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Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2013) 64:749754

DOI 10.1007/s00170-012-4048-9

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Recent developments in modeling of heat transfer


during TIG weldinga review
V. M. Joy Varghese & M. R. Suresh & D. Siva Kumar

Received: 27 July 2011 / Accepted: 5 March 2012 / Published online: 21 March 2012
# Springer-Verlag London Limited 2012

Abstract This paper is an attempt to list the recent developments in the area of arc welding heat transfer simulation.
Fusion welding modeling is a broad area where a number of
research groups were spending their efforts to get solutions
for both research and industrial problems. Starting from
fundamentals of arc physics, heat transfer, microstructure
models, thermal stress, and modern techniques like pattern
recognition comes into picture while considering the complete solution of welding-related problems. These areas are
developing almost independently and there are only few
efforts to couple them together as computational welding
mechanics, which includes the computational fluid mechanics,
magneto hydrodynamics, thermo mechanical problems, and
computational material science. Here, an effort is made to list
down major developments in this area and to plot the present
state of research on the TIG welding heat transfer modeling by
giving priority to last few years of research.
Keywords Welding . Simulation . TIG . Heat
transfer . Modeling

1 Introduction
Welding is extensively employed as the joining technique
for metals and alloys in many manufacturing industries. The

V. M. J. Varghese (*)
Sree Chitra Thirunal College of Engineering,
Thiruvananthapuram, India
e-mail: mailtojoy2@yahoo.com
M. R. Suresh : D. S. Kumar
Vikram Sarabhai Space Center,
Thiruvananthapuram, India

strength of weld and thereby the weld efficiency is directly


related to the microstructure of weld pool and heat-affected
zone (HAZ). HAZ microstructure is completely controlled
by the heat transfer rate during welding. Modeling the heat
transfer and thereby predicting the weld quality is a topic of
great interest to both researchers and industrialist for the last
few decades. The high intensity welding arc makes the
system a complex interaction of thermal, magnetic, electric,
and fluid flow fields. Many 2D and 3D models have been
developed and presented in literature in order to simulate the
thermal, mechanical, and microstructural interactions during
welding process. Welding arc has been modeled by many
researchers, but the micromechanisms of arc heat transfer is
still not completely explained, and many groups are trying
to connect the developments in arc physics with the welding
arc and resulting heat transfer mechanisms. The first developed heat transfer models were based on conduction mode,
which would fail in and around the weld pool as these
models were not considered the convection effect, which is
a major mode of heat transfer inside the weld pool. During
the last two decades, a number of research papers were
published with convection heat transfer models. Many
groups were working in the optimization of arc welding by
doing experiments and by invoking the advantages of modeling and simulations. The microstructural modeling of
HAZ and the prediction of thermal stress and distortions
during welding is another broad area where the results of
welding heat transfer research are applied. The welding
robots and automation of welding process is the driving
force behind the current welding research. Lindgren [1]
presents a detailed review in numerical modeling of welding
and the major contributions in the welding heat transfer
modeling were well explained by him. This paper is concentrating only on the recent developments in this area, by
listing down major papers published in the last few years.

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2 Modeling of welding arc


Welding arc is a transient interaction of electric and magnetic
fields. A fundamental knowledge about ionization and plasma
formation is required for proper modeling of welding arc
which is basically an electrical arc. Figure 1 shows the multiphysics interactions in a welding arc. Even though the plasma
physics is a developed area, only limited number of groups
work for interconnecting the developments in the arc physics
with welding science.
During earlier developments, many authors have published
both theoretical and experimental results on behavior of welding arc, effects of electrode coatings, electrode tip angle, inert
gas flow rate, etc. on arc shape, arc pressure and velocity
distribution. A detailed literature review about the developments in this area is presented by Biswas [2].
The welding arc can be simulated by accounting the
microheat transfer mechanisms like thermionic emission,
cathode jet, ionization, etc. during the formation of arc.
Wu [35] applied the fundamentals of plasma physics to
the welding arc and developed the temperature, pressure,
current, and velocity distributions in the arc and over the
weld surface. Later in 2002, Wu et al. [6] developed microheat
transfer relations for determination of anode heat flux distribution by separately calculating conductive, convective, and
radiative flux over the anode.
The welding arc, which is governed by a set of physical
laws, can be modeled by simultaneously solving mass,
momentum, energy, and charge conservation equations, inside
the computational domain, i.e., the welding arc. Recently, Wu
et al. applied the conservation equations developed for a
normal GTA welding arc [7] to the double-sided arc welding
arc [8]. Ramirez et al. [9] presented a comparative study
between magnetic and potential approaches for welding arc
representations. They concluded that the potential approach is

