the viscosity of the black liquor.
The term concentrator refers to the first effect where the liquor is evaporated to its final
concentration. Earlier, the final concentrators were clearly separated from the multiple effect
evaporation train and had a different design. In a modern evaporation plant, this difference does
not exist but the terminology is still in use. The concentrators have to be cleaned regularly to
remove scaling on the heat transfer surfaces, and evaporation plants usually have at least two
concentrators in parallel so that one concentrator can be cleaned without influencing the
operation of the whole evaporation plant.
Live steam, primary steam, or fresh steam is the clean steam from the boilers at the mill. Live
steam is mainly only used in the first effect in the evaporation plant. The steam must be at
saturation temperature or only slightly superheated. Primary condensate is the clean condensate
from the live steam. Secondary steam or vapor is the steam evaporated from the black liquor.
Vapor from the first effect is used as a heating medium in the second effect. Vapor from the
second effect is then used in the third effect etc. The surface condenser is a water-cooled heat
exchanger that condenses the vapor from the last evaporation effect.
The vapor always contains some organic materials evaporated from the liquor or even liquor
droplets entrained in the steam flow. Secondary condensate is condensate derived from the
vapor. It contains various levels of organic contaminants. It is therefore not as clean as primary
condensate. Foul condensate is the most contaminated secondary condensate and has to be
purified by stripping. The amount of organic material carried over into the condensates in the
form of droplets is reduced by installing droplet separators in the steam phase of the evaporators.
The condensates can on the side of the condensing steam of the heat transfer surface be
segregated into a foul and clean condensate fraction.
Vapor out

B
A
Vent
Flow 1%
MeO H 10%
Foul
condensate
Flow 10%
MeO H 80%

Vapor in

Liquor out

Clean
condensate
Flow 89%
MeO H 10%

MPS, Andritz
Liquor in

Picture 6. Falling film evaporator A with condensate segregation and droplet separator B at the top of
the evaporator

Vapor condensate, which has some degree of contamination mainly consisting of methanol, is
one of four fractions determined by the degree of contamination indicated in Table 4. Often,
fractions 2 and 3 are combined. Vapor condensate fraction 1 and some fraction 2 can be used in
bleaching and brown stock washing. Fraction 3 is used in the causticizing plant. Fraction 4 is
treated in the stripper and is comparable to fraction 2 after stripping.
6

Table 4.

Vapor condensate fractions from a modern 7-stage multiple falling film evaporation

Vapor
Vapor condensate
condensate
drawn
fraction
Fraction 1
From effects 2, 3 and
4
Fraction 2
From effects 5 and 6
Fraction 3
From effect 7 and
surface condensate
Fraction 4
Foul condensate
from evaporator
Total
Stripped
From evaporation
condensate and cooking foul
condensate stripping

Flow,
m3/adt
3.4

MeOH
content,
mg/l
30

MeOH
amount,
g/adt
100

Remarks

2.5
2.0

300
600

700
1,200

Slightly odorous

1.0

6,000

6,000

Malodorous

8.9
1.6

300

8,000
500

Stripper MeOH
purification
efficiency=95%

Fapet 6B: p.B71

The stripping column purifies the foul or contaminated condensate from the evaporation and
cooking plants. Stripping is a mass transfer process where volatile gas components such as
methanol and reduced organic sulfur compounds transfer from the liquid phase into the gas
phase. Picture 7 shows a typical stripping column.

Fapet 6B: p.B54

Picture 7. Stripping or distillation column

Non-condensable gases (NCG) are gaseous compounds that are liberated from the black liquor
during evaporation and from condensates during stripping or come from the cooking plant. They
are odorous, poisonous and inflammable. They require extraction from the evaporation plant and
incineration in suitable process equipment such as a special burner or the limekiln.
7

Evaporation process
The evaporation of black liquor has three principal unit operations: Separation of water from
black liquor to generate concentrated black liquor and condensate, processing of condensate to
segregate clean and fouled condensate fractions, and separation of soap from black liquor. The
by far most common principle in the evaporation of kraft black liquor is the multistage
evaporation concept illustrated in Picture 8.
The sum of the boiling point rise of black liquor in an evaporator plus the temperature gradient
over the heat transfer surface in the evaporator is the temperature difference between the
incoming steam and the vapor leaving the evaporator. The total temperature difference over all
the effects in an evaporation plant is the sum of the temperature differences of the individual
evaporators in the plant. There is a total temperature difference available for the evaporation
plant and this difference influences the number of evaporator stages that can be used in series in
a multistage evaporation plant.

Picture 8. Principle of multiple evaporation

Modified by KH;
Fapet 6B: p.B41

Picture 9 shows a perspective of a multistage falling film evaporation plant. The steam or heat
balance of the evaporation plant is dependent on the number of effects as shown in Table 5. The
number of effects chosen is a balance between the investment costs of additional effects, the
investment cost and amount of heat transfer surfaces in the individual effects and the savings in
steam due to additional effects.

