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Sixteenth Century
Gunnery
European
The
kishwarsitant)"
territories
then
(Rumistan),
no
as in the
Mughal
abundance
rhetoric.
the
On
to
with
perceived
to two
regard
of vast
territories.
Ottoman
He
that
Empire
While
Empire.
very
this
perhaps,
was
artillery
to
that
brushed
reflecting
Abu'l
in the
of
regions
indicate
that
(a)
namely,
the world
abundance
care
takes
not
simple
in greater
Fazl
such
significance
matters,
important
as
aside
the
to mention
in
than
the Mughal
Rumistan
core
the Turkish
only
to
known
assertion
wished
asserts
accurately
gunpowder
making
as he,
Rum,
also
be
as
in
available
artillery
cannot
the Mediterranean/Ottoman
gunpowder
be
well
acquire
for
except
statements
These
may
they
that
was
place
Empire.1
come
had
claim
other
contrary,
artillery
gunpowder
to
proceeds
in
than
rather
of
the Ottoman
Empire comprising Anatolia and Thrace (Rum proper of the Persian and Arabic texts), but
in the
territories like Syria, Palestine, Egypt and theMaghrib, conquered by the Ottomans
sixteenth
early
were
century,
also
in
advanced
quite
Under
the first
important
three
Timurid
rulers
of war,
equipage
state
conquered
territories.
introduced
of which,
under
This
Akbar
paper
particularly
India,
contributing
centralized
adoption
structure
of
under
to
to
the
the
some
identify
certainly
the
of
new
appears
to have
emerged
of
of Mughal
of the sixteenth
rulers,
those of the
establishment
consolidation
at the beginning
the Timurid
had
artillery
to
significandy
and
attempts
gunpowder
this
Again
artillery over
artillery.
gunpowder
statement
skills
of
highly
in
rule
the
gunnery
century, gradual
contributed
to
is also
of
ensuing
discussion,
apart
from
contemporary
Persian
texts,
notice
taken
the European accounts, especially that of Varthema which dates back to the period
(1503-8) when the flow of European skills in gunnery to India had just begun. To a
limited extent information on pre-modern artillery pieces surviving in South Asia has also
been used in this paper. This
1
information
1893), p. 82.
JRAS, Series 3, 9, 1 (1999), pp. 27-34
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it
28 IqtidarAlam Khan
total
it in a
to put
difficult
number
of
cannons
pre-modern
in putting
engaged
more
frame;
meaningful
together
data
specific
to
be
lying
the
data,
the
points
be
should
Such
century.
made
in this
treated
strictly
when
To
paper.
as tentative
the
currently
nature
designs,
of
part
I am
of metal
properly,
would
perhaps
suggestions
made
in
analysed
extent
that
small
unnoticed.
to measurements,
relating
a very
it covers
importantly
believed
of
many
modify
the
discussion
ensuing
propositions.
The presence of firearms of varying sizes and designs in India during the second half of
the fifteenth century and in Central Asia and Iran as early as Timur (d. 1405) is fairly well
on
established
travellers'
the
1443?4
Mir
to suggest
Asia
Central
then
that
that
imagine
the
during
century,
Gawan's
Riyazu'l
Insha\
the
by
was
also
of
In this
Indians
cannon
guns
pieces
technique
in
formed
India
century
comprised
wrought-iron
to have
deduced,
from
barrels
by
forging
by
or bronze.
some
for
century
or
of
traveller,
a similar
mixing
However,
or
copper
in 1818
"bars
this view
the
up
in
is
India
is
supposition
in
India
during
eldest
Shahjahan's
son,
subcontinent.
brass.5
One
These
to him,
according
Significantly
were
Manucci
enough,
does
context.
in this
bars
wrought-iron
the
Such
was
who
under
in
written
bronze.
make.4
Manucci,
a stone
texts written
Persian
as a gunner
time
of
parts
in brass
in
specific case
cast
by
European
throwing
3 kg.).3 This
Ma'asir-i Mahmud
piece
Italian
that
iron
on
the basis
molten
two
the
hooped
earliest
hooped
down
"with
of
in their
of
"natives"
barrels
racd mentioned
of
capable
the fifteenth
of
piece
artillery
artillery
of forging
that Fitzclarence
used
an
the
remark
Fitzclarence's
the
used
basically
hardened
wrought-iron
light,
It seems
served
i.e.