Fig. 1 Multiphysics interactions in a welding arc [9]

Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2013) 64:749754

superior to predict the heat flux and current densities. Shinichi


et al. [10] developed a numerical model for hollow cathode
arc. Murphy et al. [11] studied the weld pool behavior with
considering the arc plasma in the computational domain,
which is an initiative to couple the weld pool behavior with
the welding arc. Traidia et al. [12] studied the interaction
between welding arc and weld pool for pulsed current gas
tungsten arc welding.

3 Welding heat transfer models


Most of the welding research groups concentrate on the heat
transfer during welding rather than the actual mechanism of
heat generation in the welding arc as the later is directly
related to the efficiency of welded joint. This heat transfer
rate decides the microstructure thereby the strength of the
weld. In order to avoid the complex interaction of electric
arc and thermal fields, researchers introduced heat distribution
models to represent the welding arc heat distribution, i.e., the
heat source. Conduction-based models were developed at first
and later convection models which are found to be more
accurate even in and around the weld pool. For modeling of
heat transfer during welding, different numerical and analytical methods have been applied by different authors and they
have their own advantages and limitations. At present,
commercial FEM software are commonly used for solving
welding heat transfer.
3.1 Analytical solutions
The developments in computational capabilities lead to an
exponential increase in the number of publications using
numerical methods. At the same time, the application of
analytical approaches are still not developed and only limited number of approaches are available based on analytical
methods because of complex formulations in analytical solutions. According to Klobcar et al. [13], the first technical
paper in welding modeling is published by Rosenthal in
1942. He implemented many assumptions to make the problem linear and analytically solvable. He assumed that there
is no heat transfer between the plates and surroundings,
constant material properties throughout the process, and
infinite plate dimensions. These assumptions made the problems linear but the assumptions were not valid. The moving
heat source problem has been solved by many researchers
and both 2D and 3D solutions are available in literature [14].
Solutions of double ellipsoidal moving heat source problems and hybrid double ellipsoid heat source that can be
applied to filet joints are available in literature [15]. The
major limitation of analytical approach is the use of infinite
boundaries. Recently, a 2D heat transfer modeling within
limited regions using moving sources is presented by Couedel

Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2013) 64:749754

et al. [16]. They also made an attempt to study the effect of


source dimensions as well as the effect of boundary on temperature distributions. The inherited complexity due to
temperature-dependent material properties, and phase changes
are the limiting variables for analytical solutions.
3.2 Heat distribution models
A heat distribution model will generate the magnitude and
direction of heat flux distribution over the weld surface.
During earlier stages of research, the welding heat source
was assumed to be point source and line source. According
to Klobcar et al. [13], Rosenthal, in 1946, developed both
line and point moving source relations and later in 1969
Pavelic introduced Gaussian form of distribution, which is
used by many researchers and has been using the same
because of its simplicity and accuracy of such an assumption. Goldak et al. [17] introduced double ellipsoidal distribution which is the most suitable distribution for a stationary
welding source. As an extension of this work, Sapabathy et
al. [18] introduced double ellipsoidal model with a differential distribution at the front and back portion of arc which is
most suitable for even vibrating heat sources that can be
used for modeling any type of welding technique including
wave technique. The major drawback of heat distribution
models are such that they require accurate determination of
source dimensions, which is determined by the weld parameters and characteristics of a particular welding system like
the electrode characteristics and gas flow parameters.

