Forensic Entomology

Bugs and the

Postmortem Interval

16

These summer flies have blown me full of maggot ostentation.*

16.1 Forensic Entomology: Introduction

According to Byrd, Forensic Entomology is the use of the insects, and their arthropod
relatives that inhabit decomposing remains to aid legal investigations. The broad field of
forensic entomology is commonly broken down into three general areas: medicolegal,
urban, and stored product pests [1].

Medicolegal: Typically the need is to determine the postmortem interval (PMI) or

the time since death occurred. This involves the collection of necrophagous feeding insects at the scene followed by ascertaining the stage of the insects life
cycles.
Urban: This aspect of entomology has two aspects: civil and legal. The former
reflects the damage that insects cause to property and crops. From a legal perspective, the insects leave bite marks that must be interpreted correctly.
Stored products: This relates to insects found in foodstuffs.
The premise of this discussion is that insects play an important role in determining the
PMI in death investigations. The reason is that in death investigations, the time since someone died can provide important information to the successful completion of the investigation, and is a factor medical examiners, scene scientists/investigators, prosecutors and
defense attorneys commonly take into consideration. Scene scientists/investigators should
be aware of the two processes taking place after someone dies: the decomposition process
and associated sequential appearance of entomological signs at the scene. Students and
novice scene scientists/investigators need to understand this as well.
Why insects? Why do insects play such an important role in estimating the PMI? The
reason is that their life cycles predictably move from the egg to an adult in a process known
as metamorphosis. This well-studied process can be correlated fairly accurately when
environmental conditions are known, which means that medical examiners and/or forensic entomologists use this metamorphosis timeline to ascertain how long someone had
been dead. Entomological PMI estimates are particularly helpful when the body has completed the usual post-death medical signals (rigor mortis, liver mortis, etc.) commonly
used by medical examiners to determine the PMI. The list in Figure 16.1 shows the type of
* Shakespeare. Loves Labours Lost, Act V, Scene 2, 409410.
Metamorphosis: Typically marked and more or less abrupt developmental change in the form or struc ture of an animal (as a butterfly or a frog) occurring subsequent to birth or hatching [2].

The Entomological
Crime Scene
Decomposing body
Flies/fly infestation
Necrotic insects
Temperature
Footprint/tire tracks
Maggots/maggot trails
Animal distributed bones
Hidden/discarded weapons
Firearms evidence
bullets/cartridges
Disturbed soil as evidence of
additional burials

Figure 16.1 Entomology-related evidence.

evidence that might be expected at scenes requiring entomological analysis. Much of this
evidence would be also found in routine homicide or burglary scenes.
It is also important to realize that entomological PMI estimates are just that, estimations. What is really measured is the time it takes from insect colonization to the formation
of the adult insect. Figure 16.2 illustrates the process.
After someone dies, such as in a murder case, insects colonize the body soon after
death. As shown in the slide in Figure 16.2, this is time frame from when the person is
murdered to the time it takes for colonization to begin. Although this length of time should
be included in PMI calculations, it is not because it is unknown. The only information
available to forensic entomologists is the time from colonization, based on the physical
Forensic entomologists are asked to determine the
postmortem interval (PMI) or Time Since Death
in death investigations. PMI is the desired result,
but the forensic entomologist actually estimates
only one aspect of the PMI, based on the life stage
of the insect. This entomological estimation of PMI
is known as the Time Since Colonization.

Person
murdered

Insect
colonization

Calculated
time since
colonization

Actual
postmortem
interval (PMI)
Time Since Colonization may or may not
closely approximate the PMI. Factors
involved include, time it takes for insects to
colonize the body and environmental
considerations, death location, movement
of the body, etc.,

Figure 16.2 Postmortem interval: time since colonization.

