PB Geology

American Association of Petroleum Geologists
What does AAPG stand for?
absolute permeability
A measure of the ability of a single fluid(such as water,
gas or oil) to flow through a rock formation when the
formation is totally filled with that fluid. The permeability
measure of a rock filled with a single fluid is different
from the permeability measure of the same rock filled
with two or more fluids.
absolute porosity
the percentage of the total bulk volume of a rock sample
that is composed of pore spaces or voids.
accrete
to enlarge by the addition of external parts or particles
acidize
to treat oil-bearing limestone or other formations with
acid for the purpose of increasing production
acoustic log
a record of the measurement of porosity, done by
comparing the depth to the time it takes for a sonic
impulse to travel through a given length of formation.
Synonym sonic logging
acoustic survey
a well-logging method in which sound impulses are
generated and transmitted into the formations opposite
the wellbore.
acoustic well logging

the process of recording the acoustic characteristics of
subsurface formations, based on the time required for a
sound wave to travel a specific distance through rock.
The rate of travel depends on the composition of the
formation, its porosity, and its fluid content. Synonym
sonic logging
adhesion
a force of attraction that causes molecules of one
substance to cling to those of a different substance
adsorption
the adhesion of a thin film of gas or liquid to the surface
of a solid
ad valorem[v'lrm] tax
a state or county tax based on the value of a property
aeolian deposit
a sediment deposited by wind
aerobic
requiring free atmospheric oxygen for normal activity
aerobic bacteria
bacteria that require free oxygen for their life processes.
Aerobic bacteria can produce slime or scum, which
accumulates on metal surfaces, causing oxygenconcentration cell corrosion.
authority for expenditure

What does AFE stand for?
alidade
a surveying instrument consisting of sighting device,
index and reading or recording device
aliphatic hydrocarbons
hydrocarbons that have a straight chain of carbon
atoms.
aliphatic series
a series of open-chained hydrocarbons. The two major
classes are the series with saturated bonds and the
series with unsaturated bonds.
alkane
Give a synonym for paraffin
allowable
the amount of oil or gas that can be produced legally
from a well per unit of time. In a state using proration,
this figure is established monthly by its conservation
agency.
alluvial fan
a large sloping sedimentary deposit at the mouth of a

canyon. Especially in arid climates, composed of gravel
and sand.
American Association of Petroleum Geologists

what does AAPG stand for?
anaerobic
active in the absence of free oxygen
anaerobic bacteria
bacteria that do not require free oxygen to live or that
are not destroyed by its absence. Under certain
conditions, anaerobic bacteria can cause scale to form
in water handling facilities in oilfields or hydrogen
sulfide to be produced from sulfates.
analog
something that is similar to something else.
Representing a range of numbers by directly
measurable variable quantities, such as voltages.
andesite
finely crystalline, generally light-colored extrusive
igneous rock composed largely of plagioclase feldspar
with smaller amounts of dark colored minerals
angular unconformity
an unconformity in which formations above and below
are not parallel.
anhydrite
the common name for anhydrous calcium sulfate,
CaSO4.
anticline
an arched, inverted-trough configuration of folded rock
layers.
apron
A body of coarse, poorly sorted sediments formed by the
coalescence of alluvial or detrital fans. Can also be
formed by the coalescence of submarine debris fans
along the base of the continental slope.
aquifer
a permeable body of rock capable of yielding
groundwater to wells and springs.
Archie's Equation
the formula for evaluating the quantity of hydrocarbons
in a formation. The form of the equation depends on its
specific use.
Sw^2=aRw/(O^mRt)
...
arenite
a sandstone in which less than 15% of the total volume
is silt and clay.
arkose
a sandstone composed largely of feldspar grains and
deriving from granitic source rock.
aromatic hydrocarbons
hydrocarbons derived from or containing a benzene
ring. Many have an odor. Single-ring " " are the benzene
series (benzene, ethylbenzenes, an toluene). " "also
include naphthalene and anthracene.
artificial lift
any method used to raise oil to the surface through a
well after reservoir pressure has declined to the point at
which the well no longer produces by means of natural
energy, Sucker rod pumps, gas lift, hydraulic pumps,
and submersible electric pumps are the most common
means of artificial lift.
asphalt
a hard brown or black material composed principally of
hydrocarbons. It is insoluble in water but soluble in
gasoline and can be obtained by heating some
petroleums, coal tar, or lignite tar. It is used for paving
and roofing and in paints.
asphaltic crude
petroleum with a high proportion of naphthenic
compounds, which leave relatively high proportions of
asphaltic residue when refined
asphaltic material
one of a group of solid, liquid, or semisolid materials
that are predominantly mixtures of heavy hydrocarbons
and their nonmetallic derivatives and are obtained
either from natural bituminous deposits or from the
residues of petroleum refining.
associated gas
natural gas that overlies and contacts crude oil in a
reservoir. Also called free gas.
atoll
a coral island consisting of a reef surrounding a lagoon
authority for expenditure

an estimate of costs prepared by a lease operator and
sent to each nonoperator with a working interest for
approval before work is undertaken. Normally used in
connection with well drilling operations.
backbarrier complex
the depositional environments associated with a shallow
lagoon shoreward from a coastal barrier island. These
environments are highly variable and may include tidal
channels, salt marshes, shell reefs, and mangrove
swamps, among others.
backshore
that part of the seashore that lies between high-tide and
storm-flood level.
barefoot completion
Give a synonym for open-hole completion.
basalt
an extrusive igneous rock that is dense, fine grained,
and often dark gray to black.
basin
1. a local depression in the earth's crust in which
sediments can accumulate to form thick sequences of
sedimentary rock. 2.the area drained by a stream and
its tributaries. 3.a geologic structure in which strata are
inclined toward a common center.
bed
a specific layer of earth or rock that presents a contrast
to other layers of different material lying above, below,
or adjacent to it.
bedding plane
the surface that separates each successive layer of a
stratified rock from the preceding layer. It is here that
minor changes in sediments or depositional conditions
can be observed.
bed load
the gravel and coarse sand that are rolled and bounced
along the bottom of a flowing stream.
bedrock
solid rock exposed at the surface or just beneath the
soil.
biochemical
involving chemical reactions in living organisms.
biofacies
a part of a stratigraphic unit that differs in its fossil
fauna and flora from the rest of the unit.
biogenic
produced by living organisms
bioherm
a reef or mound built by small organisms and their
remains, such as coral, plankton, and oysters.
biomass
the total mass of living organisms per unit volume per
unit of time
biosphere
the thin zone of air, water, and soil where all terrestrial
life exists.
biotic
relating to life, biologic; relating to the actions of living
organisms.
biotite
a type of mica that is high in magnesium and dark in
color.
blowout
an uncontrolled flow of gas, oil or other well fluids into
the atmosphere. This can occur when formation
pressure exceeds the pressure applied to it by the
column of drilling fluid. A kick warns of the possibility of
a blowout.
borehole
a hole made by drilling or boring a wellbore.
bottomhole money
money paid by a contributing company in exchange for
the information received from the drilling on the
completion of a well to a specified depth, regardless of
whether the well is a producer of oil or gas or is a dry
hole.
bottomset bed
the part of a marine delta that lies farthest from shore. It
consists of silt and clay extending well out from the toe
of the steep delta face. Such beds grow slowly, out of
reach of the effects of river current and wave action.
breccia
a conglomerate rock composed largely of angular
fragments greater than 2 millimeters in diameter
brecciation
the breaking of solid rock into coarse, angular fragments
by faulting or crushing.
buildup test
a test in which a well is shut in for a prescribed period of
time and a bottomhole pressure bomb run in the well to
record the pressure. From these data and from
knowledge of pressures in nearby wells, the effective
drainage radius or the presence of permeability barriers
or other production deterrents surrounding the wellbore
can be estimated.
butane
a paraffin hydrocarbon, C4H10
calcareous
containing or composed largely of calcium carbonate, or
calcite CaSO3.
calcite
Another term for calcium carbonate
calcium sulfate
a chemical compound of calcium, sulfur, and oxygen,
CaSO4
caliper log
a record showing variations in wellbore diameter by
depth, indicating undue enlargement due to caving in,
washout, or other causes.
capillarity
the rise and fall of liquids in small diameter tubes or
tubelike spaces, caused by the combined action of
surface tension (cohesion) and wetting (adhesion)
capillary pressure
a pressure or adhesive force caused by the surface
tension of water. This pressure causes the water to
adhere more tightly to the surface of small pore spaces
than to larger ones. Capillary pressure in a rock
formation is comparable to the pressure of water that
rises higher in a small glass capillary than it does in a
larger tube.
capitalized
deducted from income over the years of useful life of an
item purchased
caprock
a disklike plate of anhydrite, gypsum, limestone, or
sulfur overlying most salt domes in the Gulf Coast
region. Impermeable rock overlying an oil or gas
reservoir that tends to prevent migration of oil or gas
out of the reservoir.
carbonate
a salt of carbonic acid. a compound containing the
carbonate radical CO3
carbonate mud
a mud that forms on the seafloor by the accumulation of
calcite particles. It may eventually become limestone.
carbonate rock
a sedimentary rock composed primarily of calcium
carbonate or calcium magnesium carbonate (dolomite)
carbonation
a chemical reaction that produces carbonates. In
geology, a form of chemical weathering in which a
mineral reacts with carbon dioxide ( in solution as
carbonic acid) to form a carbonate mineral.
carbonic
of or relating to carbon, carbonic acid, or carbon dioxide.
carbonize
to convert into carbon or a carbonic residue.
cash flow
the difference between inflow and outflow of funds over
a period of time. This can be positive (profit) or negative
(losses)
cash flow analysis

an economic analysis that relates investments to
subsequent revenues and also makes possible a
comparison between investments. It usually also
includes the general plan to be used for the figuring of
federal income tax on investments.
catastrophism
the theory that the earth's landforms assumed their
present configuration in a brief episode at the beginning
of geologic history-possibly in a single great catastrophic
event- and have remained relatively unchanged since
that time.
cavern
a natural cavity in the earth's crust that is large enough
to permit human entry. Commonly formed in limestone
by groundwater leaching.
cementation
the crystallization or precipitation of soluble minerals in
the pore spaces between clastic particles, causing them
to become consolidated into sedimentary rock.
Precipitation of a binding material around grains or
minerals in rocks.
Cenozoic era
the time period from 65 million years ago until the
present. It is marked by rapid evolution of mammals and
birds, flowering plants, grasses, and shrubs, and little
change in invertebrates.
chert
a rock of precipitated silica whose crystalline structure is
not easily discernible and that fractures conchoidally
(like glass). Flint, jasper, and chat are forms of chert.
chromatograph
an analytical instrument that separates mixtures of
substances into identifiable components by means of
chromatography.
chromatography
a method of separating a solution of closely related

compounds by allowing it to seep through an adsorbent
so that each compound is adsorbed in a separate layer.
clastic rock
a sedimentary rock composed of fragments of
preexisting rocks. The principal distinction among
clastics is grain size. Conglomerates, sandstones, and
shales are clastic rocks
clastics
sediments formed by the breakdown of large rock
masses by climatological processes, physical or
chemical. The rocks formed from these sediments.
clastic texture
rock texture in which individual rock, mineral, or organic
fragments are cemented together by an amorphous or
crystalline mineral such as calcite.
clay
a term used for particles smaller than 1/256 millimeter
(4 microns) is size, regardless of mineral composition. A
grou of hydrous aluminum silicate minerals (clay
minerals) . A sediment of fine clastics
coal
a carbonaceous, rocklike material that forms from the
remains of plants that were subjected to biochemical
processes, intense pressure, and high temperatures. It is
used as fuel.
cohesion
the attractive force between the same kinds of
molecules.
compaction
a decrease in the volume of a stratum due to pressure
exerted by overlying strata, evaporation of water, or
other causes.
compaction anticline
synonym for draped anticline
complete a well
to finish work on a well and bring it to productive status
condensate
a light hydrocarbon liquid obtained by condensation of

hydrocarbon vapors. It consists of varying proportions of
butane, propane, pentane, and heavier fractions, with
little or no methane or ethane.
conductor line
a small-diameter conductive line used in electric
wireline operations, such as electric well logging and
perforating, in which the transmission of electrical
current is required.
conductor pipe
a short string of large-diameter casing used to keep the
wellbore open and to provide a means of conveying the
up-flowing drilling fluid from the wellbore to the mud pit.
A boot.
conglomerate
a sedimentary rock composed of pebbles of various
sizes held together by a cementing material such as
clay. Conglomerates are similar to sandstone by are
composed mostly of grains more than 2 millimeters in
diameter. Most conglomerates are found in
discontinuous, thin, isolated layers; they are not
connate water
water retained in the pore spaces, or interstices, of a
formation from the time the formation was created.
contact
in geology, any sharp or well-defined boundary between
two different bodies of rock. A bedding plane or
unconformity that separates formations.
contact metamorphism
a type of metamorphism that occurs when an intrusive
body of igneous rock changes the rocks immediately
around it, primarily by heating and by chemical
alteration.
continental drift
according to a theory proposed by Alfred Wegener, a
German meteorologist, in 1910, the migration of
continents across the ocean floor like rafts drifting at
sea.
continental rise
the transition zone between the continental slope and
the oceanic abyss
continental shelf
a zone, adjacent to a continent, that extends from the
lower waterline to the continental slope, the point at
which the seafloor begins to slope off steeply into the
oceanic abyss.
cretaceous
of or relating to the geologic period from about 135
million to 65 million years ago at the end of the
Mesozoic era, or to the rocks formed during this period,
including the extensive chalk deposits for which it was
named.
5-30 miles (10-50 km)

What is the thickness of the outer layer of the Earth, the
crust?
oxygen, silicon and aluminum

What elements is the Earth's crust mainly composed of?
cut fluorescence test

the test involving the observation of a formation sample
immersed in a solvent under UV light. If any
hydrocarbons, which fluoresce under UV light, are in the
sample, they will dissolve and appear as streamers or
streaks of color different from the solvent.
cuttings
the fragments of rock dislodged by the bit and brought
to the surface in the drilling mud.
L^2
What are the dimensions of a darcy?
Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return

What does DCFROR stand for? Economics
decision tree
a graphic representation of predicted financial gains or
losses for the outcomes of several courses of action
deformation
the action of earth stresses that results in folding,
faulting, shearing, or compression of rocks
deliverability plot
a graph that compares flowing bottomhole pressure of a
well with production in barrels of oil per day to show the
relationship between drawdown and the producing rate.