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of repair welding of tools which was also based on conduction model and they were able to predict the temperature
profiles successfully. Goncalves et al. [22] solved 3D inverse problem of welding heat transfer using golden section
technique. Those researchers who predict the thermal stress
made use of conduction models in order to reduce the
solution time.
Since 1980, many papers were published by considering
the magnetic and hydrodynamic effects inside the weld
pool. The effect of various governing forces in the weld
pool on pool shape, velocity distributions, surface depressions, etc. have been studied by many researchers. Initially,
the simulations were based on assumed weld pool shapes,
and later predicted weld pool shapes were used. Models are
available for both full penetration and partial penetration.
Kim et al. [23] developed 2D axisymmetric model for fluid
flow and heat transfer in the weld pool with consideration of
all the four driving forces of convection, electromagnetic,
buoyancy, surface tension, and drag forces. Fan et al. [24]
developed a numerical model for heat and fluid flow inside
weld pool that can be applied to both partial penetration and
full penetration. Taylor et al. [25] applied finite volume
method to welding phenomenon and they were able to
predict the Marangoni convection which arises because of
difference in surface tension in the weld pool. Recently, the
effect of an external magnetic field on the weld pool is modeled by Lin et al. [26] while a numerical model for doublesided arc welding is presented by Wu et al. [8].
3.4 Determination of thermal stress

3.3 Welding heat transfer numerical models


During initial stages of welding heat transfer modeling
research, it was assumed that at base metal there is only
conduction heat transfer. But conduction models fail to
solve fully the heat transfer in and around the weld pool
where the convection currents in the weld pool contributes
more to the total heat transfer. Conduction-based models are
with simple formulations to avoid complex fluid field interactions inside weld pool. Hence, even now, these models are
well utilized by many groups for predicting residual stress
and distortions during welding. Bag et al. [19] developed a
three-dimensional thermomechanical conduction model for
laser spot welding and they used the technique of adaptive
heat source that need not require prior knowledge of heat
source dimension. Zhu et al. [20] studied the effect of
temperature-dependent material properties on welding simulation, using a conduction model and concluded that there
were large variations in predicted temperatures if average
values were used for simulation. Later in 2007, Gery et al.
[21] studied the effects of speed and heat source dimensions
on thermal history of welds using a conduction model.
Klobcar et al. [13] developed FE model for thermal analysis

Prediction of residual stress and associated distortions is one


of the major goals behind welding heat transfer modeling;
and the numerical models have a potential role in this area
because of the limitations in NDT (nondestructive testing)
techniques used for experimental determination of residual
stress. According to Akbari Mousavi et al. [27], Ueda and
Yamakawa in 1971 used 2D finite element analysis to calculate the welding residual stresses for the first time. They
analyzed the effect of geometry configuration on residual
stress and compared with results from X-ray diffraction
method. Many others too proposed FEM models to predict
residual stresses. Owen et al. [28] presented a comparison
among neutron diffraction, X-ray diffraction, synchrotron
X-ray diffraction, and finite element model results of residual
stress developed during welding of aluminum alloy AA2024.
Deng and Murakawa [29] developed a 3D FE model for
simulating residual stresses during multipass welding of a
pipe. Recently, Zeng et al. [30] developed a thermoplastic
elastic model and applied it for hybrid laser welding of magnesium and steel plates. Recently, Aarbogh et al. [31] predicted deformations during single-pass metal inert gas (MIG)
welding of austenitic steel plate using finite element codes. A

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Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2013) 64:749754

detailed finite element model for uncoupled thermomechanical solution of residual stress is presented by Anca et al. [32].
Most of these researches deal in heat distribution models for
thermal profiles and none of them consider the convection
currents in the weld pool while calculating the stress field in
the weld pool boundaries. The experimental results presented
by Xu et al. [33] prove that the convection in the weld pool
significantly affects the penetration and weld pool shape and
there by the stress distributions. Residual stress models incorporating convection effects are yet to be formulated.

generalization ability. Kuo et al. [42] applied Gery theory in


neural networks to predict heat-affected zone evolved during MIG welding. Recently, Dutta et al. [43] modeled TIG
welding process using convectional linear regression, a
backpropagation neural network and a genetic neural network (GA-NN) and they concluded that GA-NN model can
yield predictions which are more adaptive in nature and Tsai
et al. [44] optimized welding and subsequent heat treatment
procedure using response surface method.