Fapet 6B: p.B9

Picture 9. Multistage falling film evaporation plant

Table 5.

Steam economy and specific heat consumption in multiple evaporation including an

integrated stripper column

Number of
stages
4
5
6
7

Steam economy,
ton H2O/ton steam
3.7-3.6
4.3-4.1
5.1-4.9
6.2-5.9

Specific heat consumption,

MJ/ton H2O
630-650
550-570
460-480
390-400
Fapet 6B: p.B42

The mixed liquor sequence in the five-stage evaporation plant shown in Picture 10 is a favorable
sequence commonly used in the evaporation of black liquors. The mixed liquor flow pattern
gives the following advantages:

Soap separation from the intermediate liquor is optimum due to the concentration of 27%30% dry solids and the low temperature of approximately 60C.
Liquor feed to effects 3 and 4 in parallel allows balancing the feed according to the feed
liquor temperature and operating temperature in the effects.
Release of non-condensable gases that enter with the feed liquor is evened between the
effects. The gases vent from effects 4 and 5.

Fapet 6B: p.B44

Picture 10. Mixed flow sequence

The main factors affecting soap separation from black liquor are soap solubility and the soap
skimming tank configuration. The solubility of soap depends on the concentration of dry solids
in black liquor and black liquor temperature as shown in Picture 11.

Fapet 6B: p.B84

Picture 11. Effect of temperature and solids content on soap solubility

Soap separation is often done in two stages; from the weak liquor tank from where the black
liquor is fed to the evaporation plant and from the intermediate tank after initial evaporation in
two or three evaporation effects. In a skimmer tank, a retention time of 6h-7h is used. A double
9

liquor tank arrangement is commonly used where weak liquor enters tank I and flows by gravity
to tank II. Soap skimming is carried out batch-wise as indicated in Picture 12.

Fapet 6B: p.B86

Picture 12. Soap skimming

Black liquor is also evaporated by flashing, especially in connection with continuous digesters,
where the hot extraction black liquor at the digester is allowed to flash and the flash steam is used to
steam and preheat the chips. The flashing of black liquor and condensates takes place to some extent
inside the evaporation plant as the black liquor or condensates flow to an effect at a lower pressure
level. During flashing, the dry solids content of the black liquor increases with an amount depending
on the amount of steam separated from the black liquor during flashing. Special multi-flash
evaporator systems have been developed for the evaporation of black liquor but the number of
industrial installations is small.
Vapor compression evaporation VCE is sometimes used for the pre-evaporation of black liquors
that have a dry solids concentration of less than 25% and that have a moderate boiling point rise.
Picture 13 shows the principle of vapor compression evaporation. In the system, the compressor
increases the pressure and the temperature of the released vapor so that it can be reused inside
the same unit. The normal power consumption of a vapor compression pre-evaporator is 11-14
kWh/ton of H2O. The feasibility of vapor compression evaporation depends on the price of
available power.

10

Fapet 6B: p.B42

Picture 13. Principle of vapor compression evaporator (VCE)

Recovery boiler
The recovery boiler is a chemical reactor for the recovery of the cooking chemicals used and for
the generation of heat from dissolved inorganic and organic material in the black liquor. The
recovery of cooking chemicals in a recovery boiler includes several steps:

combustion of the organic material in black liquor to generate heat

production of sodium fume to capture sulfur-containing combustion residues
reduction of the inorganic sulfur compounds to Na2S
production of a smelt of molten Na2CO3 and Na2S
recovery of inorganic dust from the flue gas
recovery of the heat formed during combustion

Picture 14 is a schematic diagram of a two-drum recovery boiler and Picture 15 shows some of
the chemical reactions taking place inside the recovery boiler. The components of the recovery
boilers in Picture 14 are: furnace, where the combustion of black liquor takes place, superheaters
for heating the steam with hot combustion gases, boiler generating bank where water boils, and
economizers that recover residual heat in the flue gases and cool the flue gases. In the steam
drum, water and steam are segregated. The air enters through primary and secondary air ports and
tertiary air ports. The black liquor enters through liquor guns in the lower part of the furnace. The
smelt exits through smelt spouts to the dissolving tank. The heat transfer surfaces are cleaned by
soot blowing steam. The flue gas is cleaned in an electrostatic precipitator.

11

KRB: p.5

Picture 14. Schematic diagram of a two-drum recovery boiler

The recovery boiler consists of heat transfer surfaces made of steel tubing. The tubes contain
steam or water, and the heat generated inside the recovery boiler is recovered into the water and
steam inside the tubes as in normal power boilers. Recovery boilers have a lower power-to-heat
ratio compared to normal power boilers mainly due to limitations coming from the sodium and
sulfur content in the black liquor.
Recovery boilers produce steam with lower heat and pressure than normal power boilers. Some
of the limiting issues concerning recovery boilers are: corrosion and cracking risks, fouling of
heat transfer surfaces, air emission requirements, today almost zero SO2 is possible, very low
NOx emissions, no or low odor from the boiler, safety, and smelt-water explosion risk.