"metal"
not mention
of
in various
campaigns
excellent
an
racd/kaman-i
also
texts
the Persian
as
racd at Samarqand
made
and
in bronze
as well
texts
Persian
testimony
had
and
1653?1708
from
trial of a newly
the
cast
racd of
was
fifteenth
supported
of
mortar
heavy
racd/kaman-i
and Khurasan
to
led
derived
notice
400 mann/1200kg.
projectile weighing
tends
evidence
Khwand's
its being
suggests
of
strength
accounts.2
together",
of his
to
the
brass
techniques
together
was
to
see
the mixed
is no
observation
of
beginning
cast
round
gun-making,
the
technique
cannons
longer
tenable.
that many
of
the
them".6
of
it is permissible
to make
attempts
the
nineteenth
He
appears
that making
known
to
the
structures
of
these
cannons
as
1962), p. 115.
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to
belonging
Indians were
later
to combine
tried
of
sequence
It may
techniques.
be
that
argued
the
this with
of
technique
which
barrels,
wrought-iron
forging
the
originally
possibly brought to India from Europe by the Portuguese in the beginning of the sixteenth
appear plausible in the light of our reading of the
century. Such a sequence would
to
references
firearms
texts
in Persian
racd)
(racd/kaman-i
written
during
the
fifteenth
for
muskets
century.
Fazl's
Abu'l
for
in India
during
of
technique
being
forging
iron
variants
barrels
the West,
when
questions
which
of
In
and
how
to the
these
1503,
of
last quarter
as
came
to
of
transfer
be
answered.
from
surviving
sixteenth
took
the new
artisans
at Calicut
Mecca
disguised
in
the
was
was
forging
are
place,
of
help
in its
wrought
and,
if it came
some
other
us
from
relevant
Varthema's
skills of gunnery
in
known
this technique
century9
1506, may
1589
suggest,
pieces
where
examination
in the public
1585 and
century,
the West
late fourteenth
closer
he dilates on
local
the
technology
A
question
the
of
also
as to whether
(1498). Whether
India
as the
early
this
to
need
deserters
Portuguese
or
practised
of passages where
especially
some
being
as
was
rings
lying
of
inscriptions
a moot
which,
of the Portuguese
locally
originated
was
the
during
the coming
bear
the technique
and
guns
wrought-iron
it remains
cannons
bars
wrought-iron
Two
Still,
supposition.8
barrels
wrought-iron
together
century.
wrought-iron
sixteenth
in Khandesh
practised
forging
support
respectively
by
the
at Khandwa
gardens
of making
ways
cannons
barrels
two
of
description
account,
imparted by the
to find
answers
to
questions.
he was
when
visiting
as an
Egyptian
came
Varthema
pilgrim,
to know
through an Indian merchant that there was demand in India for skilful makers of
mortars.
The enthusiasm with which
this merchant
is reported to have helped
large
Varthema to separate himself from the caravan of Egyptian pilgrims and directed him to the
of Deccan"10
"king
was
not
to those
indicates
considered
that,
for
adequate
currently
at this
producing
mortars
of
the
century.
Most
of
the
were
(1375-1500)
preferred
fourteenth
over
those
and
century
heavy
wrought-iron
cast
in bronze
guns
not
made
only
in
and
popular
by
forging
because
there
bars
wrought-iron
to
down
in Europe
mortars,
India
strength
Empire.
remained
so-called
cannons,
available
in size
comparable
as the Ottoman
in gun-making
expertise
heavy
as well
in the West
popular
time,
and
this
during
rings.
was
in the last
late
These
fifteenth
period
were
comparatively
A'in-i Akbarx, i, p. 83. For a more accurate translation of the relevant passage see Irfan Habib,
"Akbar and
in Akbar And His India, ed. Irfan Habib (Delhi, 1997), p. 142. Cf. Iqbal Ghani Khan, "Metallurgy
in
technology"
medieval
the case of the iron cannons", Proceedings of the Indian History Congress (45th Session at
India
In his view, one way of forging barrels described by Abu'l Fazl was
(Delhi, 1985), pp. 488-9.
Annamalainagar)
cannons.
also applicable to wrought-iron
8
Cf. Hira Lai, Descriptive List of Inscriptions in theCentral Provinces and Berar (Nagpur, 1916), p. 73.