Its main purpose is to find the most efficient flow rate
for the well.
deplete
to exhaust a supply.
depletion allowance
a reduction in U.S taxes for owners of an economic
interest in minerals in place to compensate for
exhaustion of an irreplaceable capital asset. Economic
interest includes mineral interest, working interest in
lease, royalty overriding royalty, production payment
interest, net profits interest.
deposition
the laying down of sediments or other potential rockforming material.
development well
a well drilled in proven territory in a field to complete a
pattern of production. An exploitation well.
Devonian
Of or relating to the geologic period about 400 million to
350 million years ago in the Paleozoic era, or to rocks
formed during this period, including those of
Devonshire, England. Where outcrops of such rock were
first identified.
diagenesis
the chemical and physical changes that sedimentary
deposits undergo (compaction, cementation,
recrystallization, and sometimes replacement) during
and after lithification.
diapir
a dome or anticlinal fold in which a mobile plastic core
has ruptured the more brittle overlying rock. Also called
piercement dome.
diastrophism
the process or processes of deformation of the earth's
crust that produce oceans, continents, mountains, folds,
and faults.
diatom
any of the algae of the class Bacillariophyceae, noted for
symmetrical and sculptured siliceous cell walls. After
death, the cell wall persists and forms diatomite.

Diatoms appeared in the Cretaceous period.
diatomite
a rock of biochemical origin, which is composed of the
siliceous (glassy) shells of microscopic algae called
diatoms.
differential pressure
The difference between two fluid pressures.
diorite
intrusive, or platonic, generally coarse-grained igneous
rock composed largely of plagioclase feldspar with
smaller amounts of dark colored minerals. Also called
black granite.
dip
the depth of liquid in a storage tank.
dipmeter survey
oilwell-surveying method that determines direction and
angle of formation dip in relation to borehole. Records
data that permit computation of amount and direction of
formation dip relative to hole axis and this provides
information about geologic structure of the formation.
Also called dipmeter log or dip log.
dip slip
upward or downward displacement of a fault plane
deviated drilling
intentional deviation of a wellbore from the vertical
disconformity
an unconformity above and below which rock strata are
parallel. A disconformity may or may not be parallel to
these strata.
DCFROR
the rate that causes the sum of the discounted outflows
and inflows of funds to equal the net cash outlay in year
zero of a project.
discovery well
the first oil or gas well drilled in a new field that reveals
the presence of a hydrocarbon-bearing reservoir.
Subsequent wells are development wells or exploitation
wells.
dissolved load
in a flowing stream of water, those products of
weathering that are carried along in solution
division order
a contact of sale of oil or gas to a purchaser who is
directed to pay for the oil or gas products according to
the proportions set out in the division order. The
purchaser may require execution thereof by all owners
of interest in the property.
dolomite
a type of sedimentary rock similar to limestone but
containing more than 50 % magnesium carbonate;
sometimes a reservoir rock for petroleum.
dolomitization
The shrinking of the solid volume of rock as limestone
turns into dolomite, the conversion of limestone to
dolomite rock by replacement of a portion of the calcium
carbonate with magnesium carbonate.
dome
a geologic structure resembling an inverted bowl, a
short anticline that dips or plunges on all sides.
The charges detonated by the seismologist create

puffs of smoke that resemble the loose dirt thrown into
the air by the antlion or doodlebug when building its
trap.
Where did the slang term doodlebugger come from?
downcutting
the direct erosive action of flowing water on a
streambed.
downdip
lower on the formation angle than a particular point
drag fold
frictional deformation of the layers above or below an
overthrust fault
draped anticline
an anticline composed of sedimentary deposits atop a
reef or atoll, along whose flanks greater thicknesses of
sediments have been deposited and compacted than
atop the reef itself. Also called compaction anticline
drawdown
the difference between static and flowing bottomhole
pressures. The distance between the static level and the
pumping level of the fluid in the annulus of a pumping
well.
driller's log
a record that describes each formation encountered and
lists the drilling time relative to depth, usually 5-10 ft.
intervals.
drill stem test

the conventional method for formation testing.
drive
the energy of expanding gas, inflowing water, or other
natural or artificial mechanisms that forces crude oil out
of the reservoir formation and into the wellbore.
dry hole
any well that does not produce oil or gas in commercial
quantities. A " -" may flow water, gas, or even oil, but
not in amounts large enough to justify production.
dry hole money

money paid by a contributing company on the basis of
so much per foot drilled by the primary company in
return for information gained from the drilling. The
contribution is paid only if the well is a dry hole in all
formations encountered in drilling.
dunefield
an accumulation of windborne sand in that part of the
seashore that lies above stormflood level.
ecology
science of the relationship between organisms and their
environment.
effective permeability
a measure of the ability of a single fluid to flow through
a rock when another fluid is also present in the pore
spaces.
relative permeability
the ratio of effective permeability to absolute
permeability. The " - " of a rock is 1 when only that fluid
is present, and 0 when another fluid prevents all flow of

that fluid.
effective porosity
the percentage of the bulk volume of a rock sample that
is composed of interconnected pore spaces that allow
the passage of fluids through the sample.
effective porosity
Interconnected pore volume + dead end pore volume
absolute porosity
disconnected pore volume + connected pore volume +
dead end pore volume
Eh
symbol for oxidation-reduction potential
emulsion
a mixture in which one liquid, termed the dispersed
phase, is uniformly distributed (usually as minute
globules) in another liquid, called the continuous phase
or dispersion medium; in a water-in-oil emulsion, the
reverse hold.
electric well log

a record of certain electrical characteristics (such as
resistivity and conductivity) of formations traversed by
the borehole. It is made to identify the formation,
determine the nature and amount of fluids they contain,
and estimate their depth. Also called an electric log or
electric survey.
enhanced oil recovery (EOR)

The introduction of artificial drive and displacement
mechanisms into a reservoir to produce a portion of the
oil unrecoverable by primary recovery methods. These
methods include waterflooding, chemical flooding, most
types of gas injection, and thermal recovery.
entrained
drawn in and transported by the flow of a fluid.
epeiric sea
a shallow arm of the ocean that extends from the
continental shelf deep into the interior of the continent.
Also called epicontinental sea.
epoch
a division of geologic time; a subdivision of a geologic

period, longer than an age and shorter than a period.
era
one of the major divisions of geologic time that divides
an eon.
erosion
the process by which material (such as rock or soil) is
worn away or removed (as by wind or water)
estuary
a coastal indentation or bay into which a river empties
and where fresh water mixes with seawater.
ethane
a paraffin hydrocarbon, C2H6; under atmospheric
conditions, a gas, one of the components of natural gas.
evaporite
a sedimentary rock formed by precipitation of dissolved
solids from water evaporating in enclosed basins.
Examples are gypsum and salt.
expected value concept

a risk analysis process that multiplies expected gain or
loss of a decision by its probability of occurrence and
averages all possible outcomes to choose the action
with the highest expected benefit.
expensed
deducted from income in the year in which the
expenditure is incurred.
exploitation well
a well drilled to permit more effective extraction of oil
from a reservoir. Sometimes called a development well.
exploration
the search for reservoirs of oil and gas, including aerial
and geophysical surveys, geologic studies, core testing,
and drilling of wildcats.
explosive fracturing
when explosives are used to fracture a formation. The
rubble prevents fracture healing, making the use of
proppant unnecessary.
extrusion
the emission of magma at the earth's surface.
extrusive rock
igneous rock formed from lava poured out on the earth's
surface.
facies
part of a bed of sedimentary rock that differs
significantly from other parts of the bed.
fanglomerate
coarse-grained, poorly sorted sedimentary rock derived
from sediments deposited in alluvial fans; a type of
conglomerate.
farmout
a contract between a lessee and a third party to assign
leasehold interest to the third party, conditional on the
third party's drilling a well within the expiration date of
the primary term of the lease.
fault
a break in the earth's crust along which rocks on one
side have been displaced.
fault plane
a surface along which faulting has occurred.
fault trap
a subsurface hydrocarbon trap created by faulting, in
which an impermeable rock layer has moved opposite
the reservoir bed or where impermeable gouge has
sealed the fault and stopped fluid migration.
faunal succession
the principle that fossils in a stratigraphic sequence
succeed one another in a definite, recognizable order.
feldspar
a group of silicate minerals that includes a wide variety
of potassium, sodium, and aluminum silicates. Feldspar
makes up about 60% of the outer 15 km of the earth's
crust.
abnormal pressure
A subsurface condition in which the pore pressure of a
geologic formation exceeds or is less than the expected,
or normal, formation pressure. When impermeable rocks
such as shales are compacted rapidly, their pore fluids
cannot always escape and must then support the total

overlying rock column, leading to abnormally high
formation pressures. Excess pressure, called
overpressure or geopressure, can cause a well to
blowout or become uncontrollable during drilling. Severe
underpressure can cause the drillpipe to stick to the
underpressured formation.
aggradation
The accumulation of stratigraphic sequences by
deposition that stacks beds atop each other, building
upwards during periods of balance between sediment
supply and accommodation.
anisotropy
Predictable variation of a property of a material with the
direction in which it is measured, which can occur at all
scales. For a crystal of a mineral, variation in physical
properties observed in different directions is anisotropy.
In rocks, variation in seismic velocity measured parallel
or perpendicular to bedding surfaces is a form of
anisotropy. Often found where platy minerals such as
micas and clays align parallel to depositional bedding as
sediments are compacted, anisotropy is common in
shales.
argillaceous
Describing rocks or sediments containing particles that
are silt- or clay-sized, less than 0.625 mm in size. Most
have a high clay-mineral content, and many contain a
sufficient percentage of organic material to be
considered a source rock for hydrocarbon.
absolute age
The measurement of age in years. The determination of
this of rocks, minerals and fossils, in years before the
present, is the basis for the field of geochronology. The
measurement of the decay of radioactive isotopes,
especially uranium, strontium, rubidium, argon and
carbon, has allowed geologists to more precisely
determine the age of rock formations. Tree rings and
seasonal sedimentary deposits called varves can be
counted to determine absolute age. Although the term
implies otherwise, "absolute" ages typically have some
amount of potential error and are inexact. Relative age,
in contrast, is the determination of whether a given
material is younger or older than other surrounding
material on the basis of stratigraphic and structural
relationships, such as superposition, or by interpretation
of fossil content.
anomalous
Different from what is typical or expected, or different
from what is predicted by a theoretical model. The
difference or anomaly may refer to the measurement of
the difference between an observed or measured value
and the expected values of a physical property.
Anomalies can be of great interest in hydrocarbon and
mineral exploration because they often indicate
hydrocarbon and mineral prospects and accumulations,
such as geologic structures like folds and faults.
Geochemical anomalies at the surface of the Earth can
also indicate an accumulation of hydrocarbons at depth.
Geophysical anomalies, such as amplitude anomalies in
seismic data and magnetic anomalies in the Earth's
crust, can also be associated with hydrocarbon
accumulations.
asphalt
A solid or nearly solid form of bitumen that can melt
upon heating and contains impurities such as nitrogen,
oxygen and sulfur. Asphalt forms naturally when the
light components or volatiles of petroleum have been
removed or evaporated.
absolute permeability
The measurement of the permeability, or ability to flow
or transmit fluids through a rock, conducted when a
single fluid, or phase, is present in the rock. The symbol
most commonly used for permeability is k, which is
measured in units of darcies or millidarcies.
alidade
A telescopic surveying device used to construct surface
topographic and geologic maps in the field. This device
is mounted on a plane table, which has a sheet of paper
on which to draw the map, and an object or location is
sighted through the alidade. The edge of the alidade is
aligned in the azimuthal direction of the object or
location. The vertical angle from which elevation of the
location can be calculated is measured using the
calibrated arc of the alidade.
asthenosphere
The relatively plastic layer of the upper mantle of the
Earth on which the tectonic plates of the lithosphere
move. The asthenosphere is approximately 200 km [124
miles] thick and, owing to its depth below the Earth's
surface, warm (~ 1400 oC) [2640 oF] but not molten.
Here the mantle deforms by plastic flow in response to
applied pressures above 100 MPa [14,500 psi]. This zone