3.5 Modeling using commercial software tools

5 Recent trends in welding modeling

Many welding models that are developed using commercial


software like ANSYS are available in literature, and most of
these models are based on conduction mode only. Both
modified specific heat method and enthalpy method were
utilized for including the latent heat of fusion in the models.
Software like SYSWELD that are exclusively developed for
commercial design of welding is also available. A few papers
were published by making use of ANSYS multiphysics analysis options for modeling the convection currents inside the
weld pool. Fenggui Lu et al. [34] presented an ANSYS model
of TIG welding and the model was successful for a stationery
welding arc. However, modifications are required to this
model for considering moving heat source. Lei et al. [35]
developed an ANSYS model for predicting weld pool dimensions. Later, Wang et al. [36] used ANSYS compiled program
for the microstructure modeling during flash welding. Ming et
al. [37] developed an ANSYS model for simulation of laser
welding heat transfer by using heat distribution models.
Capriccioli et al. [38] presented a multipurpose ANSYS code
for welding simulation using element birth and death technique to accommodate the fusion process. Price et al. [39]
conducted neutron diffraction studies for determination of
residual stress on a MIG welding mild steel plate giving
importance to gauge volume and compared results with the
numerical results generated using a FE model developed using
SYSWELD.

In the modeling of welding, arc models for double-sided arc


and hollow cathode are recently developed techniques. The
model for a triple wire electrode arc [45] is in the developing
stage. Adaptive heat source technique, which does not need
prior knowledge of weld pool dimensions, has been used by
many authors [17]. Models for multipass welding still use
conduction models in order to reduce the solution time,
which is a major drawback in welding simulation. Duranton
et al. [46] presented a 3D model for multipass welding of
stainless steel pipe. They were successful in predicting the
residual stress and the overlap region. They are making use
of adaptive mesh technology in order to minimize the solution time, which is a major constraint in case of 3D models.
The solution time is around 193 h for a complete 3D model
with five passes.

4 Optimization techniques applied to welding


All modern optimization theories like neural networks, genetic algorithm, etc. can be applied to welding process also.
Many researchers applied neural network for the modeling
of welding. Tarng et al. [40] constructed a neural network
model and optimized TIG weld pool geometry by applying
simulated annealing algorithm. Juang et al. [41] conducted a
comparative study between backpropagation and counterpropagation networks in modeling of TIG welding. They
concluded that counter propagation networks have better
learning ability and back propagation networks have better

6 Conclusion
The fundamental research in welding modeling began in
1942, but still the research is at a developing stage. In areas
like distortion prediction, hot cracking, etc. accurate models
are yet to be developed. The idea of computational welding
mechanics is a new concept considering all the thermomechanical and metallurgical effect during welding, and no
model is developed so far by considering all these effects.
Recently, the models for prediction of microstructure are
making use of convection models, but for predictions of
thermal stress we are still depending upon conduction models.
In the case of multipass welding, the time taken to solve the
model is a major limiting criterion. Techniques like variable
meshing and adaptive meshing can be applied to reduce the
time.

7 Scope for future work


Only limited research is carried out to interconnect the
fundamentals of arc physics and welding heat transfer, in
order to avoid use of assumed heat sources. Only experimental

Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2013) 64:749754

trials are available for explaining the effect of electrode shape


and size, gas flow pattern and nature of gas, etc. on welding
heat transfer, and no numerical models are developed for
accounting these variables. Development of a convection
model for prediction of residual stress, and for multipass
welding that will be most suitable for predicting the phenomenon like hot cracking in the weld yet to be developed.

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