12

BAT

Picture 15. Some conceptual chemical reactions in a recovery boiler

In spite of all limitations, the recovery boiler is an efficient and working solution for the
combustion of black liquors and for the recovery of heat. The sizes of recovery boilers have
increased as pulp mills have become bigger, and the capacity of recovery boilers matches the
capacity on the fiber line. The steam values are developing towards higher steam pressures and
higher steam temperatures, which will give a higher power-to-steam ratio.
Combustion of black liquor
Black liquor is sprayed at high dry solids content into the recovery boiler as small droplets.
During the first stage, the water in the droplets evaporates and the droplet dries. Black liquor
drying occurs near the liquor gun at the wall. The droplet velocity is high, about 10 m/s, when the
droplet enters the furnace.
The second stage is the devolatilization of pyrolysis gases and the release of volatiles. At the
same time, the droplets swell and a flame appears. As black liquor volatiles start to release, the
speed of the droplet decreases due to the swelling of the black liquor droplet. Small droplets are
carried upwards by the hot gas.
During the third stage, char burning starts and the droplet size decreases. Char and smelted
sodium fall into the bed where the reduction of sulfur continues under reducing conditions.
Picture 16 shows the different stages of black liquor combustion in the black liquor droplets and
the char bed in the lower part of the furnace.

13

pyrolysis gases

Liquor Guns

drying
small
droplets

devolatilization
3rd Secondary Air

char
combustion
in flight

2nd Secondary Air

1st Secondary Air

char into
char bed

Primary Air

smelt
CHAR BED

KRB, MPS

Picture 16. Stages in the combustion of black liquor

Table 6 presents some typical times for the different stages of the combustion of black liquor
droplets. Picture 17 shows the swelling behavior of the droplets during combustion.
Table 6.

Stages in black liquor combustion

Stage
Drying
Devolatilization
Char burning
Smelt

Characterized by
Water evaporation
Constant diameter after initial swelling
Appearance of flame, ignition
Swelling of the droplet
Release of volatiles
Disappearance of flame
Decreasing diameter
Reduction reactions
Constant or increasing diameter
Reoxidation

Time scale in furnace

for a 2mm droplet
0.1-0.2s
0.2-0.3s
0.5-1s
long
Fapet 6B: p.B109

Fapet 6B: p.B109

Picture 17. Characteristic swelling behavior of black liquor during combustion

14

During char combustion, reduction reactions occur. Carbon has a major role in the reduction
reactions. Na2SO4 reacts with carbon to form Na2S. When the carbon in the char bed burns, it
causes the reduction of sodium.
Na2S+2O2 -> Na2SO4
Na2SO4+2C -> Na2S+2CO2
Na2SO4+4C -> Na2S+2CO
Degree of reduction (%) =

Na 2 S
100
(Na 2 S + Na 2 SO4 )

The degree of reduction of sulfur in the white liquor is determined by the operation of the
recovery boiler. The Na2SO4 is an inert circulating compound in the liquor system, and this
reduces process efficiency. A normal degree of reduction in recovery boilers is slightly above
90%.
Picture 18 shows the bottom of a recovery boiler with black liquor entering the boiler through the
liquor guns shown in Picture 19. Air is added above the bottom and the char bed in such a way
that reducing conditions are maintained near the char bed. The smelt flows from the recovery
boiler into the smelt dissolver.

KRB: p.8

Fapet 6B: p.B113

Picture 18. Recovery boiler lower furnace with

hot char bed

Picture 19. Arrangement of a black liquor gun,

port opening and liquor spray

The recovery boiler has a risk of smelt and water explosion due to the presence of the porous hot
char bed containing molten sodium salts. The water and smelt can come into direct contact due to a
recovery boiler tube failure causing a smelt and water explosion in a recovery boiler. An emergency
rapid drain system minimizes potential damage. Water remains at the lowest part of the furnace to
provide cooling for the floor tubes. If all water drains from the floor tubes, the heat from the hot char
bed will damage the boiler tubes.

15

The risk of a recovery boiler tube failure is

decreased and the use of corrosion resistant
materials in the recovery boiler has increased
the lifetime of a boiler. The materials vary in
different parts of the boiler according to the
conditions prevailing in the different parts of
the boiler. For instance, the lower portion of
the recovery boiler is often made of composite
tube material as shown in Picture 20. The
outer surface of the boiler tube is covered by
corrosion-resistant stainless steel. Also,
keeping the amounts of certain corrosive
chemicals, like chlorine and potassium, below
critical levels in the chemical recovery cycle
reduces corrosion.