is considered coincidental, at least below oceanic crust,
with the low-velocity zone of the upper mantle.
absolute pressure
The measurement of pressure relative to the pressure in
a vacuum, equal to the sum of the pressure shown on a
pressure gauge and atmospheric pressure.
anoxic
The condition of an environment in which free oxygen is
lacking or absent.
attitude
The orientation of a planar or linear feature in threedimensional space. Planar features that are not
horizontal, such as tilted strata, are described by their
strike, or the azimuth of the intersection of the plane
with a horizontal surface, and the dip, or the magnitude
of its inclination from a horizontal reference. The trend
and plunge of linear features, such as the axis of a fold,
describe the azimuth of the line and its deviation from
horizontal.
abyss
The deepest area of the ocean basins. The depositional
energy is low and fine-grained sediments are deposited
slowly by waning turbidity currents or from suspension
in the water. The water is thousands of meters deep
(>2,000 m) [>6,520 ft] so it is cold and sunlight is
minimal.
allochthonous
Pertaining to materials, particularly rock masses, that
formed somewhere other than their present location,
and were transported by fault movements, large-scale
gravity sliding, or similar processes. Autochthonous
material, in contrast, formed in its present location.
Landslides can result in large masses of allochthonous
rock, which typically can be distinguished from
autochthonous rocks on the basis of their difference in
composition. Faults and folds can also separate
allochthons from autochthons.
anticlinal
Pertaining to an anticline, an arch-shaped fold in rock in
which rock layers are upwardly convex. The oldest rock
layers form the core of the fold, and outward from the
core progressively younger rocks occur. Anticlines form
many excellent hydrocarbon traps, particularly in folds
with reservoir-quality rocks in their core and

impermeable seals in the outer layers of the fold. A
syncline is the opposite type of fold, having downwardly
convex layers with young rocks in the core.
aulacogen
In plate tectonics, a failed rift arm. At the junctions of
tectonic plates, three intersecting lithospheric plates
typically are separated by "arms." Arms might be areas
of rifting, convergence or transform faults (similar to a
strike-slip fault). The arm along which the motion that
spreads the plates apart ceases is termed the failed
arm, or aulacogen. Spreading or rifting along the other
arms of the triple junction can form new oceanic basins,
whereas the aulacogen can become a sediment-filled
graben.
abyssal
Pertaining to the depositional environment of the
deepest area of the ocean basins, the abyss. The
depositional energy is low, the abyssal plain is flat and
nearly horizontal, and fine-grained sediments are
deposited slowly by waning turbidity currents or from
suspension in the water. The water is thousands of
meters deep (> 2000 m) [6520 ft], so the water is cold
and sunlight is minimal.
allogenic
Pertaining to minerals or rock fragments that formed in
one location but were transported to another location
and deposited. Clastic sediments in a rock such as
sandstone are allogenic, or formed elsewhere.
anticlinal trap
A type of structural hydrocarbon trap whose closure is
controlled by the presence of an anticline.
authigenic
Pertaining to minerals or materials that grow in place
with a rock, rather than having been transported and
deposited. These include quartz, chlorite and other porefilling minerals or cements that grow during diagenesis.
Evaporite minerals are authigenic, or formed in situ.
accommodation
Sequence stratigraphic term for the amount of space
available for sediment accumulation. Dominant
influences on the amount of accommodation, or
accommodation space, include subsidence and eustasy.
alluvial
Pertaining to the subaerial (as opposed to submarine)
environment, action and products of a stream or river on
its floodplain, usually consisting of detrital clastic
sediments, and distinct from subaqueous deposition
such as in lakes or oceans and lower energy fluvial
deposition. Sediments deposited in an alluvial
environment can be subject to high depositional energy,
such as fast-moving flood waters, and may be poorly
sorted or chaotic.
anticline
An arch-shaped fold in rock in which rock layers are
upwardly convex. The oldest rock layers form the core of
the fold, and outward from the core progressively
younger rocks occur. Anticlines form many excellent
hydrocarbon traps, particularly in folds with reservoirquality rocks in their core and impermeable seals in the
outer layers of the fold. A syncline is the opposite type
of fold, having downwardly convex layers with young
rocks in the core.
autochthon
Materials, especially rock masses, that formed in their
present location and have not been transported. Fault
surfaces can separate indigenous rocks from
allochthonous rocks, although some allochthonous rocks
are clearly delineated by their differing composition.
accumulation
The phase in the development of a petroleum system
during which hydrocarbons migrate into and remain
trapped in a reservoir.
alluvium
Material deposited in an alluvial environment, typically
detrital sediments that are poorly sorted.
antithetic fault
A minor, secondary fault, usually one of a set, whose
sense of displacement is opposite to its associated
major and synthetic faults. Antithetic-synthetic fault sets
are typical in areas of normal faulting.
active margin
A boundary of colliding lithospheric plates. The present
subduction zones of the Pacific Rim, the older mountains
of the Alps, and the Himalayas represent active margins.
anaerobic
The condition of an environment in which free oxygen is

lacking or absent. A description of organisms that can
survive in the absence of oxygen, particularly bacteria.
apparent dip
The angle that a plane makes with the horizontal
measured in any randomly oriented section rather than
perpendicular to strike.
axial surface
In folded rocks, the imaginary surface bisecting the
limbs of the fold. This is called the axial plane when the
fold is symmetrical and the lines defined by the points of
maximum curvature of each folded layer, or hinge lines,
are coplanar.
aeolian
Pertaining to the environment of deposition of
sediments by wind, such as the sand dunes in a desert.
Because fine-grained sediments such as clays are
removed easily from wind-blown deposits, eolian
sandstones are typically clean and well-sorted.
angular unconformity
A surface that separates younger strata from eroded,
dipping, older strata and represents a gap in the
geologic record.
appraisal
The phase of petroleum operations that immediately
follows successful exploratory drilling. During this,
delineation wells might be drilled to determine the size
of the oil or gas field and how to develop it most
efficiently.
azimuth
The angle between the vertical projection of a line of
interest onto a horizontal surface and true north or
magnetic north measured in a horizontal plane, typically
measured clockwise from north.
aeolotropy
Predictable variation of a property of a material with the
direction in which it is measured, which can occur at all
scales. For a crystal of a mineral, variation in physical
properties observed in different directions is aeolotropy
(also known as anisotropy). In rocks, variation in seismic
velocity measured parallel or perpendicular to bedding
surfaces is a form of aeolotropy. Often found where platy
minerals such as micas and clays align parallel to
depositional bedding as sediments are compacted,

aeolotropy is common in shales.
anhydrite
A member of the evaporite group of minerals and the
soft rock comprising this formed by precipitation of
calcium sulfate from evaporation of seawater. Anhydrite
can also form through the dehydration of gypsum,
another sulfate mineral found in evaporites. Anhydrite
may occur as a cap rock above salt domes.
aquifer
A body of rock whose fluid saturation, porosity and
permeability permit production of groundwater. A waterbearing portion of a petroleum reservoir with a
waterdrive.
azimuthal
Pertaining to the angle between the vertical projection
of a line of interest onto a horizontal surface and true
north or magnetic north measured in a horizontal plane,
typically measured clockwise from north.
aerated layer
The surface or near-surface, unconsolidated
sedimentary layer that has been subject to weathering
and whose pores are air-filled instead of liquid-filled. An
aerated layer typically has a low seismic velocity.
anisotropic
Having directionally dependent properties. For a crystal
of a mineral, variation in physical properties observed in
different directions is anisotropy. In rocks, variation in
seismic velocity measured parallel or perpendicular to
bedding surfaces is a form of anisotropy. Often found
where platy minerals such as micas and clays align
parallel to depositional bedding as sediments are
compacted, anisotropy is common in shales.
arenaceous
Describing sandy-textured rock or sediment. This does
not necessarily imply silica-rich, but rather particles of
sand size, 0.625 to 2 mm, according to the UddenWentworth scale.
barite
[BaSO4] A dense sulfate mineral that can occur in a
variety of rocks, including limestone and sandstone,
with a range of accessory minerals, such as quartz,
chert, dolomite, calcite, siderite and metal sulfides.
Barite is commonly used to add weight to drilling fluid.

Barite is of significance to petrophysicists because
excess barite can require a correction factor in some
well log measurements.
bed
A layer of sediment or sedimentary rock, or stratum.
This is the smallest stratigraphic unit, generally a
centimeter or more in thickness. To be labeled a bed,
the stratum must be distinguishable from adjacent beds.
benthic
Pertaining to the environment and conditions of
organisms living at the water bottom, or benthos. Also
called benthonic.
biostratigraphy
The application of plant and animal fossils to date and
correlate strata in order to elucidate Earth history,
combining the principles of paleontology and
stratigraphy. In the petroleum industry, this often
denotes the use of terrestrial (pollen and spores) and
marine (diatoms, foraminifera, nannofossils) microfossils
to determine the absolute or relative age and
depositional environment of a particular formation,
source rock or reservoir of interest.
base map
A map on which primary data and interpretations can be
plotted. It typically includes locations of lease or
concession boundaries, wells, seismic survey points and
other cultural data such as buildings and roads, with a
geographic reference such as latitude and longitude or
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) grid information.
Geologists use topographic maps as base maps for
construction of surface geologic maps. Geophysicists
typically use shot point maps, which show the
orientations of seismic lines and the specific points at
which seismic data were acquired, to display
interpretations of seismic data. In the field, geologists
can use a plane table and alidade to construct a base
map.
bed thickness
The thickness of a layer or stratum of sedimentary rock
measured perpendicular to its lateral extent, presuming
deposition on a horizontal surface. Because sediment
deposition can occur on inclined surfaces, apparent or
measured bed thickness might differ from true bed
thickness. The thickness of a given bed often varies

along its extent.
benthos
Organisms that live at the bottom of a body of water.
bitumen
Naturally-occurring, inflammable organic matter formed
from kerogen in the process of petroleum generation
that is soluble in carbon bisulfide. This includes
hydrocarbons such as asphalt and mineral wax. Typically
solid or nearly so, brown or black, bitumen has a
distinctive petroliferous odor. Laboratory dissolution with
organic solvents allows determination of the amount of
bitumen in samples, an assessment of source rock
richness.
basement
The rock layer below which economic hydrocarbon
reservoirs are not expected to be found, sometimes
preceded by economic. This is usually older, deformed
igneous or metamorphic rocks, which seldom develops
the porosity and permeability necessary to serve as a
hydrocarbon reservoir, and below which sedimentary
rocks are not common. Basement rocks typically have
different density, acoustic velocity, and magnetic
properties from overlying rocks.
bedrock
Solid rock either exposed at the surface or situated
below surface soil, unconsolidated sediments and
weathered rock.
bentonite
A material composed of clay minerals, predominantly
montmorillonite with minor amounts of other smectite
group minerals, commonly used in drilling mud.
Bentonite swells considerably when exposed to water,
making it ideal for protecting formations from invasion
by drilling fluids. Montmorillonite forms when basic rocks
such as volcanic ash in marine basins are altered.
Bouma sequence
A characteristic sequence of sedimentary structures
occurring in sedimentary rocks deposited in areas of
deep water sedimentation by turbidity currents, which
form deposits called turbidites. In theory, a complete
Bouma sequence comprises sediments that fine
upwards, consisting of a lowermost layer of coarse,
chaotic clastic sediments deposited under conditions of
high depositional energy overlain by successively finer

grained and better stratified sediments like sands and
muds deposited under calmer conditions that are
labeled as Units A though E. In practice, however, the
chaotic, high-energy nature of turbidite deposition can
alter or remove underlying sediments so that
incomplete sequences of sediments typically remain
preserved.
basin
A depression in the crust of the Earth, caused by plate
tectonic activity and subsidence, in which sediments
accumulate. Sedimentary basins vary from bowl-shaped
to elongated troughs. Basins can be bounded by faults.
Rift basins are commonly symmetrical; basins along
continental margins tend to be asymmetrical. If rich
hydrocarbon source rocks occur in combination with
appropriate depth and duration of burial, then a
petroleum system can develop within the basin. Most
basins contain some amount of shale, thus providing
opportunities for shale gas exploration and production.
Benioff zone
A zone of the upper mantle in which earthquakes occur
when a lithospheric plate is subducted, named in honor
of seismologists Kiyoo Wadati and Hugo Benioff. The dip
of this zone, also referred to as the Wadati-Benioff zone,
coincides with the dip of the subducting plate. The
Wadati-Benioff zone extends to a depth of about 700 km
[435 miles] from the Earth's surface.
biostratigraphic
Pertaining to biostratigraphy, the application of plant
and animal fossils to date and correlate strata in order
to elucidate Earth history, combining the principles of
paleontology and stratigraphy. In the petroleum
industry, biostratigraphy often denotes the use of
terrestrial (pollen and spores) and marine (diatoms,
foraminifera, nannofossils) microfossils to determine the
absolute or relative age and depositional environment of
a particular formation, source rock or reservoir of
interest.
brine
Water containing more dissolved inorganic salt than
typical seawater.
bathyal
Pertaining to the environment of deposition and the
organisms of the ocean between depths of 200 m [656
ft], the edge of the continental shelf, and 2000 m [6560