9
Carlo M. Cipolla, Guns And Sails in the Early Phase of European Expansion,
1400-1700
(London,
1965), pp.
In the beginning,
iron guns in Europe were mainly made by smiths "from bars of wrought-iron
welded
23-4.
into crude tubes which were further strengthened by thick iron hoops shrunk over the tubes". See also T.F. Tout,
op. cit., p. 682.
10
The Travels ofLudovico di Varthema 1503-1508, tr. J.W.Jones
and G.P. Badger (London, 1863), pp. 50-1.
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3 o IqtidarA lamKhan
but
cheaper
also
reliable.11 By
to
spread
to
owing
the Ottoman
brass
bronze
crude
noticed,
to
expertise
that Babur's
into
the
fatal
The
1526.
"miscalculation"
a mortar
the
other
a bronze
or brass mortar
the
of
deficiency
during
is no
there
hand,
in
same
for
basis
an
and
at
person)
imagining
wrought-iron
making
of
the fifteenth
It
wrought-iron
favourably
with
mortars
mortars
some
Europe
time
already
same
the
learnt
before
was
technique
using
occasionally
is no
evidence
by
Indian
around
impressive
guns
for
rulers
their
use.
in
in
the
cAli Quli's
the
exploding
1527.14
But,
the Ottoman
on
Empire
of
the technique
the
towards
Europe
end
to the familiarity
making
It
of
of
the Ottoman
them
is also
any
time Varthema
the
possible
that
Asia.
Mortars
in all probability
of
type
the Mughal
before
sought
came
to Mecca
had
in recruiting
sometimes
already
with
It
reign.
the
(1503)
reached
the
going
of
ears
to
There
of
technique
under
is, however,
could
be
was
Babur
guns.
the
fame
who
gun-makers
persons
that
or brass
gun-makers
Akbar's
to
as late as 1526,
(kazans)
cast-bronze
in
adversaries
was
century,
of
technique
their
from
possibly
compared
the
artillery
interested
that
guess
in
succeeded
which
records)
may
fifteenth
the
in Central
were
campaigns
of
had
Ottomans
European
One
type.15
end
the
known
barrels
that
standable
well
pointing
wrought-iron
forging
very
not
in his
the
the Ottomans,
from
the
1516
by
of
(basilisks
of
guns
European
wrought-iron
forging
that
noteworthy
producing
Eastern
mortars
on
familiar with
there
brought
at Agra
to Ustad
notice
gun-makers
introduced
origin,
by
brass
in
this
century.
however,
is,
it was
before
already
apparently,
24 November
or
by his
on
skills
in casting in
description)
reference
Agra
that
Iranian
bronze
also
of
reference,
of Babur's
in casting
1526
transfer
It was,
1444.13
out by Babur's
operation
the
by
Khwand's
possibly
(kazan
skill
available
is borne
casting
made
(possibly
cAli Quli,
Ustad
less
mortars.12
already proficient
in
Samarqand
the
by
wrought-iron
by Mir
is borne
racd at
large
Islamic world
of
gun-founder,
cast
he
when
play
of mortar
type
of
casting
as
far
appears to have
of mortars
accompanied
as well
perhaps,
cast-bronze
were
mortars
cast-bronze
the popularity
century
It was,
for making
that
impression
general
Empire.
in Europe
developed
the
these
of
new
some
replicate
the Holy
Places
and
of
the
them
for
11
Cf. Carlo M. Cipolla, Guns and Sails, pp. 22-3 and T.F. Tout, op. cit., p. 682.
to Djurdjice Petrovic ("Firearms in the Balkans on the eve of and after the Ottoman
conquests of
According
in War Technology and Society in theMiddle East, ed. VJ. Parry and M.E.
the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries"
1975, pp. 175-6), artillery in the Balkans during the fifteenth century consisted of cannons that
Yapp, London,
this tendency to make large cannons spread to
were larger than those of the preceding century. That subsequently
is indicated by the presence of mortars,
the Ottoman
ones, in the Ottoman
including wrought-iron
Empire
one such gun, a wrought-iron
muzzle
artillery during the first quarter of the sixteenth century. For references to
mortars present at
cannons including wrought-iron
loading cannon made in 1516 and to an inventory of Ottoman
Gunpowder And Galleys: Changing Technology And Mediterranean Warfare at Sea
Jedda in 1525, seeJ.F. Guilmartinjr.,
In The Sixteenth Century (London, 1974), p. 11, n. 5.