KRB: p.12

Picture 20. Lower furnace arrangement with

composite tube wall construction

Recovery of heat in the recovery boiler

Picture 21 shows the material flows in a steam boiler such as a recovery boiler. A recovery boiler is
a steam boiler that has the following components or systems:

Black liquor handling and feeding equipment for feeding the thick black liquor into the boiler.
The black liquor is fed at a dry solids concentration above 65%, in some boilers built after 1990
the dry solids content is even over 80%. At high dry solids concentrations, the black liquor
becomes highly viscous and is difficult to handle unless kept at an elevated temperature.
Air fans, air ducts and air pre-heater. The combustion air is pre-heated in the recovery boiler
house and with air pre-heaters before being fed into the recovery boiler furnace.
Flue gas cleaning. The heat is recovered from the flue gas in the economizer and the flue gases
are cleaned with an electric precipitator to recover dust-containing sodium and sulfur.
Smelt outlet ducts.
Combustion chamber or furnace where the combustion of black liquor occurs.
Tubing for steam and water that forms the heat exchangers that cool the hot combustion gases.
Feed water system.
Control systems.

The recovery boiler produces superheated steam through the combustion of black liquor with air,
and the steam is taken to a turbine to produce power as shown in Picture 21. A higher
temperature and pressure of the superheated steam going to the turbine generates more power
from the heat generated in the boiler.
From the turbine, the steam for the pulp production process is taken out at two pressure levels:
extraction or high pressure steam with a pressure of about 12 bars that is used for instance to heat
the digester and back pressure or low pressure steam that is used for instance at the evaporation
plant and the pulp dryer. Primary condensate from the condensing of fresh live steam can be
returned to the feed water tank feeding the boiler with clean water as shown in Picture 22. Feed
water is usually preheated with steam. Exhaust steam from the turbine is taken to a surface
condenser.

16

Fapet 6B: p.B206

Picture 21. Material flows in a steam boiler

Fapet 6B: p.B207

Picture 22. Flow diagram of a cogeneration

steam cycle

The black liquor is combusted in the furnace of the recovery boiler. About 70%-75% of the heat
value of the black liquor will convert into superheated steam when the dry solids content of the
black liquor is 72%-85%. The smelt consumes heat due to the heat of the smelt and the chemical
reactions to form the reduced sulfur in the smelt. About 15% of the heat will go to the smelt.
The rest of the heat is lost with the flue gases. Picture 23 shows how the combustion heat is
divided between recovered heat, heat to smelt and heat losses in the flue gases as the flue gas
temperature and the dry solids content of the black liquor vary.

Fapet 6B: p.B316

Picture 23. Black liquor dry solids heat to smelt, as loss in flue gases, and recovered into steam
Picture 24 shows the principle of the water system in a recovery boiler and Picture 25 a
perspective of the recovery boiler construction. Feed water is pumped into the boiler and enters
the first heat transfer surface or economizer (11). The water flows from the economizer to the
steam drum (6). In the steam drum, steam separates from water. Separation occurs by gravity,
17

screens and cyclone separators in order to minimize the amount of water droplets in the steam.
Downcomers (7) feed saturated water to the evaporative surfaces that are the walls of the
combustion chamber in the boiler and tubes in the boiler bank. Saturated steam (12) exits from
the drum and flows through the superheaters (13) and is heated to superheated steam. The role
of superheaters is to heat the steam well above saturation before feeding the steam to the turbine.
10
13
12
6

11

Modified by KH;
Fapet 6B: p.B205

Picture 24. Principle of a water tube boiler

The hot flue gases carrying the heat from combustion meet the heat surfaces in the following
order: superheater boiler bank economizer. The hottest gas heats the steam in the superheater
and the coldest gas heats the feed water interring the boiler. The boiling water cools the walls of
the boiler.
The feed water system of the recovery boiler
consists of the feed water tank (1), deaerator,
boiler feed water pump (2), control valve, and
feed water piping (3). The water from the
economizer generates clean attemperating
water (5) from steam in a sweet water
condenser (4). The attemperating water is
used to control the temperature of the steam in
the superheaters and thus to control the
surface temperature of the tubes in the
superheaters. Picture 26 shows some typical
superheater platens. The main steam valves
control steam flow (9). The steam from
superheaters flows through the main steam
line (10) to the turbine.
Fapet 6B: p.B122

Picture 25. Water circulation system

18

KRB: p.13

Picture 26. Arrangement of two superheater

platens

Fapet 6B: p.B121

Picture 27. Air system for a recovery boiler

The air is typically delivered at several horizontal elevations to ensure complete combustion and to
minimize emissions. In boilers built after the year 2000, air is often introduced over almost the
whole height of the furnace section of the recovery boiler. Picture 27 shows a boiler air system. It
has an inlet duct with silencer (1), venturi for airflow measurement (2), air blower (3), air heater (4),
distribution ducts (5), and air ducts (6 and 7). Pressure and temperature measuring devices are also
necessary at proper locations. Air intake is typically high inside the boiler house to ensure an even
vertical temperature profile and to recover heat losses through boiler walls and openings.