Scene
investigation

Forensic Entomology

459

presence of eggs, to the presence of the adult insect. Thus, calculations for PMI utilize the
timeline of the insects life stages to determine the time it took from colonization to the
beginning of the scene investigation. These estimates are based on the entomological information gathered at the scene. The slide in Figure 16.3 shows this schematically.
Forensic entomologists require specific types of information to make PMI calculations
(see Figure 16.3). Sometimes, the only people on the scene capable of providing some of
this information are the first ones present, which could be the first responder to the scene
or even someone not associated with the police but instead a passerby. Obtaining this
information is important, though. Usually, the appropriate information should be obtained
by a trained forensic entomologist or someone from the medical examiners office who is
trained to collect the data.
Still, scene scientists/investigators need to learn to recognize the stages of decomposition and the insects associated with each. By understanding metamorphosis and the insects
of interest, they will have the intellectual tools to know where to look for insects associated
with decomposition and they will be in a better position to protect the appropriate evidence at the scene.
So, to what extent should the scene scientist/investigator know or understand forensic
entomology? The answer is simple. Scene investigators are probably neither forensic entomologists nor medical examiners, and they should never make the calculations involved in
PMI estimations from the entomological data because there are variables that can affect
the PMI calculations. Also, it should not be assumed they will ever know how to identify
specific insects, except in the very broad sense. However, they can understand the fundamental approach forensic entomologists take to investigating a scene and thus can protect
entomological evidence from damaging effects stemming from the investigation. And,
with specific training, they can learn to obtain relevant data for subsequent use. Thus, their
role can be a crucial spoke in the wheel of the PMI estimation process.
From the slide in Figure 16.3, it is apparent that most of the data necessary for
PMI estimations are collected at the scene: obtaining the appropriate temperatures,
Data needed to calculate PMI intervals
Larval weight

Figure 16.3 Data needed to calculate postmortem intervals.

Adult species
present at
scene

Temperatures
Ambient
Above body
Under body
Soil under body
Maggot mass if present

Time since
colonization

Larval length
pupal analysis

Dispersal
pattern

PMI
estimation

Postmortem
interval

Accumulated
degree hour

Weather data

460

Crime Scene Forensics

capturing adult insect species, larvae, and pupae. If forensic entomological expertise
is not available, the scene scientist/investigator should immediately recognize the
need to obtain these important items of evidence. This begins with an understanding
of the deathdecomposition sequence and the insects associated with each stage.

16.2 What Happens After Death

Understanding the stages of decomposition a body undergoes after death is an important
first step in determining the PMI and the role insects play in that process. Importantly,
insects are an integral part of decomposition. From an understanding of the stages of
decomposition, the scene scientist/investigator can learn to associate the number and types
of insects present in each stage. Thus, by associating which insects are present with each
physical state of the body, the entomological evidence has a better chance of being preserved. Table 16.1 shows the sequence of infestationthe faunal successionof various
insects and the stages of decomposition associated with each.
Finding the appropriate entomological evidence is critical but tedious, and mistakes
can happen easily. For example, in a scene investigation in the woods where bodies were
found, investigators trampled a maggot trail so badly that the location of the largest larvae
and pupae was not possible. Since larval length is an important consideration for estimating PMI (Figure 16.2), the resulting calculations were, at best, poor estimates. Had the
investigators known what they should have been looking for, they would have located the
maggot trail easily and preserved it. Figure 16.4 shows students marking a maggot trail in
the woods.
Figure 16.5 shows a spoon with larvae and soil collected from the larvae trail.
The five generally accepted stages of decomposition are shown in Table 16.2 [3].

16.3 PMI and Life Cycles

The reason why flies and other insects are used to determine the PMI, or more precisely,
the time since colonization, is that their life cycles have been extensively studied and are
fairly accurately predicted. The reason is that a dead body presents insects with a continually changing food source that supports a succession of organisms ranging from
bacteria, fungi, and vertebrate scavengers. The group of organisms that are of interest to
forensic entomologists is the arthropods of which the main element of interest is the
Table 16.1

Faunal Succession Associated with Decomposition

Succession

Principal Insect

State of Decomposition

Time of Decomposition

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Flies: blow flies

Flies: blow flies and flesh flies
Dermestid beetles
Various flies
Various flies and beetles
Mites
Dermestid beetles

Fresh
Odor
Rancid fats

Ammonia/fermentation

Completely dry

First 3 months

36 months

48 months
112 months
13 years

Beetles

3+ years

Forensic Entomology

461

Figure 16.4 Searching for a maggot trail. (Photograph by Robert C. Shaler.)