13
Rauzat al-safa, vi, p. 242.
14
The Babur-nama in
and A.S. Beveridge,
Cf. Babur-Nama,
(Kyoto, 1995), pp. 487-8,
(Vaqayi*), ed. Eiji Mano
12
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were
pilgrimage
their
join
On
of
the
making
latest
that
conjecture
These
deficiency
molten
experts
Asian
and were
of
to
artillery
in
that
a number
of
deserters
tend
casting
big
owing
down
for
more
were
by
to
the
as
that
of
The
possible.
furnaces
the
attempt
on
this
these
one
from
the
not
thus
for
to
so
solve
that
to
(400
were
of
was
occasion
the
the
in
225
poor
1666
pieces
of
quality
testifies
that
this
were
500)
of
filled
as
cast
and
("large
the
reduce
the
with
"ordnance"
sizes
varying
for
problem
these
to
in
a medium-size
all
1571
writing
tried
number
that
the
and
of even
in
condemned
the moulds
large
statement
Varthema's
suggest
size
in
mainly
that
deserters
Portuguese
reducing
furnaces
and
the
1506
cast
than
Empire)
diverse
Thevenot
recasting.20
latest
cannons
efficient
the mould
deficiency
the Ottomans
may
the
to fill
enough
this
already
One
after
portable
techniques
from
had
of Babur.18
the Ottoman
the mould
art of
the
small".
designed
were
a process
the gun-makers
to
were
sizes
its ruler
for
in
they
and
large
(zarbozans)
(including
into
to Varthema,
These
through
world's
artisans
ordnance
and
field-guns
in bronze
making
local
training
according
of
deserters
of Calicut
gun-makers
also
artillery.17
furnace
from
melted
Portuguese
pieces
to the
released
apparently,
conjecture
small")
the West
1507,
as field
Islamic
in one
or brass
this deficiency
the
and
the Venetians
by
their metal
by
invite
calibres
liquidity. Obviously,
It was,
captured
cast
to be
having
bronze
smelting
cannon.19
In
different
similar
Indian
being of uniform
small
31
were
They
the
metal
may
sixteenth-century
found
hundred
use
for
possibly
of
possibly,
were
guns
five
guns
meant
and were,
types.
guns.16
or
four
cannons
European
of
variety
these
Varthema
1506,
European
"between
produced
in
Calicut
pieces
bronze
to
rulers
during
service.
reaching
artillery
these
by
encouraged
in India
artillery
Gunpowder
size
of
the
cast with
innovation
Shah
Sur
weighing
Another
with
what
is reported
4 mann
i.e.
statement
happened
to have
cast
approximately
of Varthema
in North
India
in bronze
or
221.28
suggests
thirty-seven
brass
four
years
thousand
later.
light
In
1543,
cannons
Sher
each
lbs.22
that
towards
the
beginning
of
the
sixteenth
16
The Travels ofLudovico di Varthema, 1503-1508, p. 262.
17
to a contemporary
Italian text cited by the author,
Carlo M. Cipolla, Guns and Sails, p. 28. According
"were drawn by
already by 1494, French armies invading Italy were carrying light guns, all cast in bronze which
horses with such dexterity that they could keep up with the marching
speed of army". These guns were "shot at
very short intervals".
18
On zarbozans, compare Babur-nama in English, pp. 569, 656. A.S. Beveridge
has translated the term zarbozan
as "culverine".
ForWilliam
Irvine's brief notice, see The Army of the IndianMoghub, p. 113.
19
Irfan Habib, "The technology and economy of Mughal
India", The Indian Economic and Social History Review,
inmedieval
also Iqbal Ghani Khan, "Metallurgy
India" in The Technology inAncient
1, p. 19. Compare
XVII, No.
in addition to the primitive
andMedieval India, ed. Aniruddha Roy and S.K. Bagchi
(Delhi, 1986), p. 74 where,
nature of bellows, the inefficiency of "Indian furnaces" is also ascribed to the "refractory nature" of clay as well as
continued reliance on wood charcoal.
20
1988), p. 128.
Geoffrey Parker, The Military Revolution (Cambridge,
21
Travels ofThevenot and Careri, tr. and ed. S.N. Sinha (New Delhi,
1949), p. 62.
