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DOI 10.1007/s11249-008-9354-x
ORIGINAL PAPER
Received: 11 May 2008 / Accepted: 6 August 2008 / Published online: 11 September 2008
Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2008
1 Introduction
The market for advanced products from optics, telecommunication, airspace, automotive and machine industries,
etc. is growing at about 21% per annum [1]. Advanced
components manufactured by the modern industry use
surfaces of various forms and texture patterns. These surfaces are very different from the traditionally used surfaces
which usually could be characterized using standard surface roughness parameters. The characteristic feature of
these surfaces is that they use tessellated patterns, i.e.
repeated structures over the surface. Surfaces with tessellated patterns are not new, as commercially available
abrasive surfaces, consisting of arrays of triangular based
micron-sized pyramids, are common. However, surface
features/patterns that are artificially introduced (like dimples, chevrons, etc.), of different density and orientation,
are new. During the past decade these surface patterns have
been studied as possible means to reduce friction and also
to increase wear resistance, hence components durability.
Friction reduction, in particular, is an important issue for
the transportation industry because of the increasing petrol
prices and global warming. Various initiatives are being
considered by governments across the world aiming at
reducing fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions. The
transportation industry is one of the largest consumers of
petroleum and also one of the largest emitters of global
warming gases. It has been estimated that the surface
texturing, when optimized, can reduce the parasitic friction
loses by as much as 5% (S. Hsu, private communication).
As the global oil reserves are rapidly diminishing, reducing
petrol consumption becomes a critical issue to all of us.
The type of textures, i.e. shape, density, orientation, etc.,
of these surfaces are of interest because of their direct link
to the components functionality. It is thus important to be
able to characterize/describe these surface so that a consistent manufacturing result can be achieved. The problem
is that, currently, we do not have a method/standard that
could be used to reliably describe those surfaces at various
scales, i.e. micrometre, nanometre, etc. In this paper, possible ways of solving the problem of characterization of 3D surface topographies with tessellated patterns are
discussed.
There is a growing need for new surface characterization
methods to reliably characterize and classify the surfaces
with different tessellated patterns. Once this is achieved, in
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combination with full understandings of the physics governing the lubrication and contact mechanics, it would be
possible to numerically optimize those surfaces for minimum friction and wear. In many instances improved
performance and durability is obtained by a try-and-see
approach. However, this is not very effective. Thus,
recently several works involving numerical simulation used
in the optimization of these surfaces have been published. In
these works the surface texture is described/simulated by
some mathematical functions [25] or parameters used for
deterministic surfaces [6, 7]. Some researchers even
attempted to provide analytical solutions for the effects of
surface textures on hydrodynamic lubrication [e.g. 8]. There
are limitations to this approach, however, as this tends to
work well with specific textures. Clearly, a new standard is
needed to reliably characterize all the textured surfaces.
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..
.
etc.
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PIFS
Two iterations
Initial image is
iterated through
PIFS
Three iterations
Ten iterations
This approach is different from traditionally used surface characterization methods as the entire surface
topography information is encapsulated in the set of
mathematical transformations, i.e. in the fractal model.
Therefore, if the fractal model is constructed for a textured
surface it will contain the detailed information about, if for
example dimples are used, dimple spacing, size, orientation, shape, depth and surface roughness between the
dimples. It is technically possible to obtain even the surface
roughness at the bottom of the individual dimple. This
process is schematically illustrated in Fig. 4.
Once the fractal model has been constructed it is also
possible to control/measure all the surface features. For
example, the roughness of surface features and their orientation can be controlled using the sj scale and aj, bj, cj, dj
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Fig. 4 Schematic illustration of
the fractal model of a textured
surface
Dimple
dimensions
Fractal model
Dimple spacing
transf 1
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..
.
transf 2
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Dimple orientation
Dimple shape
etc.
Surface roughness
between dimples
Dimple depth
etc.
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R(X,Y,T) = A cos
Non-dimensional film thickness
(c)
P(X',Y',T)dX'dY'
-
(b)
D/1.2R
2
2
H(X,Y,T) = H0 (T) + X + Y - R(X,Y,T) + 2
2
2
2
(a)
D e-2
21.2 R
(d)
(X - X') 2 + (Y - Y')2
(e)
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Target class
(a)
Outlier
Similar image parts
6 Conclusions
(b)
Fig. 13 Examples of overlapping data problems, (a) overlapping data
on images of two surfaces belonging to different classes, (b)
overlapping classes [17]
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Fractal model, encapsulating complete surface topography information can be built based on surface
transformations,
To accommodate multi-scale nature textured surfaces
wavelets can be employed to decompose the surface
into individual scales,
Combination of fractals and wavelets allows for a full
description of any given surface, without use of any
parameters,
Surface characterization method developed could be
used in optimization of textured surfaces,
Based on this method a surface classification system
can be developed for the use in production and ensuring
the consistency of the produced components.
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