ft]. The bathyal environment is intermediate between
the neritic environment and the abyss.
calcite
The crystalline form of calcium carbonate and chief
constituent of limestone and chalk. Calcite reacts readily
with dilute hydrochloric acid [HCl], so the presence of
calcite can be tested by simply placing a drop of acid on
a rock specimen.
chronostratigraphy
The study of the ages of strata. The comparison, or
correlation, of separated strata can include study of
their relative or absolute ages.
compaction
The physical process by which sediments are
consolidated, resulting in the reduction of pore space as
grains are packed closer together. As layers of sediment
accumulate, the ever increasing overburden pressure
during burial causes compaction of the sediments, loss
of pore fluids and formation of rock as grains are welded
or cemented together.
conventional reservoir
A reservoir in which buoyant forces keep hydrocarbons
in place below a sealing caprock. Reservoir and fluid
characteristics of conventional reservoirs typically
permit oil or natural gas to flow readily into wellbores.
The term is used to make a distinction from shale and
other unconventional reservoirs, in which gas might be
distributed throughout the reservoir at the basin scale,
and in which buoyant forces or the influence of a water
column on the location of hydrocarbons within the
reservoir are not significant.
caliche
A crust of coarse sediments or weathered soil rich in
calcium carbonate. It forms when lime-rich groundwater
rises to the surface by capillary action and evaporates
into a crumbly powder, forming a tough, indurated sheet
called calcrete. Caliche typically occurs in desert or
semi-arid areas. Of particular concern to geophysicists is
the difficulty in acquiring good seismic data when
shooting through a layer of caliche. A deposit of sodium
nitrate that is mined and used for fertilizer in parts of
South America.
CI
The value of the separation between two adjacent

contours. A net pay isopach map might have a contour
interval of 10 feet [3 m], whereas a structure contour
map might have a contour interval of 1000 feet [300 m].
Contour intervals are chosen according to the map scale
and the amount and distribution of control points.
competent
Describes a bed that maintains its original thickness
during deformation. Often pertains to relatively brittle,
solid strata that deform by faulting, fracturing or folding,
rather than flowing under stress. Incompetent beds are
more ductile and tend to flow under stress, so their bed
thickness changes more readily during deformation.
convergence
The movement of tectonic plates toward each other,
generating compressional forces and ultimately
resulting in collision, and in some cases subduction, of
tectonic plates. The boundary where tectonic plates
converge is called a convergent margin.
cap rock
A relatively impermeable rock, commonly shale,
anhydrite or salt, that forms a barrier or seal above and
around reservoir rock so that fluids cannot migrate
beyond the reservoir. It is often found atop a salt dome.
The permeability of a cap rock capable of retaining fluids
through geologic time is ~ 10^-6-10^-8 darcies.
clastic intrusion
Structures formed by sediment injection. Because they
resemble intrusive and extrusive igneous features, much
of the vocabulary for describing clastic intrusions, or
injectites, comes from igneous geology. Sills are
emplaced parallel to bedding, whereas dikes cut through
bedding. The strata containing the intrusion are called
host strata and the layers that feed the intrusion are the
parent beds. Sand-injection features exhibit size scales
from millimeters to kilometers, and have been seen in
cores, borehole image logs, seismic sections, outcrops,
aerial photographs and satellite images.
concentric fold
The deformation of rock layers in which the thickness of
each layer, measured perpendicular to initial
undeformed layering, is maintained after the rock layers
have been folded.
convergent
Pertaining to the movement of tectonic plates toward

each other, generating compressional forces and
ultimately resulting in collision, and in some cases
subduction, of tectonic plates. The boundary where
tectonic plates converge is called a convergent margin.
caprock
anhydrite or salt, that forms a barrier or seal above and
around reservoir rock so that fluids cannot migrate
beyond the reservoir. It is often found atop a salt dome.
The permeability of a caprock capable of retaining fluids
through geologic time is ~ 10^-6-10^-8 darcies.
clastic sediment
Sediment consisting of broken fragments derived from
preexisting rocks and transported elsewhere and
redeposited before forming another rock. Examples of
common clastic sedimentary rocks include siliciclastic
rocks such as conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone and
shale. Carbonate rocks can also be broken and reworked
to form clastic sedimentary rocks.
condensate
A low-density, high-API gravity liquid hydrocarbon phase
that generally occurs in association with natural gas. Its
presence as a liquid phase depends on temperature and
pressure conditions in the reservoir allowing
condensation of liquid from vapor. The production of
condensate reservoirs can be complicated because of
the pressure sensitivity of some condensates: During
production, there is a risk of the condensate changing
from gas to liquid if the reservoir pressure drops below
the dew point during production. Reservoir pressure can
be maintained by fluid injection if gas production is
preferable to liquid production. Gas produced in
association with condensate is called wet gas. The API
gravity of condensate is typically 50 degrees to 120
degrees.
core
Innermost layer of the Earth. Studies of compressional
and shear waves indicate that the core makes up nearly
3500 km [2170 miles] of the Earth's radius of 6370 km
[3950 miles]. Such studies also demonstrate that
because shear waves do not pass through the outer part
of the core (2250 km [1400 miles] thick), it is liquid (only
solids can shear). The inner core is solid and 1220 km
[750 miles] thick. The core's iron and nickel composition
was inferred through studies of the Earth's gravitational
field and average density. The relatively low density of
the outer layers of the Earth suggests a dense inner

layer.
carbonate (noun)
A class of sedimentary rock whose chief mineral
constituents (95% or more) are calcite and aragonite
(both CaCo3) and dolomite [CaMg(CO3)2], a mineral
that can replace calcite during the process of
dolomitization. Limestone, dolostone or dolomite, and
chalk are carbonate rocks. Although carbonate rocks can
be clastic in origin, they are more commonly formed
through processes of precipitation or the activity of
organisms such as coral and algae. Carbonates form in
shallow and deep marine settings, evaporitic basins,
lakes and windy deserts. Carbonate rocks can serve as
hydrocarbon reservoir rocks, particularly if their porosity
has been enhanced through dissolution. They rely on
fractures for permeability.
carbonate (adjective)
A group of minerals found mostly in limestone and
dolostone that includes aragonite, calcite and dolomite.
Calcite is the most abundant and important of the
carbonate minerals.
clathrate
An unusual occurrence of hydrocarbon in which
molecules of natural gas, typically methane, are trapped
in ice molecules. More generally, hydrates are
compounds in which gas molecules are trapped within a
crystal structure. Hydrates form in cold climates, such
as permafrost zones and in deep water. To date,
economic liberation of hydrocarbon gases from hydrates
has not occurred, but hydrates contain quantities of
hydrocarbons that could be of great economic
significance. Hydrates can affect seismic data by
creating a reflection or multiple.
condensed section
In sequence stratigraphy, a section of fine-grained
sedimentary rocks that accumulated slowly, thereby
representing a considerable span of time by only a thin
layer. In condensed sections, fossils and organic,
phosphatic and glauconitic material tend to be
concentrated compared with rapidly deposited sections
that contain few fossils. Condensed sections are most
commonly deposited during transgressions. In such
cases they are associated with "maximum flooding
surfaces" and form important sequence stratigraphic
markers.
correlate
To seek a comparison or equivalence. Scientists attempt
to compare or match up well log signatures, chemical
signatures, seismic signatures, fossils and rock samples
across wide areas to determine the equivalence, extent,
thickness, quality, relative age or other properties of
stratigraphic units and rock bodies.
cataclasite
A type of metamorphic rock with shearing and
granulation of minerals caused by high mechanical
stress during faulting or dynamic metamorphism,
typically during episodes of plate tectonic activity.
clay
Fine-grained sediments less than 0.0039 mm in size.
conformable
1. Parallel strata that have undergone a similar geologic
history, deposited in succession without interruption.
2. The nature of the contact between strata deposited

in continuous succession.
...
correlation
A connection of points from well to well in which the
data suggest that the points were deposited at the same
time (chronostratigraphic) or have similar and related
characteristics.
cataclastic
Pertaining to a type of metamorphic rock with shearing
and granulation of minerals caused by high mechanical
stress during faulting or dynamic metamorphism,
typically during episodes of plate tectonic activity.
clean
Pertaining to a sedimentary rock, such as sandstone or
limestone, that contains only minimal amounts of clay
minerals. These reservoir rocks typically have better
porosity and permeability than dirty rocks whose pores
are clogged with fine clay particles. Clean and dirty are
qualitative, descriptive terms.
conformity
A bedding surface separating younger from older strata,
along which there is no evidence of subaerial or
submarine erosion or of nondeposition, and along which

there is no evidence of a significant hiatus.
Unconformities (sequence boundaries) and flooding
surfaces (parasequence boundaries) pass laterally into
correlative conformities, or correlative surfaces.
craton
A stable area of continental crust that has not
undergone much plate tectonic or orogenic activity for a
long period. A craton includes a crystalline basement of
commonly Precambrian rock called a shield, and a
platform in which flat-lying or nearly flat-lying sediments
or sedimentary rock surround the shield. A commonly
cited example of a craton is the Canadian Shield.
catagenesis
The physical and chemical alteration of sediments and
pore fluids at temperatures and pressures higher than
those of diagenesis. Catagenesis involves heating in the
range of 50 to 150C [122 to 302F]. At these
temperatures, chemical bonds break down in kerogen
and clays within shale, generating liquid hydrocarbons.
At the high end of this temperature range, secondary
cracking of oil molecules can generate gas molecules.
clear brine
Water containing more dissolved inorganic salt than
typical seawater.
connate water
Water trapped in the pores of a rock during formation of
the rock. The chemistry of connate water can change in
composition throughout the history of the rock. Connate
water can be dense and saline compared with seawater.
Formation water, or interstitial water, in contrast, is
simply water found in the pore spaces of a rock, and
might not have been present when the rock was formed.
Connate water is also described as fossil water.
crest
The highest point of a wave, mountain or geologic
structure.
CBM
Abbreviation for coalbed methane. Natural gas,
predominantly methane [CH4], generated during coal
formation and adsorbed in coal. Natural gas adsorbs to
the surfaces of matrix pores within the coal and natural
fractures, or cleats, as reservoir pressure increases.
Production of natural gas from coal requires

decreasing the pore pressure below the coal's
desorption pressure so that methane will desorb from
surfaces, diffuse through the coal matrix and become
free gas. Because the diffusivity and permeability of
the coal matrix are ultralow, coal must have an
extensive cleat system to ensure adequate
permeability and flow of methane to wellbores at
economic production rates.
...
Coal seams are typically saturated with water.

Consequently, the coal must be dewatered for efficient
gas production. Dewatering reduces the hydrostatic
pressure and promotes gas desorption from coal. As
dewatering progresses, gas production often increases
at a rate governed by how quickly gas desorbs from
coal, the permeability of the cleat and the relative
permeability of the gas-water system in the cleat.
Eventually, the rate and amount of gas desorption
decreases as the coal seam is depleted of its gas, and
production declines.
...
Coal seams with no water (dry coal) have been

discovered and commercially exploited. In these
reservoirs, the adsorbed gas is held in place by free
gas in the cleats. Consequently, gas production
consists of both free gas from the cleat system and
desorbed gas from the matrix.
...
closure
1. The vertical distance from the apex of a structure to
the lowest structural contour that contains the structure.
Measurements of both the areal closure and the
distance from the apex to the lowest closing contour are
typically incorporated in calculations of the estimated
hydrocarbon content of a trap.
2. The area, or areal closure, included in the lowest

closing contour of a trap. Measurements of both the
areal closure and the distance from the apex to the
lowest closing contour are typically incorporated in
calculations of the estimated hydrocarbon content of a
trap.
...
consolidated
Pertaining to sediments that have been compacted and

cemented to the degree that they become coherent,
relatively solid rock. Typical consequences of
consolidation include an increase in density and acoustic
velocity, and a decrease in porosity.
critical moment
The time of maximum depth of burial of a hydrocarbon
source rock. This is the time of highest probability of
entrapment and preservation of hydrocarbons in a
petroleum system-after traps form and hydrocarbons
migrate into a reservoir and accumulate-and marks the
beginning of preservation in a viable petroleum system.
cement
The binding material in sedimentary rocks that
precipitates between grains from pore fluids. Calcite and
quartz are common cement-forming minerals.
coal
A carbon-rich sedimentary rock that forms from the
remains of plants deposited as peat in swampy
environments. Burial and increase in temperature bring
about physical and chemical changes called
coalification. Because of the organic origin of coal, it
cannot be classified as a mineral. The main types of
coal, anthracite, bituminous coal and lignite, can be
distinguished by their hardness and energy content,
which are affected by their organic content as well as
their conditions of formation. Natural gas associated
with coal, called coal gas or coalbed methane, can be
produced economically from coal beds in some areas. In
some basins coals form source rocks.
consolidation
Compaction and cementation of sediments to the
degree that they become coherent, relatively solid rock.
Typical consequences of consolidation include an
increase in density and acoustic velocity, and a
decrease in porosity.
crop out
In the case of a body of rock, to be exposed at the
surface of the Earth. Construction of highways and other
man-made facilities and resultant removal of soil and
rock has created spectacular outcrops in some regions.
cementation
The process of precipitation of cement between mineral

or rock grains and forming solid clastic sedimentary
rock, one phase of lithification.
coal bed methane

Natural gas, predominantly methane [CH4], generated
during coal formation and adsorbed in coal. Natural gas
adsorbs to the surfaces of matrix pores within the coal
and natural fractures, or cleats, as reservoir pressure
increases.

...

...