Figure 16.5 Larvae and soil collected from maggot trail. (Photograph by Robert C. Shaler.)

insects. When insects infest a body, they begin a biological clock that allows for the estimation of the PMI [4,5].
Although life-cycle analysis is well studied, estimations of PMI are just that, estimations. This does not imply that forensic entomology is not a science. It is, but given the
varying environmental conditions at outdoor crime scenes, the calculation of PMI is only
as good as the data collected from the scene and from existing and relevant weather data.
If it is cold, the life cycle will be longer than when it is warm. Forensic entomologists certainly understand this and try to account for varying conditions, but precise up-to-the
minute determinations are not possible.

Table 16.2 Stages of Decomposition

Stage of Decomposition
First Stage

Bloated Stage

Decay Stage

Description
-Begins @ moment of death until onset of
bloating.
- Characterized by early stages in
decomposition: algor morits and livor mortis (3).
-Putrefaction begins. Gases from anaerobes
cause inflation of abdomen.
-Temperature of carcass rises from putrefaction
and metabolic activity of Diptera larvae.
-Fluids seep from openings
-Soil under body becomes alkaline from larvae
under carcass.
-Normal soil fauna under body leaves.
-Begins when skin breaks (sometimes classified
as wet decomposition4)
-Gases escape.
-Remains deflate.

Post-decay Stage

Remains reduced to skin, cartilage and bones.

(Sometimes classified as dry decomposition4)

Skeletal Stage

Only bones and hair remain

Insect Activity
-First insects are Blow flies (Calliphoridae)
and flesh flies (Sarcophagidae)
-Eggs deposited around natural body
openings and open wounds.
-Blow flies strongly attracted to remains
during this stage,
-Attraction reaches a maximum when the
body reaches its peak inflation.
-Some predatory Staphylinidea may be
present.

-Diptera larvae prevalent in large feeding

masses.
-Coleoptera arrive
-Blow fly and flesh fly larvae completed
development and have departed
-Necrophagous and predatory insects in
later parts of decay stage.
-Diptera larvae will have removed most of
the flesh by end of decay stage.
-Diptera no longer predominate group.
-Various coleoptera will predominate
throughout this stage.
-Diversity of this taxa will predominate
-Increase in number of parasites and
predators of beetles.
No obvious carrion-frequenting taxa
present.
-Gradual return of normal soil fauna to
area beneath remains.
-No definite end point to this stage
-Changes in soil composition may last for
an extended period depending on local
conditions.

In arriving at PMI estimations, the forensic entomologist studies the arthropods

present at the scene. A list of insects typically considered for PMI estimations is shown
in Table 16.3 [3].
In the first group in Table 16.3 (necrophagous species), the most common insect activity found early on dead bodies and soon after death come from the bottle fly Calliphoridae,
of which there are two typesblue and green. Another early arriver is the flesh fly

Forensic Entomology

463

Table 16.3 Insects Considered for Postmortem Interval (PMI) Estimations

Arthropod group
Necrophagous Species
-Diptera (Calliphoridae and Sarcophagidae) - Flies
Predators and parasites of Necrophagous species
-Coleoptera
-Parasites of Diptera larva (necophages in early
decomposition become predators in later larval development)
Omnivorous Species
-Wasps, ants, beetles
-Feed on corpse and arthropods.
Adventive Species
-Use corpse as extension of normal habitat.
-Collembola, spiders, centipedes
-Acari - Fungi feeders

Value in Estimating PMI

Probably most important isolatable taxa for PMI estimations.
The second most important group for PMI estimations.

Can adversely affect PMI estimations by removing (eating)

necrophagous species.
Not as important for PMI estimations.

(Sarcophagidae). When these flies smell a dead body, they are drawn to it and begin laying their eggs, usually in orifices and open wounds. This process can take minutes or more
depending on factors such as concealment, time of the day, presence of drugs in the cadaver/
carcass, etc.
The presence of eggs on a body marks the first visible stage of insect development, and
it begins the progression from egg to adult, a process called metamorphosis or life stages.
For the bottle fly, there are four distinct stages: egglarvaepupaeadult. These are illustrated in Figure 16.6. The photograph on the right side of the slide shows the progression of
the development from larvae to pupae to adult.

Bottle fly Calliphora vomitoria

The bottle fly is a species of the
common blow fly, found worldwide. As
scavengers, they feed on dead and
decaying organic matter, meat, feces,
etc. The female will feed on the nectar
of fragrant flowers for laying healthy
eggs.