Recovery boiler operation

Spent kraft pulping liquors contain inorganic salts. During the combustion reactions, the
temperatures increase to levels where significant amounts of inorganic chemicals vaporize.
Small char fragments and black liquor particles also entrain into the flue gas flow. Combustion
and chemical reactions take place in the hot gas phase and cause deposits that collect on heat
transfer surfaces and foul them.
The deposits formed on the heat transfer surfaces consist mainly of Na2CO3, Na2SO4, Na2S and
small amounts of NaCl and potassium salts. The composition of the deposits varies according to
the mechanics of deposit formation, type of black liquor and combustion conditions. Deposits in
the lower part of the furnace generally contain more Na2CO3 and Na2S and less Na2SO4, NaCl
and potassium salts that deposits in the upper furnace. Picture 28 shows typical compositions of
deposits in a recovery boiler.

19

KRB: p.296

Picture 28. Composition of fireside deposits

The fouling of individual heat transfer surfaces is removed and controlled by soot blowing. Soot
blowing is done with steam and is directed to the critical heat transfer surfaces. Soot blowers are
usually in pairs on the left and right side of the boiler as shown in Picture 29. Picture 30 shows a
soot blower cleaning a tube bank.

Fapet 6B: p.B9

Picture 29. Recovery boiler

KRB: p.15

Picture 30. Sketch of a soot blower cleaning a

tube bank

Potassium and chloride in the black liquor influence the fouling of heat transfer surfaces and the
corrosion of recovery boilers. Even small amounts of potassium and chloride influence the sticky
temperature of dust. The sticky temperature is the temperature above which dust contains sufficient
amounts of sodium in molten state to stick to the heat transfer surfaces and form deposits as shown
in Picture 31. The deposits of chemicals on the heat transfer surfaces become an effective barrier to
heat transfer from the flue gas to the tube wall. From the wall, the heat is transferred to the steam or
water inside the tube.
20

T0

T70

100

Tgas

Q
Flue gas

Tsteam
KRB, MPS

Deposit
Picture 31. Deposit on superheater

Tflow
Percent melt [wt-%]

Steam
(water)

80

Tube wall

60

40

20
Tsticky

0
500

600

700

800

Temperature [C]

900

1000

KRB, MPS

Picture 32. Different compositions give different

melting behavior

The chloride and potassium levels influence the melting behavior of dust in recovery boilers and
decrease the melting point of dust as shown in Picture 32. The graphs in the picture show the
melting behavior of some typical recovery boiler dusts with varying potassium and chlorine
content. Chloride levels at Scandinavian and North American mills are typically 0.2%-0.8% of
mass. Potassium levels at Scandinavian and North American mills can vary widely: 1%-4% of
mass. Chloride and potassium enter the chemical recovery cycle mainly with the wood and
enrich into the recovery cycle. The level of chloride and potassium must be kept sufficiently low.
The levels are controlled by purging dust from the recovery boiler as dust tends to enrich more in
chlorine and potassium compared to the rest of the recovery cycle.
Increasing chloride and potassium contents reduces the melting point of sodium-containing dust.
Only a few percentages on molten metals make the metals sticky. Tsticky is the temperature when
enough sodium is in molten state and makes a dust particle stick to surfaces of the recovery boiler.
Tsticky is usually in recovery boiler defined to the temperature when 15% of the metals are in molten
state. Tflow is the temperature when enough sodium is in molten state to make the metal a flowing
smelt. Metals start to flow when over 70% is in molten form but usually in connection with recovery
boilers Tflow is defined as the temperature when 85% of the metals are in molten state.
Picture 33 shows the material balance of a recovery boiler and how the generated steam is used
inside the boiler and as steam being fed to the turbine at the mill. Dust from the heating surfaces is
mixed with the black liquor and fed back into the boiler. Some of the dust may be purged from the
recovery cycle to control the content of non-process elements, in particular chloride and potassium.

21

KRB: p.19

Picture 33. Material balance based on 100kg of black liquor solids

White liquor preparation

Several separate processes are needed when converting the green liquor into white liquor: dregs
removal from green liquor, slaking of lime, causticizing reaction, white liquor separation from lime
mud with lime mud washing, and drying and reburning or calcining of lime. Picture 34 shows the
white liquor preparation system and the separate processes in the system.

Picture 34. A diagram of white liquor preparation and lime reburning

Fapet 6B: p.B162

22

Dregs removal from green liquor

Green liquor results when the smelt from the recovery boiler is dissolved in weak white liquor or
water in the dissolving tank. Green liquor is an aqueous solution mainly consisting of sodium
sulfides, sulfates and carbonates. It contains some unburned char and some non-process elements
that have a low solubility in the green liquor and that can be removed by sedimentation or filtration.
Most impurities in the lime cycle come from green liquor. Solid particles in green liquor mix with
the lime and accumulate in the lime cycle. Many of these impurities can be removed as dregs from
the green liquor. Without dregs separation, the need for lime makeup may be 30% of the lime
circulation. With good purification of green liquor, the lime makeup required can decrease to 3%5%. The separation of the solids, called dregs, from green liquor normally uses sedimentation or
filtration methods. Green liquor purification concepts in industrial use include:

Clarification
Sedimentation
Sludge blanket clarification

Filtration
Cake filtration with or without precoat
Cross flow filtration

The closing of the process cycles has led to an increased need to control the amount of non-process
elements in the recovery cycle by separating dregs in causticizing. The non-process elements enter
with wood and with chemicals used in the process as for instance magnesium used in oxygen
delignification. Table 7 shows an example of green liquor prior to and after filtration. The green
liquor treatment process in Picture 35 includes the following main process stages:

Separation of solid impurities and dregs from green liquor

Cooling of green liquor for causticizing
Treating the dregs for proper disposal

Fapet 6B: p.B151

Picture 35. Green liquor treatment

23

Table 7.