22
Sher Shah's requisitioning
'Abbas Khan Sarwani mentions
of all the copper available in the market as well as
cannons (deg-ha) during the siege of Raisen
in the households
of troopers in the form of utensils for making
in
India Office, Ethe 219, f. 95a). Again during the siege of Kalinjar in 1545, according
1543 (Tarikh-i Sher Shah'i MS.,
to 'Abdullah, Sher Shah made four thousand cannons (deg-ha-i atishbazi) each one of which weighed
four mann,
one Akbari mann being equal to 5.32 lbs. (Tarikh-i Dawudi, ed. by Shaikh cAbdur Rashid, Alilgarh,
1954, p. 158).
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32 IqtidarAlam Khan
century
heavy
And
or mortars
which
Indian
that
of
inability
they
the
very
service
local
story
to
gun-makers
then.
To
at Calicut
makers
the
that
by
the part
the fact
was
time,
that
not
moulds
some
of
anxiety
large mortars"
suitable
for
of
to
goes
the
suggest
mortars
casting
in
mortars
casting
known
became
efficient.
very
as
which,
technique
caused
the European
learnt
in other
to
compared
According
premature
of
blocking
Babur's
Another
India
Iranian
one
is the
Varthema
parts
gun
by
of
the
sub
to Babur,
"some
the flow
of molten
of Varthema
this
counted
the
helping
for mortars
learnt
by
the
upon
improvement
one
the
local
in
developed
miscalculation"
metal
into
the
It is also an indication
at Calicut
gun-makers
not
had
know-how,
gun-founder.
he mentions
where
apparendy
were
at all an
statement
significant
amould
of
design
if it was
the Portuguese,
who
using
of gun-founder
reached
yet
the
mould.
from
Portuguese
was
gun-maker
Europe
of
deserters
to
of
a mould
of
design
of a
and form
mortar
on
from
new
this
the design
of metal.23
attesting
design
casting
is difficult
continent
that
extent
what
made
makers
to a Pagan
gave
deserters)
"skillful
for
moulds
designing
It reads:
Varthema's
their
in
proficient
or brass.
(Portuguese
and five
with
in
recruit
not
i.e. bronze
hundred
combined
to
rulers
the
here,
one
weighed
statement
This
in metal
Iwas
the time
during
mortar,
were
at Calicut
gun-makers
cannons
"Jew"
to make
on
bearing
making
four
the
deserters
among
"Jew"
"pagans"
having
firearms
of
the history
mortars
from
European
seems to imply that till this time (1506) the art of making
of
the
in
of firearms
at Calicut.
iron
Portuguese
designs.
ships
statement
This
at
Calicut.25
The
at Calicut
gun-makers
century.
Vasco
years".26
bronze aswell
knows
ships
the
for
contemporaries,
Chinese
One
to
carrying
from
have
possibly
According
da Gama's
at Calicut,
might
Needham's
coast, visited
testimony
about
seen
of
eighty
"bombards"
researches
local
years
guns
recorded
informant
the arrival
preceding
visited
that
cast-iron
Chinese
that
the
port
Chinese
"every
were
of the fourteenth
carried
by
during
the
one
by
of
of Portuguese
two
making
or
three
cast
century. It is
23
The Travels ofLudovico di Varthema, 1503-1508, p. 262.
24
Babur-Nama (Vaqay'f), ed. Eiji Mano, p. 488; A.S. Beveridge, Babur-nama inEnglish, p. 536.
2:>
Compare Ahsan Jan Qaisar, The Indian Response to European Technology and Culture (A.D. 1498?1707) (New
this statement, Qaisar fails to grasp its real
Delhi,
1982), p. 47. While
passage containing
reproducing Varthema's
import.
26
An
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true
doubt
that
from
mainly,
never
could
the
other
Chinese
he
As
is well
1506
forging
century.
in Europe
as
from
use
the
of
iron made
of
As
barrels.