Egg
Laid on dead animals
pale gray or yellowish
Larva

Metamorphosis
environment dependent

White larvae feed on decaying flesh

craw away to form maggot trail
burrow into soil
Pupa
Maggots pupate in dry place
emerge as adult fly

Adult
Fly larvae crawl until they
encounter a suitable place to pupate

Figure 16.6 Four stages of metamorphosis.

464

Crime Scene Forensics

Figure 16.7 Fly eggs in body orifices. (Photograph by Robert C.. Shaler)

Learning to recognize the manifestation of a decomposing body, that is, the stages of
decomposition, and to associate those with insects present at that stage requires knowledge
of entomology and training. For example, if flies are in the area and rice-like particles
(eggs) are present in the bodys orificesarrow in Figure 16.7 points to eggsthe following
facts can be determined.
The body is in the fresh stage of decomposition.
Other physical manifestations, such as body cooling (algor mortise), blood settling (livor mortis), or rigor (joint stiffening), should be noted and
photographed.
Fly eggs are present in the animals orifices and two bottle flies can be seen.
At this stage, larvae have not yet begun to form or, if they have, they have not dispersed far from the body.
The eggs should be collected appropriately.
The checklist below should be followed to ensure that no evidence is lost.
And depending on resources available and training, the important entomological
specimens and information should be collected.
If the stage of decomposition is more advanced, a larger number and species of insects
will be expected. Identifying them (at least photographically) is important, so it is the
responsibility of the investigative team to capture them properly. Ideally, again, the scene
scientist/investigator should collect all the different species present. The supplies and equipment required to do this are not expensive and should be easily attainable.

16.4 Equipment/Reagents Required for Collecting Entomological

Evidence
When the crime scene unit is dispatched to a scene, no one really knows what challenges
the scene will present. From an entomological perspective, ideally, the crime scene mobile
unit should have sufficient supplies and equipment to collect the critical entomological

Forensic Entomology

467

Table 16.4 Equipment and Supplies for Collecting Insects and Larvae
Item

Aerial or sweep net: 1518 in. with 2436 in.

Reason
For collecting flies around area of dead body

collapsible metal handles

Collection vials: Screw cap-type vials with neoprene

Kill jars for collecting maggots

cap inserts (4-dram size) or wide-mouth jar. Jars

filled with 1/2 in. of powdered plaster, paper towel, or
cotton balls to absorb ethyl acetate

Feather-weight (or light-touch) forceps: These are

commercially available from most biological supply
houses. Using normal forceps is risky because, if too
much force is used, larvae can be killed

Plastic yogurt or bait containers: 1664 oz. in size

Aluminum foil

For collecting without damaging delicate and soft fly

larvae

Plastic specimen containers: 48 oz. size

For collecting and shipping larvae

To hold live larvae and food source during shipment
(pre-cut potato wrappers work well)
For filling bottom of the larval containers to allow for
migration, and to absorb excess fluids during
shipment
Additional collection containers

Paper labels (nonadhesive, heavy bond paper)

Nonadhesive: Used to label inside of preserved and live

Vermiculite (or dirt from scene)

specimen containers

Adhesive: For labeling outside of containers

Graphite pencil
Small hand trowel or garden spade
Thermometers : Digital
Photographic equipment (including scales)

Chemicals: ethyl acetate, ethanol, KAA

Paper towels
Disposable gloves

For making labels (preservation fluids will cause ink to

smear)
For sampling soil and digging for migrating larvae or
pupae in outdoor death scenes
Used for taking temperature of area around body and
maggot mass
Need to capture forensically relevant photographs:
establishing, mid-range and close-ups (of insects)
Used to kill insects
For kill jars, cleaning utensils, and drying hands after
disinfecting
For personal protection

Sifting screens

Used to process soil samples for collecting insects and

insect artifacts

Form for death scene investigation

For record keeping

Shipping containers: Styrofoam containers with lids are Used to ship collected specimens to appropriate
best because they are insulated. Corrugated
cardboard boxes are cheap and commonly used

experts

data and specimens necessary for calculating the PMI. Table 16.4, adapted from Byrd [1],
shows a list of supplies and equipment required for collecting entomological evidence.