...
contact
The interface, also called fluid contact, that separates
fluids of different densities in a reservoir. Horizontal
contacts are usually assumed, although tilted contacts
occur in some reservoirs. The contact between fluids is
usually gradual rather than sharp, forming a transition
zone of mixed fluid. A mixed-fluid reservoir will stratify
according to fluid density, with gas at the top, oil in the

middle, and water below. Production of fluids often
perturbs the fluid contacts in a reservoir.
cross section
A diagram of a vertical section through a volume, as
opposed to the surface, "bird's eye," or plan view of a
map. Cross sections are useful for displaying the types
and orientations of subsurface structures and
formations.
chalk
A porous marine limestone composed of fine-grained
remains of microorganisms with calcite shells,
coccolithophores, such as the White Cliffs of Dover (UK).
The Austin Chalk of the US Gulf coast is a prolific,
fractured oil reservoir that spurred widespread
horizontal drilling activity.
coal seam gas

increases.

...

...

...
continental shelf
The area at the edges of a continent from the shoreline
to a depth of 200 m [660 ft], where the continental
slope begins. The shelf is commonly a wide, flat area
with a slight seaward slope. The term is sometimes used
as a for platform.
cross-sectional
Pertaining to a diagram of a vertical section through a
volume, as opposed to the surface, "bird's eye," or plan
view of a map. Cross sections are useful for displaying
the types and orientations of subsurface structures and
formations.
channel
A linear, commonly concave-based depression through
which water and sediment flow and into which sediment
can be deposited in distinctive, often elongated bodies.
Channels can occur in a variety of morphologies, e.g.,
straight, meandering or braided. In some areas, coarse
sediments can fill channels of streams or rivers that cut
through finer grained sediments or rocks. The close
proximity of coarse-grained and fine-grained sediments
can ultimately lead to the formation of stratigraphic
hydrocarbon traps.
coalbed methane
increases.

...

...

...
contour
A line on a map that represents a constant value of the
parameter being mapped. This line includes points of
equal value and separates points of higher value from
points of lower value. Contours are commonly drawn on
maps to portray the structural configuration of the
Earth's surface or formations in the subsurface. For
example, structure maps contain contours of constant
elevation with respect to a datum (such as sea level).
Contours are also used to interpret subsurface
configurations of rock bodies in areas of limited control,
such as drawing contours of the thickness of a common
rock unit in several widely separated wells to
extrapolate its thickness in a nearby undrilled location.
crude oil
A general term for unrefined petroleum or liquid
petroleum.
chert
A sedimentary rock and a variety of quartz made of
extremely fine-grained, or cryptocrystalline, silica, also
called chalcedony. The silica might be of organic origin,
such as from the internal structures of sponges called
spicules, or inorganic origin, such as precipitation from
solution. The latter results in the formation of flint. Chert
can form beds, but is more common as nodules in

carbonate rocks.
coal-bed methane
increases.

...

...

...
contour interval
The value of the separation between two adjacent
contours. A net pay isopach map might have a contour
interval of 10 feet [3 m], whereas a structure contour
map might have a contour interval of 1000 feet [300 m].
Contour intervals are chosen according to the map scale
and the amount and distribution of control points.
crust
The thin, outermost shell of the Earth that is typically 5
km to 75 km thick [3 to 46 miles]. The continental crust
comprises rocks similar in composition to granite and
basalt (i.e., quartz, feldspar, biotite, amphibole and
pyroxene) whereas the composition of oceanic crust is
basaltic (pyroxene and feldspar). The crust overlies the
more dense rock of the mantle, which consists of rocks
composed of minerals like pyroxene and olivine, and the
iron and nickel core of the Earth. The Mohorovicic
discontinuity abruptly separates the crust from the
mantle; the velocity of compressional waves is
significantly higher below the discontinuity. The crust,
mantle and core of the Earth are distinguished from the
lithosphere and asthenosphere on the basis of their
composition and not their mechanical behavior.
cherty
Containing chert, a sedimentary rock and a variety of
quartz made of extremely fine-grained, or
cryptocrystalline, silica, also called chalcedony. The
silica might be of organic origin, such as from the
internal structures of sponges called spicules, or
inorganic origin, such as precipitation from solution. The
latter results in the formation of flint. Chert can form
beds, but is more common as nodules in carbonate
rocks.
coal-seam gas
increases.

...


...

...
contour map
A map displaying lines that include points of equal value
and separate points of higher value from points of lower
value. Common types of contour maps include
topographic contour maps, which show the elevation of
the Earth's surface; structure contour maps, which show
the elevation or depth of a formation; and gross or net
sand or pay maps, which show variations in the
thickness of a stratigraphic unit, also called isopachs.
CSG
Abbreviation for coal seam gas. Natural gas,
predominantly methane [CH4], generated during coal
formation and adsorbed in coal. Natural gas adsorbs to
the surfaces of matrix pores within the coal and natural
fractures, or cleats, as reservoir pressure increases.

...


...

...
chlorite
[(Mg,Al,Fe) 12(Si,Al) 8O20(OH) 16] A platy, pale green
mineral of the mica group of sheet silicates, also
considered to be a type of clay mineral, found in
sedimentary and low-grade metamorphic rocks. Chlorite
is a common authigenic mineral lining the pores of
sandstones. In some cases, the presence of authigenic
chlorite on sand grains can inhibit the growth of porefilling cements during diagenesis and preserve pore
space for occupation by hydrocarbons.
collision
An interaction of lithospheric plates that can result in
the formation of mountain belts and subduction zones.
The collision of two plates of continental lithosphere,
known as an A-type collision, can produce high
mountains as rocks are folded, faulted and uplifted to
accommodate the converging plates, as observed in the
Alps and the Himalayas. B-type collisions, in which
oceanic lithospheric plates collide with continental
lithospheric plates, typically produce a subduction zone
where the relatively denser oceanic plate descends
below the relatively lighter continental plate, as seen on
the Pacific coast of South America.
convection
The density- and heat-driven cycling, transfer or
circulation of energy through which material initially
warms up and becomes relatively less dense, then rises,
cools and becomes relatively more dense, and finally
sinks. As a consequence of convection, material can
turn over repeatedly in a convection cell. Within the
Earth, radiogenic heating results in convection
appearing in the mantle and might drive plate tectonic
motions. Convection also occurs in the ocean waters
and in the Earth's atmosphere.
cubic packing
The arrangement in space of uniform spheres (atoms
and molecules in mineral crystals, or grains in clastic
sedimentary rocks) that results in a cubic material
structure. Cubic packing is mechanically unstable, but it
is the most porous packing arrangement, with about
47% porosity in the ideal situation. Most sediments are
not uniform spheres of the same size, nor can they be
arranged in a cubic structure naturally, so most
sediments have much less than 47% porosity.
chronostratigraphic chart
A graphic display, with geologic time along the vertical
axis and distance along the horizontal axis, to
demonstrate the relative ages and geographic extent of
strata or stratigraphic units in a given area, also known
as a Wheeler diagram. In addition, information from
seismic data, well logs and rock samples, and
biostratigraphic and lithostratigraphic information can
be shown within each chronostratigraphic unit. A
chronostratigraphic chart can concisely illustrate
sequence stratigraphic interpretations.
dead oil
Oil at sufficiently low pressure that it contains no
dissolved gas or a relatively thick oil or residue that has
lost its volatile components.
depositional system
The three-dimensional array of sediments or lithofacies
that fills a basin. Depositional systems vary according to
the types of sediments available for deposition as well
as the depositional processes and environments in
which they are deposited. The dominant depositional
systems are alluvial, fluvial, deltaic, marine, lacustrine
and eolian systems.
diatomite
A soft, silica-rich sedimentary rock comprising diatom
remains that forms most commonly in lakes and deep
marine areas. Diatomite can form an excellent reservoir
rock. The Belridge diatomite in the San Joaquin basin,
California, USA, is a prolific oil-producing formation.
dolostone
A rock composed chiefly (> 90%) of dolomite. The rock
is sometimes called dolomite, but dolostone is
preferable to avoid ambiguity between the mineral and
rock names. Replacement dolomite that forms soon
after deposition is typically fine-grained and preserves

original sedimentary structures. Recrystallization late in
diagenesis produces coarser grained dolomite, destroys
sedimentary structures and results in higher porosity.
decollement
A fault surface parallel to a mechanically weak horizon
or layer, or parallel to bedding, that detaches or
separates deformed rocks above from undeformed or
differently deformed rocks below. Decollements, or
decollement surfaces, are typical of regions of thrust
faulting such as the Alps.
detrital
Pertaining to particles of rock derived from the
mechanical breakdown of preexisting rocks by
weathering and erosion. Detrital fragments can be
transported to recombine and, through the process of
lithification, become sedimentary rocks. Detrital is
usually used synonymously with clastic, although a few
authors differentiate between weathering of particles,
which forms detrital sediments, and mechanical
breakage, which produces clastic sediments.
differential compaction
A phenomenon that occurs after the deposition of some
sediments such that different parts of the sedimentary
accumulation develop different degrees of porosity or
settle unevenly during burial beneath successive layers
of sediment. This can result from location on an uneven
surface, such as near and over a reef structure, or near
a growth fault, or from different susceptibility to
compaction. The porosity in a formation that has
experienced differential compaction can vary
considerably from one area to another.
dome
A type of anticline that is circular or elliptical rather than
elongate. The upward migration of salt diapirs can form
domes, called salt domes.
deepwater play
Exploration activity located in offshore areas where
water depths exceed approximately 600 feet [200 m],
the approximate water depth at the edge of the
continental shelf. While deep-water reservoir targets are
geologically similar to reservoirs drilled both in
shallower present-day water depths as well as onshore,
the logistics of producing hydrocarbons from reservoirs
located below such water depths presents a

considerable technical challenge.
detritus
Particles of rock derived from the mechanical breakdown
of preexisting rocks by weathering and erosion. Detrital
fragments can be transported to recombine and,
through the process of lithification, become sedimentary
rocks. Detrital is usually used synonymously with clastic,
although a few authors differentiate between
weathering of particles, which forms detrital sediments,
and mechanical breakage, which produces clastic
sediments.
dike
An intrusive rock that invades preexisting rocks,
commonly in a tabular shape that cuts vertically or
nearly vertically across preexisting layers. Dikes form
from igneous and sedimentary rocks.
down dip
Located down the slope of a dipping plane or surface. In
a dipping (not flat-lying) hydrocarbon reservoir that
contains gas, oil and water, the gas is updip, the gas-oil
contact is downdip from the gas, and the oil-water
contact is still farther downdip.
deep-water play
Exploration activity located in offshore areas where
water depths exceed approximately 600 feet [200 m],
the approximate water depth at the edge of the
continental shelf. While deep-water reservoir targets are
geologically similar to reservoirs drilled both in
shallower present-day water depths as well as onshore,
the logistics of producing hydrocarbons from reservoirs
located below such water depths presents a
considerable technical challenge.
development
The phase of petroleum operations that occurs after
exploration has proven successful, and before full-scale
production. The newly discovered oil or gas field is
assessed during an appraisal phase, a plan to fully and
efficiently exploit it is created, and additional wells are
usually drilled.
dip
The magnitude of the inclination of a plane from
horizontal. True, or maximum, dip is measured
perpendicular to strike. Apparent dip is measured in a

direction other than perpendicular to strike.
down lap
The termination of more steeply dipping overlying strata
against a surface or underlying strata that have lower
apparent dips; a term used to describe a particular
geometry of reflections in seismic data in sequence
stratigraphy.
delta
An area of deposition or the deposit formed by a flowing
sediment-laden current as it enters an open or standing
body of water, such as a river spilling into a gulf. As a
river enters a body of water, its velocity drops and its
ability to carry sediment diminishes, leading to
deposition. The term has origins in Greek because the
shape of deltas in map view can be similar to the Greek
letter delta. The shapes of deltas are subsequently
modified by rivers, tides and waves. There is a
characteristic coarsening upward of sediments in a
delta. The three main classes of deltas are riverdominated (Mississippi River), wave-dominated (Nile
River), and tide-dominated (Ganges River). Ancient
deltas contain some of the largest and most productive
petroleum systems.
dextral
Pertaining to a strike-slip fault or right-lateral fault in
which the block across the fault moves to the right. If it
moves left, the relative motion is described as sinistral.
Clockwise rotation or spiraling is also described as
dextral.
dipping bed
A layer of rock or sediment that is not horizontal.
downdip
Located down the slope of a dipping plane or surface. In
a dipping (not flat-lying) hydrocarbon reservoir that
deltaic
Pertaining to an area of deposition or the deposit formed
by a flowing sediment-laden current as it enters an open
or standing body of water, such as a river spilling into a
gulf. As a river enters a body of water, its velocity drops
and its ability to carry sediment diminishes, leading to
deposition. The term has origins in Greek because the