One
(1506)
furnaces
before
guns
was
listed
any
resulting
art
the
bellows,
scale
and
the presence
the
very
of
modern
not
iron
times.28
to
known
the
gun
wrought-iron
fifteenth
centuries.
of wrought-iron
of
the
Neither
and
guns
this method
did
may
when,
thus
venture
and
from
to
deserters
skill
of
involve
the
any
the
preferred
to
reasonable
bars
tool
concept,
latter
imagine
at Calicut
ships
wrought-iron
forging
in
produced
Portuguese
and
rings
or process
not
that Varthema's
suggest
the
from
not
itwould
where
century
It is, therefore,
the Jewish
were
documented
fifteenth
early
wrought-iron.29
by
cannons
iron
beginning,
It is also well
the European
represented
gun
to how,
the fourteenth
as by forging.
not
has
recording
gun-makers
involved
essentially
gun-makers.
of
appreciable
gun
would
to deficient
owing
wrought-iron
from
rule
the
that
time
this
considerably
Needham
in China
text
any
the
not
does
them.
European
for producing
of
around
ineffectiveness
on
India
technique
any Chinese
four mortars
the
the
this
assume
thus
may
India
evidently
from
in
by casting as well
which
method
But
iron.
for
table
But
guns.27
One
of
ports
in Needham's
listed
as well.
of reducing
Habib,
surviving
known,
mortars,
heavy
to
sixteenth
of forging
both ways,
only
important
practised
the
the
reproduced
technique
that
be
cannons
the
Irfan
hand,
before
among
in
to
according
casting
has
or bronze
brass
5 cast-iron
guns
be vaguely
switching
as other
as well
cannons
cast-iron
carried
occasionally
Chinese
and
surviving
cast-bronze
that Chinese
at Calicut
makers
On
are
43
1288-1426,
period
48
among
skill
of
forging
some
provides
came
guns
wrought-iron
to
India.
the
Summarizing
central
important components
cannons
cast
mortars
cast
and
Apparently,
European
But
zarbozans
in bronze,
field-pieces
the
fascination
wider
obstructed
idea
reached
and
of
prompter
as well
cannons
light
India
India
after
European
first
slowly.
introduced
New
these were
design
by
design
of
so
the Portuguese
of bronze
effectively
mortars
bronze
as mortars
latest
made
the
of
that
three
the
(a) light
cannons
heavy
or
were
of wrought-iron,
this
in the
mortars,
the
coastal
however,
cast-bronze
through
of
part
idea
regions
appears
after
designed
with
the Portuguese.
local
rulers
seems
in the whole
of
the
to
have
subcontinent.
in the whole
increasingly popular
during
technique
and
contact
the
became
by Babur
and
of
1506
on
acceptance
used
the
(b)
made
around
out
point
mortars
heavy
may
description;
cannons
(c) light
the
one
paper,
of Babur's
first
for
this
introduced
century.
in bronze,
of
argument
of Mughal
1526-30.
of making
spread
to have
met
guns
wrought-iron
to other
parts
with
of
early
India
rather
acceptance
27
Science and Civilization in China, Vol. V, Part 7 (Cambridge,
1986), pp. 290-2.
Joseph Needham,
28
Irfan Habib, "Technology
and barrier to technological
India", (presented at Symposium
change inMughal
on "Problems of Acclimatization
of Foreign Technology",
25-8 February 1980), Indian Historical Review,
Tokyo,
1-2, p. 166.
V, Numbers
29
Carlo M. Cipolla, Guns and Sails, p. 27: "By the middle of the fifteenth century the core of the European
artillery was represented by huge bombards of wrought-iron".
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34 IqtidarAlam Khan
in
the Deccan
and
also.
Gujarat
possibly
of
Experts
recruited
artillery
from
Ottoman
high
mark.30
manner
The
in which
the
of
technique
forging
cannons
wrought-iron
this process
iron
guns
would
were
It may
unusually
also
be
but
for
India when
less expensive
to some
facilitated
local
chiefs
with
that wrought-iron
speculated
cannons.31
heavy
reliable
been
less expensive
artillery of North
with
have
The
limited
guns
for using
guns
on
extent
large
the fact
by
first
decided
scale
that
to
guess
small wrought
resources.
were
this new
slowly
spread
skill
should,
adopted
in
the
imperial
equip
however,
the
imperial
go
artillery
to Akbar.
30
see Henry Cousins,
For a detailed notice on Malik Maidan,
Bijapur
Irvine, The Army of the IndianMoghuls,
1916), pp. 29?31. Compare William
31
ut Tawarikh, i, ed. by Ahmad Ali,
'Abdu'l Qadir Badauni, Muntakhab
so large that each one
Bib. Ind., p. 412. Some of Islam Shah's guns were
Khan entitled Fath Nama-i
thousand men. Cf. Akbar's letter to Mun'im
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