Removal of various elements from green liquor

Dregs, mg/l
Potassium (K), mg/l
Magnesium (Mg), mg/l
Aluminum (Al), mg/l
Iron (Fe), mg/l
Manganese (Mn), mg/l
Copper (Cu), mg/l
Phosphorus (P), mg/l

Raw green liquor

310
5.3
53
60
17
16
1.3
43.8

Filtered liquor
7
5.3
1.1
40
8.2
2.2
0.88
41.2
Fapet 6B: p.B146

Green liquor can be clarified by sedimentation. In sedimentation, the density difference between the
solid material and the liquid in green liquor separates the solid material by allowing it to settle. A
clarifier is normally an open cylindrical tank as Picture 36 shows. The solid material that is heavier
than the liquid settles to the bottom of the clarifier to form sludge. The clear liquor in the upper part
of the clarifier is removed as an overflow.

MPS

Picture 36. A clarifier

In green liquor cross flow filters a thin film of green liquor fall onto a vertical filter cloth. Some
falling liquor is forced through the vertical filter cloth while most of the liquor including the dregs
continues to fall to the bottom in the film. The liquor is recirculated to the top of the filter to
maintain the film by pumping. Filtration continues and the sludge thickens in the circulation until
reaching the desired sludge density. Thickened sludge is discarded from the filter by the pressure
inside the filter.

24

MPS

Picture 37. Cross-flow filter for green liquor

filtration

MPS

Picture 38. Green liquor cooler

It is necessary to cool the green liquor and to control the temperature of the green liquor that enters
the slaker in recausticizing to prevent the liquor from boiling in the slaker. Boiling may occur due to
the heat generated as a result of the exothermic slaking reaction. Cooling of green liquor, and even
of weak liquor, is difficult with indirect heat exchangers because of the rapid scaling and plugging
due to reduced solubility at lower temperatures.

Lime slaking and causticizing

Green liquor is mixed with calcium oxide, CaO, and the calcium oxide slakes with water and forms
calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2. The calcium hydroxide reacts with the Na2CO3 in the green liquor to
produce NaOH and CaCO3. Picture 39 shows a slaker in which lime is slaked into green liquor.

MPS

Picture 39. Slaker

The slaking of lime is a strongly exothermic reaction:
CaO + H2O - Ca(OH)2 + 65 kJ/mol
The slaking reaction takes about 10-30 minutes to complete depending on the quality of lime. The
heat released due to the slaking reaction must be distributed evenly to the liquor by agitation to
avoid local overheating. The temperature of the solution has a major influence on the reaction rate.
Below 70C, the reaction rate is significantly slower than at the normal operating temperatures close
to 100C.
25

The causticizing reaction is an equilibrium reaction:

Ca(OH)2 (s) + Na2CO3 (aq) - 2 NaOH (aq) + CaCO3 (s)
The reaction does not have any significant heat effect. Calcium hydroxide and CaCO3 are insoluble
and participate in the reaction as solids. The causticizing reaction begins and continues to about 70%
completion during the slaking which takes 10-20 minutes.
The main purpose of the causticizer following the slaker is to give time to complete the causticizing
reaction that has already progressed to a completion rate of two-thirds in the slaker. The slaked lime
slurry (lime milk) must remain in the causticizers sufficiently long, and the liquor must have proper
contact with the lime mud particles at all times. A causticizer is shown in Picture 40.
The necessary residence time in the causticizer depends on the selected method for white liquor
separation. If white liquor is separated from lime by settling, a residence time of 1.5-2 hours is
adequate in the causticizer. The reactions can continue in the clarifiers. If a filter is used, the
residence time in the causticizers is usually about 2.5 hours as there is not much time for reactions in
the filter. Too short a residence time results in excessive amounts of unreacted calcium hydroxide,
which remains in the lime mud and will deteriorate the filterability properties and blind the filter
media with precipitated CaCO3 during the separation of lime mud and white liquor.

MPS

Picture 40. Causticizer

The causticizing efficiency, that is the ratio between NaOH and NaOH plus Na2CO3 in the white
liquor, is dependent primarily on the strength of the white liquor, expressed as total alkali per
volume of liquor. A higher strength will reduce causticizing efficiency according to Goodwin's
curve. Industrial white liquors have a causticizing efficiency or degree slightly above 80%.