shape of deltas in map view can be similar to the Greek
letter delta. The shapes of deltas are subsequently
modified by rivers, tides and waves. There is a
characteristic coarsening upward of sediments in a
delta. The three main classes of deltas are riverdominated (Mississippi River), wave-dominated (Nile
River), and tide-dominated (Ganges River). Ancient
deltas contain some of the largest and most productive
petroleum systems.
diagenesis
The physical, chemical or biological alteration of
sediments into sedimentary rock at relatively low
temperatures and pressures that can result in changes
to the rock's original mineralogy and texture. After
deposition, sediments are compacted as they are buried
beneath successive layers of sediment and cemented by
minerals that precipitate from solution. Grains of
sediment, rock fragments and fossils can be replaced by
other minerals during diagenesis. Porosity usually
decreases during diagenesis, except in rare cases such
as dissolution of minerals and dolomitization. Diagenesis
does not include weathering processes. Hydrocarbon
generation begins during diagenesis. There is not a
clear, accepted distinction between diagenesis and
metamorphism, although metamorphism occurs at
pressures and temperatures higher than those of the
outer crust, where diagenesis occurs.
dirty
Describing sedimentary rock that contains clay minerals.
Even small amounts of clay minerals in pores can
drastically reduce porosity and permeability. Dirty and
clean are qualitative, descriptive terms to describe the
relative amount of clay minerals in a rock.
downlap
The termination of more steeply dipping overlying strata
against a surface or underlying strata that have lower
apparent dips; a term used to describe a particular
geometry of reflections in seismic data in sequence
stratigraphy.
density
Mass per unit of volume. Density is typically reported in
g/cm3 (for example, rocks) or pounds per barrel (drilling
mud) in the oil field.
diagenetic
Pertaining to diagenesis, which is the physical, chemical

or biological alteration of sediments into sedimentary
rock at relatively low temperatures and pressures that
can result in changes to the rock's original mineralogy
and texture. After deposition, sediments are compacted
as they are buried beneath successive layers of
sediment and cemented by minerals that precipitate
from solution. Grains of sediment, rock fragments and
fossils can be replaced by other minerals during
diagenesis. Porosity usually decreases during
diagenesis, except in rare cases such as dissolution of
minerals and dolomitization. Diagenesis does not
include weathering processes. Hydrocarbon generation
begins during diagenesis. There is not a clear, accepted
distinction between diagenesis and metamorphism,
although metamorphism occurs at pressures and
temperatures higher than those of the outer crust,
where diagenesis occurs
disconformity
A geologic surface that separates younger strata from
older strata and represents a time of nondeposition,
possibly combined with erosion. Some disconformities
are highly irregular whereas others have no relief and
can be difficult to distinguish within a series of parallel
strata.
drained test
This test is one in which the pore fluid in the sample is
able to flow and equilibrate to imposed pore pressure
conditions; the fluid mass and volume will vary but its
pressure will be constant. A drained test could be on a
dry sample.
density current
An influx of rapidly moving, sediment-laden water down
a slope into a larger body of water; the suspended
sediment causes the current to have a higher density
than the clearer water into which it flows, hence the
name. Such currents can occur in lakes and oceans, in
some cases as by-products of earthquakes or mass
movements such as slumps. The sedimentary deposits
that form as the current loses energy are called
turbidites and can be preserved as Bouma sequences.
Density currents are characteristic of trench slopes of
convergent plate margins and continental slopes of
passive margins.
diagenetic porosity
A type of secondary porosity created during diagenesis,
commonly through dissolution or dolomitization or both.
Diagenesis usually destroys porosity, so diagenetic

porosity is rare.
disharmonic
Pertaining to structures in which the shapes of adjacent
layers differ or do not conform to one another. Folds of
rock layers that have different mechanical properties or
competence tend to be disharmonic, with a change in
fold shape, symmetry or wavelength from one layer to
the next.
drape
A configuration of layers of rock that has the
appearance of a fold, but might form simply through
sagging or differential compaction of layers around a
preexisting structure (such as a reef) or on an uneven
surface.
depocenter
The area of thickest deposition in a basin.
diapir
A relatively mobile mass that intrudes into preexisting
rocks. Diapirs commonly intrude vertically through more
dense rocks because of buoyancy forces associated with
relatively low-density rock types, such as salt, shale and
hot magma, which form diapirs. The process is known as
diapirism. By pushing upward and piercing overlying
rock layers, diapirs can form anticlines, salt domes and
other structures capable of trapping hydrocarbons.
Igneous intrusions are typically too hot to allow the
preservation of preexisting hydrocarbons.
displacement
The offset of segments or points that were once
continuous or adjacent. Layers of rock that have been
moved by the action of faults show displacement on
either side of the fault surface.
dry gas
Natural gas that occurs in the absence of condensate or
liquid hydrocarbons, or gas that has had condensable
hydrocarbons removed. Dry gas typically has a gas-tooil ratio exceeding 100,000 scf/STB.
deposit
Sediments that have accumulated, usually after being
moved by wind, water or ice.
diatom
A microscopic, single-celled, freshwater or saltwater

algae that has a silica-rich cell wall called a frustule.
Diatoms are so abundant that they can form thick layers
of sediment composed of the frustules of the organisms
that died and sank to the bottom. Frustules have been
an important component of deep-sea deposits since
Cretaceous time. Diatomite is the sedimentary rock that
forms from diatom frustules.
dolomite
A widely-distributed carbonate mineral and chief
constituent of dolostone. The name given to dolomitized
limestone.
dry rock
A subsurface rock that lacks contact with aquifers or
meteoric water within the Earth.
depositional energy
The relative kinetic energy of the environment. A highenergy environment might consist of a rapidly flowing
stream that is capable of carrying coarse-grained
sediments, such as gravel and sand. Sedimentation in a
low-energy environment, such as an abyssal plain,
usually involves very fine-grained clay or mud.
Depositional energy is not simply velocity. For example,
although glaciers do not move quickly, they are capable
of carrying large boulders.
diatomaceous
Pertaining to a diatom, which is a microscopic, singlecelled, freshwater or saltwater algae that has a silicarich cell wall called a frustule. Diatoms are so abundant
that they can form thick layers of sediment composed of
the frustules of the organisms that died and sank to the
bottom. Frustules have been an important component of
deep-sea deposits since Cretaceous time. Diatomite is
the sedimentary rock that forms from diatom frustules.
dolomitization
The geochemical process in supratidal sabkha areas
where magnesium [Mg] ions from the evaporation of
seawater replace calcium [Ca] ions in calcite, forming
the mineral dolomite. The volume of dolomite is less
than that of calcite, so the replacement of calcite by
dolomite in a rock increases the pore space in the rock
by 13% and forms an important reservoir rock.
Dolomitization can occur during deep burial diagenesis.
dyke
An intrusive rock that invades preexisting rocks,

commonly in a tabular shape that cuts vertically or
nearly vertically across preexisting layers. Dikes form
from igneous and sedimentary rocks.
depositional environment
The area in which and physical conditions under which
sediments are deposited, including sediment source;
depositional processes such as deposition by wind,
water or ice; and location and climate, such as desert,
swamp or river.
earthquake
The sudden release of accumulated stress in the Earth
by movement or shaking. Earthquakes are caused by
tectonic activity, volcanoes and human activity (such as
explosions). Earthquakes occur in the outer 720 km [445
miles] of the Earth, where rocks tend to break rather
than flow under stress. The magnitude of earthquakes is
determined according to the logarithmic Richter scale.
An earthquake of magnitude 4.5 can cause damage,
although humans can feel earthquakes as weak as
magnitude 2.0. The San Francisco earthquake of 1906
measured 8.25 on the Richter scale, and the largest
ever recorded were 8.9 magnitude earthquakes in
Colombia and Ecuador (1906) and Japan (1933), and 9.5
in Chile (1960).
elastic limit
The yield point, or the point at which a material can no
longer deform elastically. When the elastic limit is
exceeded by an applied stress, permanent deformation
occurs.
erosion.1
The process of denudation of rocks, including physical,
chemical and biological breakdown and transportation.
erosion.2
The process by which material weathered from rocks is
transported by wind, water, ice, or abrasive solid
particles, or by mass-wasting, as in rock falls and
landslides.
evaporite
A class of sedimentary minerals and sedimentary rocks
that form by precipitation from evaporating aqueous
fluid. Common evaporite minerals are halite, gypsum
and anhydrite, which can form as seawater evaporates,
and the rocks limestone and dolostone. Certain
evaporite minerals, particularly halite, can form

excellent cap rocks or seals for hydrocarbon traps
because they have minimal porosity and they tend to
deform plastically (as opposed to brittle fracturing that
would facilitate leakage).
effective permeability
The ability to preferentially flow or transmit a particular
fluid when other immiscible fluids are present in the
reservoir (e.g., effective permeability of gas in a gaswater reservoir). The relative saturations of the fluids as
well as the nature of the reservoir affect the effective
permeability. In contrast, absolute permeability is the
measurement of the permeability conducted when a
single fluid or phase is present in the rock.
elasticity
Ability of a material to undergo stress, deform, and then
recover and return to its original shape after the stress
ceases. Once stress exceeds the yield stress or elastic
limit of a material, permanent deformation occurs and
the material will not return to its original shape when
the stress is removed. In some materials, including
rocks, elastic behavior depends on the temperature and
the duration of the stress as well as its intensity.
estuarine
Pertaining to an estuary, a semi-enclosed coastal
environment of deposition in which a river mouth
permits freshwater to contact and mix with seawater.
evaporitic
Pertaining to evaporite, a class of sedimentary minerals
and sedimentary rocks that form by precipitation from
evaporating aqueous fluid. Common evaporite minerals
are halite, gypsum and anhydrite, which can form as
seawater evaporates, and the rocks limestone and
dolostone. Certain evaporite minerals, particularly
halite, can form excellent cap rocks or seals for
hydrocarbon traps because they have minimal porosity
and they tend to deform plastically (as opposed to
brittle fracturing that would facilitate leakage).
effective porosity
The interconnected pore volume or void space in a rock
that contributes to fluid flow or permeability in a
reservoir. Effective porosity excludes isolated pores and
pore volume occupied by water adsorbed on clay
minerals or other grains. Total porosity is the total void
space in the rock whether or not it contributes to fluid
flow. Effective porosity is typically less than total

porosity.
en echelon
Describing parallel or subparallel, closely-spaced,
overlapping or step-like minor structural features in
rock, such as faults and tension fractures, that are
oblique to the overall structural trend.
estuary
A semi-enclosed coastal environment of deposition in
which a river mouth permits freshwater to contact and
mix with seawater.
exploration
The initial phase in petroleum operations that includes
generation of a prospect or play or both, and drilling of
an exploration well. Appraisal, development and
production phases follow successful exploration.
elastic
Pertaining to a material that can undergo stress, deform,
and then recover and return to its original shape after
the stress ceases. Once stress exceeds the yield stress
or elastic limit of a material, permanent deformation
occurs and the material will not return to its original
shape once the stress is removed. In some materials,
including rocks, elastic behavior depends on the
temperature and the duration of the stress as well as its
intensity.
eolian
Pertaining to the environment of deposition of
sediments by wind, such as the sand dunes in a desert.
Because fine-grained sediments such as clays are
removed easily from wind-blown deposits, eolian
sandstones are typically clean and well-sorted.
eustasy
Global sea level variations. Changes in sea level can
result from movement of tectonic plates altering the
volume of ocean basins, or when changes in climate
affect the volume of water stored in glaciers and in polar
icecaps. Eustasy affects positions of shorelines and
processes of sedimentation, so interpretation of eustasy
is an important aspect of sequence stratigraphy.
exploration play
A conceptual model for a style of hydrocarbon
accumulation used by explorationists to develop
prospects in a basin, region or trend and used by

development personnel to continue exploiting a given
trend. A play (or a group of interrelated plays) generally
occurs in a single petroleum system.
elastic deformation
The deformation that can be recovered when an applied
stress has been removed. When the elastic limit of a
material has been exceeded, nonrecoverable,
permanent deformation occurs.
erode
To cause or undergo erosion, the process of denudation
of rocks, including physical, chemical and biological
breakdown and transportation. The material from the
rocks can be transported by wind, water, ice, or abrasive
solid particles, or by mass-wasting, as in rock falls and
landslides.
eustatic
Pertaining to eustasy, a term for global sea level and its
variations. Changes in sea level can result from
movement of tectonic plates altering the volume of
ocean basins, or when changes in climate affect the
volume of water stored in glaciers and in polar icecaps.
Eustasy affects positions of shorelines and processes of
sedimentation, so interpretation of eustasy is an
important aspect of sequence stratigraphy.
exploratory
Pertaining to exploration, the initial phase in petroleum
operations that includes generation of a prospect or play
or both, and drilling of an exploration well. Appraisal,
development and production phases follow successful
exploration.
facies
The overall characteristics of a rock unit that reflect its
origin and differentiate the unit from others around it.
Mineralogy and sedimentary source, fossil content,
sedimentary structures and texture distinguish one
facies from another.
fence diagram
A graphical display of three-dimensional data and
interpretations in two-dimensional perspective view.
Geologic cross sections can be displayed in a network to
form a fence diagram. Stratigraphic changes can be
displayed clearly in fence diagrams.
formation
The fundamental unit of lithostratigraphy. A body of rock
that is sufficiently distinctive and continuous that it can
be mapped. In stratigraphy, a formation is a body of
strata of predominantly one type or combination of
types; multiple formations form groups, and subdivisions
of formations are members.
fracture permeability
That portion of a dual-porosity reservoirs permeability
that is associated with the secondary porosity created
by open, natural fractures. In many of these reservoirs,
fracture permeability can be the major controlling factor
of the flow of fluids.
fairway
The trend along which a particular geological feature is
likely, such as a sand fairway or a hydrocarbon fairway.
Prediction of conceptual fairways helps explorationists
develop prospects. Along a sand fairway, for example,
sand was transported and, presumably, was deposited,
allowing an interpretation of the presence of reservoir
rock in the fairway.
field
An accumulation, pool, or group of pools of
hydrocarbons or other mineral resources in the
subsurface. A hydrocarbon field consists of a reservoir in
a shape that will trap hydrocarbons and that is covered
by an impermeable, sealing rock. Typically, the term
implies an economic size.
formation pressure
The pressure of fluids within the pores of a reservoir,
usually hydrostatic pressure, or the pressure exerted by
a column of water from the formation's depth to sea
level. When impermeable rocks such as shales form as
sediments are compacted, their pore fluids cannot
always escape and must then support the total
overlying rock column, leading to anomalously high
formation pressures. Because reservoir pressure
changes as fluids are produced from a reservoir, the
pressure should be described as measured at a specific
time, such as initial reservoir pressure.
fracture porosity
A type of secondary porosity produced by the tectonic
fracturing of rock. Fractures themselves typically do not
have much volume, but by joining preexisting pores,
they enhance permeability significantly. In exceedingly
rare cases, nonreservoir rocks such as granite can