16.5 What to do at the Scene

Identifying and collecting entomological data and specimens at the scene are critical for
estimating the PMI. Ideally, a forensic entomologist should be called to the scene. However,

466

Crime Scene Forensics

Table 16.5 Guidelines for Archiving and Collecting Entomological Evidence

Activity
Archiving:
Photography & video

Method/Equipment Needed
Establishing, midrange and close up photographs
of all areas where insects and larvae/eggs are
found. Also video area and insect/larvae
relationships with body.

Reason
Showing relationship of body to area and close up
photos of larvae and other insects present. Video is a
good way to show relationship of area to body and
location of larvae and other insects.
Captures detail.

Use scales in each photograph with

mm/inch ruling.
Do not use flash to photograph larvae

Ascertain decomposition stage

Use collection net to capture flying insects

Take Temperatures

Ambient air

Under body

Soil under body

Maggot mass

Body temperature
Collecting Maggots

Search for dispersed pattern of larvae.

Collect larvae and pupae at dispersal
points along the trail (4).

Locate center of dispersal

(usually cadaver or carcass)
& measure distance up to 6
meters

Divide distance into 1.5 meter

segments

Divide circumference into 4

quadrants with a radius of 6
meters

Remove 10 cm of soil for up

Photograph and video:

a. Maggot mass and temperature readings taken
of mass and under body.
b. Detail of body structure changes
c. Bite marks on living people.
Recognize decomposition signs at each stage.
Understand the specific insects that should be
present.
Wave the collection net over body in figure eight
pattern to capture flying insects.
Place insects into collection jars.
Use a normal digital thermometer.

Collect 1 spoonful of larvae from at least 3

maggot areas on corpse and at scene.
In collection jars, place half of collected larvae in
solvent (ethanol not isopropanol or formalin
Kill first with hot water if possible) and rest in
cloth covered jars (for breathing). Label with
date, initials, location and time.
Since individuals will bury themselves, it will be
necessary to dig and then sift soil. Place larvae in
collection jars.

Washes out detail

Proper archiving procedure to capture close up

photographs and video.

Important that entomological data is not lost

Important to know which species are predominate.

Temperatures are important for making degree-day

calculations.

Needed to identify species of insect.

Live larvae needed to determine time to next stage of
development.

As larvae mature, they move away from body so

they can pupate. The largest larvae will be at the end
of the larval trail. Need to find reasonable number
of pupae and larvae for accurate PMI.

Forensic Entomology
to 1.5 meters from center of
dispersal. In another
quadrant, remove 1.5 cm to
3.0cm soil up to 6 meters

Alternate between odd and

even quadrants.
Collect soil from under body

467

Place spoonful of soil from various locations

(documented photographically) in collection jar
and cover with cloth

Identification of buried larvae.

in the absence of a readily available entomologist, Table 16.5 can be used as a guide for collecting
entomological evidence to ensure that nothing is overlooked so that the entomologist can be given
the appropriate information required to determine the PMI.
After collecting the appropriate specimens, they should be taken to the medical examiners
office, which will ensure they are delivered to a forensic entomologist who works with the
medical examiner.

16.6 Arson and Entomological Survival

Experimental work has been done that shows that important entomological evidence can survive house
fires. So, it is clear that even intense fires might not destroy forensic evidence. Fire does not prevent
insect colonization or the ability of the entomologist to determine the elapsed time since death. However,
there are caveats, and one is to be expected: Fires will speed colonization rates by between 1 and 4 days,
which could impact calculating PMIs [5,6].

References
1. J. H. Byrd. Forensic entomology: Insects in legal investigations. Available at: http://www.
forensicentomology.com/definition.htm (accessed April 19, 2010).
2. Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Metamorphosis. Available at: http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/metamorphosis (accessed September 15, 2010).
3. M. L. Goff. 1993. Estimation of postmortem interval using arthropod and successional patterns.
Forensic Science Review 5(2):8294.
4. S. C. Voss, S. L. Forbes, and I. R. Dadour. 2008. Decomposition and insect succession on cadavers inside
a vehicle environment. Forensic Science, Medicine, and Pathology, 4:2232.
5. L. Gomes, W. Godoy, and C. J. Von Zuben, 2006. A review of postfeeding larval dispersal in blowflies:
Implications for forensic entomology. Naturwissenschaften 93:207215.
6. G. S. Anderson, 2005. Effects of arson on forensic entomology evidence. Canadian Society of Forensic
Science Journal, 38(2):4967.