Lime handling and washing

White liquor and lime mud are separated after causticizing. There are some different
technologies in use for the separation of white liquor and lime mud and for the washing of lime
mud. Picture 41 shows the water balance when a pressurized disc filter is used for white liquor
separation and lime mud washing. The separated lime mud is taken to the next stage of lime
mud washing and thickening.
Filtrate from lime mud washing and thickening is taken to smelt dissolving as weak wash liquor
or weak white liquor. After further treatment and drying, the washed lime mud is taken to the
lime kiln. In lime washing, condensates, and to some extent bleach plant filtrates, are used to
replace fresh water.
26

Fapet 6B: p.B169

Picture 41. Water balance for causticizing with a pressurized disc filter for white liquor separation
Other commonly used machines for white liquor and lime mud separation and mud washing are
the candle filter shown in Picture 42 and the disc filter shown in Picture 43. The heat and water
balances when using these machines are somewhat different than the ones when using
pressurized disk filters.

MPS, Andritz
MPS

Picture 42. A candle filter

Picture 43. Pressurized disc filtration for white

liquor separation and lime mud
washing

27

The white liquor produced and separated from the lime mud is taken to the digester for cooking.
Table 8 shows typical properties of white liquor.

Table 8.

An example of white liquor composition

Compound
NaOH
Na2S
Na2CO3
Na2SO4
Na2S2O3
Na2SO3
Other compounds
Effective alkali
Active alkali
Total alkali
Sulfidity, %
S/Na equivalent ratio
Causticizing degree, %
Reduction degree, %
based on total S
Reduction degree, %
based on total SO4

Concentration,
g NaOH/l
95
40
23
4
2
0.5
135
115
164.5
29.6
0.58
80.5
82.2

Concentration,
g Na2O/l
73.6
31.8
17.8
3.1
1.6
0.4
105.4
89.5
128.3

As compound,
g/l
95
39
30.5
7.1
4.0
0.8
3.0
179.4

90.9
Fapet 6B: p.B171

The target in lime mud dewatering is to complete lime mud washing and increase the dry solids so
that the lime mud can be dried thermally and fed to the lime kiln. The moisture in the lime mud has
a considerable effect on the energy consumption of the lime kiln. Dry solids contents of 80%-90%
are possible after mechanical dewatering. The water soluble alkali content in the lime mud after
mechanical filter dewatering is under 0.1% as Na2O on dry mud. A low content of sodium is
necessary for the trouble-free operation of the lime kiln.

MPS

Picture 44. Lime mud washing and dewatering

28

Lime drying and reburning

The lime reburning process is shown in Picture 45 and consists of the following unit operations:

Pumping of lime mud, that is CaCO3, from lime mud storage

Mechanical dewatering of lime mud to a high dry solids content
Thermal dewatering in the kiln or in a separate cyclone
Heating and calcining
Cooling of the lime, that is calcium oxide, product
Screening and crushing of lime
Conveying of lime to storage

Fapet 6B: p.B179

Picture 45. Lime reburning process

The physical size of a rotary lime kiln, with a capacity of 500 to 550 tons of reburned lime/day, is
4m-4.5m in diameter and 100m-140m in length. The production of a kiln of this size matches a
white liquor production of about 7,000 m3/day, corresponding to a pulp production of slightly above
2,000 t/day. The kiln is supported by three or four piers.

Picture 46. Limekiln

Fapet 6B: p.B10

A pneumatic dryer for lime mud is an emerging drying method where the lime is dried with the
exhaust gases from the limekiln in a separate cyclone. Lime mud is fed to a flue gas stream, where
the heat of the flue gases dries the mud. A cyclone separates dry mud and feeds it to the kiln as
shown in Picture 47.
29

MPS, Andritz

Picture 47. A pneumatic dryer for lime mud

The traditional method for the drying of mud is the chain section of the rotary kiln. Picture 48 shows
a chain system. The length of the chain section of the limekiln is chosen so that the mud is
completely dry when leaving the chain section. The length of the chain section is usually about 20%
of the total kiln length.

Fapet 6B: p.B181

Picture 48. Chain system

Lime reburning
Heating or reburning of lime mud converts lime mud to lime according to the following reaction:
CaCO3 - CaO + CO2
Dissociation of CaCO3 to CaO and CO2 starts when the temperature is above 820C. Increasing the
temperature accelerates the reaction. Reburning is done at a temperature of about 1,100C in order
to obtain sufficiently fast reaction rates.
Lime mud entering the limekiln also contains some unreacted lime CaO, water, a small amount of
alkali, other impurities and non-process elements. The amount of impurities in the lime mud is
typically about 7%-10% and depends on the amount of impurities introduced into the lime cycle
with the green liquor and the makeup lime. Non-process elements normally present in the lime cycle
are magnesium (Mg), aluminum (Al), silica (Si), phosphorus (P), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn) and
sulfur (S). Silica is a major problem when pulping annual plants or tropical wood. Sulfur comes for
instance from the burning of non-condensable gases in the lime kiln. Table 9 provides an example of
different lime compositions in the case of a Scandinavian mill and a mill for mixed tropical
hardwood. The major difference between the mill limes is in the content of silica.