become reservoir rocks if sufficient fracturing occurs.
fault
A break or planar surface in brittle rock across which
there is observable displacement. Depending on the
relative direction of displacement between the rocks, or
fault blocks, on either side of the fault, its movement is
described as normal, reverse or strike-slip. According to
terminology derived from the mining industry, the fault
block above the fault surface is called the hanging wall,
while the fault block below the fault is the footwall.
Given the geological complexity of some faulted rocks
and rocks that have undergone more than one episode
of deformation, it can be difficult to distinguish between
the various types of faults. Also, areas deformed more
than once or that have undergone continual deformation
might have fault surfaces that are rotated from their
original orientations, so interpretation is not
straightforward. In a normal fault, the hanging wall
moves down relative to the footwall along the dip of the
fault surface, which is steep, from 45o to 90o. A growth
fault is a type of normal fault that forms during
sedimentation and typically has thicker strata on the
downthrown hanging wall than the footwall. A reverse
fault forms when the hanging wall moves up relative to
the footwall parallel to the dip of the fault surface. A
thrust fault, sometimes called an overthrust, is a reverse
fault in which the fault plane has a shallow dip, typically
much less than 45o. Movement of normal and reverse
faults can also be oblique as opposed to purely parallel
to the dip direction of the fault plane. The motion along
a strike-slip fault, also known as a transcurrent or
wrench fault, is parallel to the strike of the fault surface,
and the fault blocks move sideways past each other. The
fault surfaces of strike-slip faults are usually nearly
vertical. A strike-slip fault in which the block across the
fault moves to the right is described as a dextral strikeslip fault. If it moves left, the relative motion is
described as sinistral. A transform fault is a particular
type of strike-slip fault that is a boundary of an oceanic
tectonic plate. The actual movement of a transform fault
is opposite to its apparent displacement. The presence
of a fault can be detected by observing characteristics
of rocks such as changes in lithology from one fault
block to the next, breaks and offsets between strata or
seismic events, and changes in formation pressure in
wells that penetrate both sides of a fault. Some fault
surfaces contain relatively coarse rubble that can act as
a conduit for migrating oil or gas, whereas the surfaces
of other faults are smeared with impermeable clays or

broken grains that can act as a fault seal.
flower structure
Folded structures associated with strike-slip faults. In
areas where strike-slip faults occur in converging crust,
or transpression, rocks are faulted upward in a positive
flower structure. In areas of strike-slip faulting in
diverging crust, or transtension, rocks drop down to
form a negative flower structure. Flower structures can
form hydrocarbon traps. The term "flower structure"
reflects the resemblance of the structure to the petals of
a flower in cross section.
formation water
Water that occurs naturally within the pores of rock.
Water from fluids introduced to a formation through
drilling or other interference, such as mud and seawater,
does not constitute formation water. Formation water, or
interstitial water, might not have been the water present
when the rock originally formed. In contrast, connate
water is the water trapped in the pores of a rock during
its formation, and may be called fossil water.
free gas
The gaseous phase present in a reservoir or other
contained area. Gas may be found either dissolved in
reservoir fluids or as free gas that tends to form a gas
cap beneath the top seal on the reservoir trap. Both free
gas and dissolved gas play important roles in the
reservoir-drive mechanism.
fault trap
A type of structural hydrocarbon trap in which closure is
controlled by the presence of at least one fault surface.
fluid contact
The interface that separates fluids of different densities
in a reservoir. Horizontal contacts are usually assumed,
although tilted contacts occur in some reservoirs. The
contact between fluids is usually gradual rather than
sharp, forming a transition zone of mixed fluid. A mixedfluid reservoir will stratify according to fluid density, with
gas at the top, oil in the middle, and water below.
Production of fluids often perturbs the fluid contacts in a
reservoir.
fossil
Preserved remnants of plants or animals, such as

skeletons, shells, casts or molds, tracks or borings, and
feces.
free water
Water that is mobile, available to flow, and not bound to
surfaces of grains or minerals in rock.
feldspar
A group of rock-forming silicate minerals that are
essential constituents of igneous rocks and are common
in sandstones. Feldspar can weather to form clay
minerals. Feldspar can occur in all three major rock
types and forms approximately 60% of the crust of the
Earth.
fluvial
Pertaining to an environment of deposition by a river or
running water. Fluvial deposits tend to be well sorted,
especially in comparison with alluvial deposits, because
of the relatively steady transport provided by rivers.
fracture
A crack or surface of breakage within rock not related to
foliation or cleavage in metamorphic rock along which
there has been no movement. A fracture along which
there has been displacement is a fault. When walls of a
fracture have moved only normal to each other, the
fracture is called a joint. Fractures can enhance
permeability of rocks greatly by connecting pores
together, and for that reason, fractures are induced
mechanically in some reservoirs in order to boost
hydrocarbon flow. Fractures may also be referred to as
natural fractures to distinguish them from fractures
induced as part of a reservoir stimulation or drilling
operation. In some shale reservoirs, natural fractures
improve production by enhancing effective permeability.
In other cases, natural fractures can complicate
reservoir stimulation.
fresh water
Water that is low in dissolved salt (< 2000 ppm).
felsic
Pertaining to minerals or igneous rocks composed of
minerals such as quartz and feldspar that are relatively
light in color and density. The word comes from the
terms feldspar and silica. Granite is a felsic igneous
rock. (Compare with mafic.)
fold
A wave-like geologic structure that forms when rocks
deform by bending instead of breaking under
compressional stress. Anticlines are arch-shaped folds in
which rock layers are upwardly convex. The oldest rock
layers form the core of the fold, and outward from the
core progressively younger rocks occur. A syncline is the
opposite type of fold, having downwardly convex layers
with young rocks in the core. Folds typically occur in
anticline-syncline pairs. The hinge is the point of
maximum curvature in a fold. The limbs occur on either
side of the fold hinge. The imaginary surface bisecting
the limbs of the fold is called the axial surface. The axial
surface is called the axial plane in cases where the fold
is symmetrical and the lines containing the points of
maximum curvature of the folded layers, or hinge lines,
are coplanar. Concentric folding preserves the thickness
of each bed as measured perpendicular to original
bedding. Similar folds have the same wave shape, but
bed thickness changes throughout each layer, with
thicker hinges and thinner limbs.
fracture gradient
The pressure required to induce fractures in rock at a
given depth.
gas hydrate
geochemistry
The study of the chemistry of the Earth and within solid
bodies of the solar system, including the distribution,
circulation and abundance of elements (and their ions
and isotopes), molecules, minerals, rocks and fluids. For
geochemists in the petroleum industry, source rock
geochemistry is a major focus. Geochemical techniques
can determine whether a given source rock is rich
enough in organic matter to generate hydrocarbons,
whether the source rock has generated hydrocarbons,
and whether a particular oil sample was generated by a
given source rock.
geopressure
The pressure within the Earth, or formation pressure.
The common oilfield usage, however, is to indicate
anomalous subsurface pore pressure that is higher or
lower than the normal, predicted hydrostatic pressure
for a given depth, or the pressure exerted per unit area
by a column of fresh water from sea level to a given
depth. Abnormally low pore pressure might occur in
areas where fluids have been drained, such as a
depleted hydrocarbon reservoir. Abnormally high pore
pressure might occur in areas where burial of waterfilled sediments by an impermeable sediment such as
clay was so rapid that fluids could not escape and the
pore pressure increased with deeper burial.
GPS
A system of numerous Earth-orbiting satellites that can
be used to determine the location (latitude, longitude
and elevation) of a receiver or station on the Earth
within about 2 m [6 ft]. Fixed receivers on Earth can be
used to determine the relative motions of fault blocks
and lithospheric plates. Hand-held receivers can be used
for producing accurate geologic maps, acquiring
navigation data for 3D seismic surveys, and positioning
wells in the field.
gas in solution
Gas that is dissolved in a liquid, such as water or oil.
geochronology
The study of the relative or absolute age of rocks,
minerals and fossils. Absolute age is the measurement
of age in years, but "absolute" ages typically have some
amount of error and are inexact. Relative age, in
contrast, is the approximate age of rocks, fossils or
minerals made by determining the age of the material
relative to other surrounding material.
geopressure gradient
The change in pore pressure per unit depth, typically in
units of pounds per square inch per foot (psi/ft) or
kilopascals per meter (kPa/m). The geopressure gradient
might be described as high or low if it deviates from the
normal hydrostatic pressure gradient of 0.433 psi/ft [9.8
kPa/m].
GPTS (geomagnetic polarity time scale)

A record of the onset and duration of the multitude of
episodes of reversal of the Earth's magnetic polarity, or
geomagnetic polarity reversals. The GPTS was

developed by thorough study of rocks from around the
world, during which it was observed that rocks from
specific time periods contained magnetic minerals
whose orientation was opposite to that of the current
magnetic field. By comparing the patterns of magnetic
reversals with those of rocks of known age, the
approximate ages of rocks can be established. This is
particularly useful for basalts of the oceanic crust, which
record the Earth's magnetic field as they solidify from
molten lava symmetrically about the midocean ridges.
The time scale has been accurately extended back to
the Upper Jurassic, the age of oldest existing oceanic
crust.
gas oil contact

A bounding surface in a reservoir above which
predominantly gas occurs and below which
predominantly oil occurs. Gas and oil are miscible, so
the contact between gas and oil is transitional, forming
a zone containing a mix of gas and oil.
geologic
The study of the Earth-its history, structure,
composition, life forms and the processes that continue
to change it.
geopressured
Subject to the pressure within the Earth, or formation
pressure. The common oilfield usage, however, is to
indicate anomalous subsurface pore pressure that is
higher or lower than the normal, predicted hydrostatic
pressure for a given depth, or the pressure exerted per
unit area by a column of fresh water from sea level to a
given depth. Abnormally low pore pressure might occur
in areas where fluids have been drained, such as a
depleted hydrocarbon reservoir. Abnormally high pore
pressure might occur in areas where burial of waterfilled sediments by an impermeable sediment such as
clay was so rapid that fluids could not escape and the
pore pressure increased with deeper burial.
graben
A relatively low-standing fault block bounded by
opposing normal faults. This (used as both singular and
plural) can form in areas of rifting or extension, where
normal faults are the most common type of fault.
Between graben are relatively high-standing blocks
called horsts. A half-graben is a downdropped block
bounded by a normal fault on only one side.
gas prone
The quality of a source rock that makes it more likely to
generate gas than oil. The nature of the organic matter
or kerogen in source rocks varies from coaly, plant-like
material commonly found in terrestrial source rocks to
algal or other marine material that makes up marine
source rocks. Terrestrial source rocks are commonly gasprone.
geologic map
A map showing the type and spatial distribution of rocks
at the surface of the Earth. Rock formations are colorcoded and symbols for geological structures are
annotated, so age relationships are evident. Topographic
contours and cultural features can also appear on
geologic maps.
geostatic pressure
The pressure of the weight of overburden, or overlying
rock, on a formation; also called lithostatic pressure.
grain density
The density of a rock or mineral with no porosity, also
known as matrix density, commonly in units of g/cm3.
gas sand
A porous sand layer or sand body charged with natural
gas.
geologic time scale