30

Table 9.

An example of different lime compositions

Component
(expressed as
oxides)
CaO, wt. %
Na2O, wt. %
SiO2, wt. %
MgO, wt. %
Fe2O3, wt. %
MnO, wt. %

Makeup
lime
93
0.06
2.5
1.3
0.5
0.04

Scandinavian mill with

softwood or hardwood
as raw material
N/A
N/A
0.4
1.3
0.06
0.1

Mill with mixed

tropical hardwood
as raw material
N/A
N/A
7.9
1.2
0.4
0.01
Fapet 6B: p.B147

Silica is a serious impurity in the lime cycle and causes problems especially when pulping annual
plants and tropical wood. The lime mud becomes difficult to handle and dewater with an increasing
silica content as shown in Picture 49.

Fapet 6B: p.B148

Picture 49. Lime mud dry substance and silica in lime mud

The cell structure of annual plants contains solid silica particles that dissolve in the cooking liquor,
proceed with the black liquor into the smelt, and end up in the green liquor in dissolved form. Silica
precipitates with lime mud during recausticizing because of the low solubility of calcium silicate in
white liquor. Lime mud from the pulping of annual plants cannot often be reburned at all. A large
portion of the lime mud from the pulping of tropical hardwood must be dumped to keep the
recausticizing plant in operation.
Depending on the design of the burner in the lime kilns, also fuels other than fuel oil and natural gas
can be used. A combination burner can have ports for non-condensable gases and arrangements for
feeding methanol. Primary air passes through the burner, cools it, and stabilizes the flame.

31

Fapet 6B: p.B184

Picture 50. Burner

Picture 51. Temperature profile in the limekiln

Fapet 6B: p.B180

Lime kilns have a refractory lining that protects the kiln shell from overheating and reduces the heat
loss to an acceptable level. The temperature distribution of lime kilns is wide from the cold feed-end
housing to the hot firing hood. In conventional kilns, where the mud is dried inside the kiln, the
lowest temperature is about 100C. In the flame zone, the temperature is about 1,250C. In large
kilns with a shell diameter of over 4.5m, the flame zone lining has to tolerate even higher
temperatures like 1,300C-1,350C. In modern kilns with a separate mud dryer, the cold-end
temperature is 400C-600C. Picture 52 shows the lime kiln brick lining zones. Each zone has a
lining of a certain material and thickness.

Picture 52. Lime kiln brick lining zones

Fapet 6B: p.B163

32

Questions
1. The source of water, organic material and inorganic material in black liquor. / Mustalipen
sisltmn veden, orgaanisen aineen ja eporgaanisen aineen alkuper.
2. Properties of black liquor influencing the evaporation plant. / Mustalipen ominaisuudet
haihduttamon kannalta.
3. Multistage evaporation plant, number of stages and steam consumption, soap separation. /
Monivaihehaihduttamo, vaiheiden lukumr ja hyrynkulutus, suovan erotus.
4. The most common evaporator designs used in black liquor evaporation. / Yleisimmt
haihdutinkonstruktiot mustalipen haihdutuksessa.
5. Condensate handling and reuse at kraft pulp mills. / Lauhteiden ksittely ja uudelleenkytt
sulfaattisellutehtailla.
6. List the main steps of the kraft recovery process. / Luettele sulfaattiprosessin
talteenottopuolen trkeimmt vaiheet.
7. The smelt reactions in a recovery boiler. / Sulareaktiot soodakattilassa.
8. The combustion of black liquor in a recovery boiler; the black liquor droplet during
combustion, and the different stages of combustion. / Mustalipen poltto soodakattilassa;
mustalipepisaran kyttytyminen polton aikana ja palamisen eri vaiheet.
9. Recovery of heat in a recovery boiler. / Soodakattilan energian talteenottojrjestelm.
10. Scaling of heat transfer surfaces in the recovery boiler. / Soodakattilan lmmnsiirtopintojen
likaantuminen.
11. The main factors influencing the heating value of black liquors. / Polttoarvoon vaikuttavat
trkeimmt tekijt.
12. Influence of chlorine and potassium on recovery boiler operation; what can be done to
control chlorine and potassium levels? / Kloorin ja kaliumin vaikutus soodakattilan
toimintaan; mit voidaan tehd kloori- ja kaliumtasojen hallitsemiseksi.
13. Green liquor treatment, measures to reduce the need for makeup lime. / Viherlipen
ksittely, miten vhennetn korvauskalkin tarvetta.
14. Slaking of lime and causticizing reactions. / Kalkin sammutus ja kaustisointireaktiot.
15. The operation principle and construction of the lime kiln. / Meesauunin toimintaperiaate ja
rakenne.

33