A chronological chart of the stages and ages of events in
the history of the Earth, from its initial formation to
present, that has been constructed on the basis of the
rock record. As is the typical natural position of rocks,
the oldest event is at the bottom of the chart and the
youngest is at the top. Both absolute and relative ages
of rocks and fossils supplement interpretations from
rocks. The vastness of geologic time and the slowness of
geological processes are difficult to capture in a simple
chart.
geothermal gradient
The rate of increase in temperature per unit depth in the
Earth. Although this varies from place to place, it
averages 25 to 30 C/km [15 F/1000 ft]. Temperature
gradients sometimes increase dramatically around
volcanic areas. It is particularly important for drilling
fluids engineers to know the geothermal gradient in an
area when they are designing a deep well. The
downhole temperature can be calculated by adding the

surface temperature to the product of the depth and the
geothermal gradient.
granite
A coarse-grained, plutonic or intrusive igneous rock of
felsic composition having large crystals of quartz,
feldspar and mica. In the oil field, "granite" is sometimes
used incorrectly to indicate any type of hard rock.
gas water contact

predominantly gas occurs and below which
predominantly water occurs. Gas and water are
somewhat miscible, so the contact between gas and
water is not necessarily sharp and there is typically a
transition zone between 100% gas and 100% water in
reservoirs.
geological
Pertaining to geology, the study of the Earth-its history,
structure, composition, life forms and the processes that
continue to change it.
glacial
Pertaining to the environment of deposition by glaciers.
groundwater
Water in the subsurface below the water table. This is
held in the pores of rocks, and can be connate, from
meteoric sources, or associated with igneous intrusions.
geologist
A scientist trained in the study of the Earth. In the
petroleum industry, geologists perform a wide variety of
functions, but typically generate prospects and interpret
data such as maps, well logs, outcrops, cuttings, core
samples and seismic data.
glauconite
A green silicate mineral found in sedimentary rocks and
formed on continental shelves characterized by slow
sedimentation and organic matter, such as fecal pellets,
present in an oxidizing environment. In sufficient
quantity, it can form a sandy, green deposit such as the
Cretaceous greensands of the US and UK.
growth fault
A type of normal fault that develops and continues to
move during sedimentation and typically has thicker
strata on the downthrown, hanging wall side of the fault

than in the footwall. Growth faults are common in the
Gulf of Mexico and in other areas where the crust is
subsiding rapidly or being pulled apart.
geology
The study of the Earth-its history, structure,
composition, life forms and the processes that continue
to change it.
geomagnetic polarity reversal

The periodic switching of the magnetic north and south
poles of the Earth throughout time, probably as a result
of movement of fluid within the Earth's core. The onset
and duration of the many episodes of reversed polarity
have been documented by examining the polarity of
magnetic minerals within rocks of different ages from
around the world, particularly in basalts or igneous rocks
of the oceanic crust. Oceanic basalts record the Earth's
magnetic field as they solidify from molten lava
symmetrically on each side of the midoceanic ridges.
These data have been compiled to create a time scale
known as the geomagnetic polarity time scale (GPTS). In
the oil field, borehole recordings allow direct correlation
to GPTS and well-to-well correlations.
gypsum
[CaSO4 72H2O] A highly insoluble sulfate mineral that is
the first to precipitate from evaporating seawater.
Dehydration of gypsum can produce anhydrite. Finegrained gypsum is called alabaster.
generation
The formation of hydrocarbons from a source rock as
bitumen forms from kerogen and accumulates as oil or
gas. This depends on three main factors: the presence
of organic matter rich enough to yield hydrocarbons,
adequate temperature, and sufficient time to bring the
source rock to maturity. Pressure and the presence of
bacteria and catalysts also affect generation. Generation
is a critical phase in the development of a petroleum
system.
geomagnetic polarity time scale

A record of the onset and duration of the multitude of
episodes of reversal of the Earth's magnetic polarity, or
geomagnetic polarity reversals. The GPTS was
developed by thorough study of rocks from around the
world, during which it was observed that rocks from
specific time periods contained magnetic minerals
whose orientation was opposite to that of the current

magnetic field. By comparing the patterns of magnetic
reversals with those of rocks of known age, the
approximate ages of rocks can be established. This is
particularly useful for basalts of the oceanic crust, which
record the Earth's magnetic field as they solidify from
molten lava symmetrically about the midocean ridges.
The time scale has been accurately extended back to
the Upper Jurassic, the age of oldest existing oceanic
crust.
halite
[NaCl] A soft, soluble evaporite mineral commonly
known as salt or rock salt. Because salt is less dense
than many sedimentary rocks, it is relatively buoyant
and can form salt domes, pillars or curtains by flowing
and breaking through or piercing overlying sediments,
as seen in the Gulf of Mexico and the Zagros fold belt.
Halite can be critical in forming hydrocarbon traps and
seals because it tends to flow rather than fracture
during deformation, thus preventing hydrocarbons from
leaking out of a trap even during and after some types
of deformation.
hiatal
Pertaining to a hiatus, a cessation in deposition of
sediments during which no strata form or an erosional
surface forms on the underlying strata; a gap in the rock
record. This period might be marked by development of
a lithified sediment (hardground) or burrowed surface
characteristic of periods when sea level was relatively
low. A disconformity can result from a hiatus.
horst
A relatively high-standing area formed by the movement
of normal faults that dip away from each other. Horsts
occur between low-standing fault blocks called graben.
Horsts can form in areas of rifting or extension, where
normal faults are the most abundant variety of fault.
hydrocarbon kitchen
An area of the subsurface where source rock has
reached appropriate conditions of pressure and
temperature to generate hydrocarbons; also known as
source kitchen, oil kitchen or gas kitchen.
hard rock
A term applied to igneous and metamorphic rocks that
are distinguished from sedimentary rocks because they
are typically more difficult to disaggregate. Well
cemented sedimentary rocks are sometimes described

as being hard, but are usually called soft rock. The term
can be used to differentiate between rocks of interest to
the petroleum industry (soft rocks) and rocks of interest
to the mining industry (hard rocks).
hiatus
A cessation in deposition of sediments during which no
strata form or an erosional surface forms on the
underlying strata; a gap in the rock record. This period
might be marked by development of a lithified sediment
(hardground) or burrowed surface characteristic of
periods when sea level was relatively low. A
disconformity can result from a hiatus.
hydrate
hydrostatic head
The height of a column of freshwater that exerts
pressure at a given depth. Some authors use the term
synonymously with hydrostatic pressure.
hardground
A horizon cemented by precipitation of calcite just below
the sea floor. Local concretions form first in a
hardground and can be surrounded by burrows of
organisms until the cement is well developed.
homogeneity
The quality of uniformity of a material. If irregularities
are distributed evenly in a mixture of material, the
material is homogeneous. (Compare with
heterogeneity.)
hydration
Incorporation of water into the atomic structure of a
mineral, i.e., the chemical combination of water and
another substance. Gypsum is a hydrate mineral. Its
anhydrous equivalent is anhydrite.
hydrostatic pressure
The normal, predicted pressure for a given depth, or the
pressure exerted per unit area by a column of
freshwater from sea level to a given depth. Abnormally
low pressure might occur in areas where fluids have
been drained, such as a depleted hydrocarbon reservoir.
Abnormally high pressure might occur in areas where
burial of water-filled sediments by an impermeable
sediment such as clay was so rapid that fluids could not
escape and the pore pressure increased with deeper
burial.
harmonic
Pertaining to structures in which the shapes of adjacent
layers resemble or conform to one another. Folds of rock
layers that have similar mechanical properties or
competence tend to be harmonic, with little change in
fold shape, symmetry or wavelength from one layer to
the next.
homogeneous
Possessing the quality of uniformity. If irregularities are
distributed evenly in a material, the material is
homogeneous. (Compare with heterogeneous.)
hydraulic head
The force per unit area exerted by a column of liquid at
a height above a depth (and pressure) of interest. Fluids
flow down a hydraulic gradient, from points of higher to
lower hydraulic head. The term is sometimes used
synonymously with hydrostatic head.
hydrothermal
Pertaining to hot fluids, particularly hot water, or the
activity of hot water, or precipitates thereof.
Hydrothermal alteration can change the mineralogy of
rock, producing different minerals, including quartz,
calcite and chlorite. Hydrothermal activity is commonly
associated with hot water that accompanies, or is
heated by, magma.
heterogeneity
The quality of variation in rock properties with location
in a reservoir or formation. Shale gas reservoirs are
heterogeneous formations whose mineralogy, organic
content, natural fractures, and other properties vary
from place to place. This heterogeneity makes
petroleum system modeling, formation evaluation, and
reservoir simulation critical to maximizing production

from shale reservoirs.
horizon
An informal term used to denote a surface in or of rock,
or a distinctive layer of rock that might be represented
by a reflection in seismic data. The term is often used
incorrectly to describe a zone from which hydrocarbons
are produced.
hydrocarbon
A naturally occurring organic compound comprising
hydrogen and carbon. Hydrocarbons can be as simple as
methane [CH4], but many are highly complex
molecules, and can occur as gases, liquids or solids. The
molecules can have the shape of chains, branching
chains, rings or other structures. Petroleum is a complex
mixture of hydrocarbons. The most common
hydrocarbons are natural gas, oil and coal.
hydrothermal alteration
A change of preexisting rocks or minerals caused by the
activity of hot solutions, such as fluids accompanying or
heated by magma. Quartz, serpentine and chlorite are
minerals commonly associated with hydrothermal
alteration. Ore deposits, such as lead (as the mineral
galena), zinc (sphalerite), and copper (malachite), can
occur in areas of hydrothermal alteration.
heterogeneous
Possessing the quality of variation in rock properties
with location in a reservoir or formation. Shale gas
reservoirs are heterogeneous formations whose
mineralogy, organic content, natural fractures, and
other properties vary from place to place. This
heterogeneity makes petroleum system modeling,
formation evaluation, and reservoir simulation critical to
maximizing production from shale reservoirs.
igneous
Pertaining to one of three main classes of rocks. These
rocks crystallize from molten rock, or magma, with
interlocking mineral crystals. Igneous rocks that
crystallize slowly, typically below the surface of the
Earth, are plutonic igneous rocks and have large crystals
(large enough to see with the naked eye). Volcanic
igneous rocks crystallize quickly at the Earth's surface
and have small crystals (usually too small to see without
magnification). Common examples include granite
(plutonic) and rhyolite (volcanic), diorite (plutonic) and
andesite (volcanic), and gabbro (plutonic) and basalt

(volcanic). Igneous rocks typically comprise the minerals
quartz, mica, feldspar, amphibole, pyroxene and olivine.
in situ
In the original location or position, such as a large
outcrop that has not been disturbed by faults or
landslides. Tests can be performed in situ in a reservoir
to determine its pressure and temperature and fluid
properties.
interstitial water
Water that occurs naturally within the pores of rock.
Water from fluids introduced to a formation through
drilling or other interference, such as mud and seawater,
does not constitute interstitial water. Interstitial water,
or formation water, might not have been the water
present when the rock originally formed. In contrast,
connate water is the water trapped in the pores of a
rock during its formation, also called fossil water.
isostasy
The state of gravitational equilibrium between the
lithosphere and the asthenosphere of the Earth such
that lithospheric plates "float" at a given elevation
depending on their thickness. The balance between the
elevation of the lithospheric plates and the
asthenosphere is achieved by the flowage of the denser
asthenosphere. Various hypotheses about isostasy take
into account density (Pratt hypothesis), thickness (Airy
hypothesis), and pressure variations to explain
topographic variations among lithospheric plates. The
current model consists of several layers of different
density.
illite
A group of clay minerals formed during the alteration of
silicate minerals such as mica and feldspar and
commonly found in marine shales.
incompetent
Pertaining to strata that are relatively ductile and tend
to flow under stress rather than deform by brittle
faulting or fracturing. The bed thickness of incompetent
beds tends to change during deformation.
inversion
The reversal of features, particularly structural features
such as faults, by reactivation. For example, a normal
fault might move in a direction opposite to its initial

movement.
immature
Pertaining to a hydrocarbon source rock that has not
fully entered optimal conditions for generation.
injectite
Structures formed by sediment injection. Because they
resemble intrusive and extrusive igneous features, much
of the vocabulary for describing injectites, or clastic
intrusions, comes from igneous geology. Sills are
emplaced parallel to bedding, whereas dikes cut through
bedding. The strata containing the intrusion are called
host strata and the layers that feed the intrusion are the
parent beds. Sand-injection features exhibit size scales
from millimeters to kilometers, and have been seen in
cores, borehole image logs, seismic sections, outcrops,
aerial photographs and satellite images.
isochore
A contour connecting points of equal true vertical
thickness of strata, formations, reservoirs or other rock
units. A map that displays isochores is an isochore map.
The terms isopach and isopach map are incorrectly used
interchangeably to describe isochores and isochore
maps. Isopachs and isochores are equivalent only if the
rock layer is horizontal.
isotropic
Directionally uniform, such that the physical properties
of the material do not vary in different directions. In
rocks, changes in physical properties in different
directions, such as the alignment of mineral grains or
the seismic velocity measured parallel or perpendicular
to bedding surfaces, are forms of anisotropy. (Compare
with homogeneity).
immiscible
Pertaining to a condition in which two fluids are
incapable of forming molecularly distributed mixtures or
attaining homogeneity at that scale. The fluids separate
into two phases with an interface between them. For
example, oil and water are immiscible.
isopach
A contour that connects points of equal thickness.
Commonly, the isopachs, or contours that make up an
isopach map, display the stratigraphic thickness of a
rock unit as opposed to the true vertical thickness.
Isopachs are true stratigraphic thicknesses; i.e.,

perpendicular to bedding surfaces.
isotropy
A quality of directional uniformity in material such that
physical properties do not vary in different directions. In
rocks, changes in physical properties in different
directions, such as the alignment of mineral grains or
the seismic velocity measured parallel or perpendicular
to bedding surfaces, are forms of anisotropy. (Compare
with homogeneity.)
impermeable
Pertaining to a rock that is incapable of transmitting
fluids because of low permeability. Shale has a high
porosity, but its pores are small and disconnected, so it
is relatively impermeable. Impermeable rocks are
desirable sealing rocks or cap rocks for reservoirs
because hydrocarbons cannot pass through them
readily.
joint
A surface of breakage, cracking or separation within a
rock along which there has been no movement parallel
to the defining plane. The usage by some authors can
be more specific: When walls of a fracture have moved
only normal to each other, the fracture is called a joint.
kaolinite
A type of clay mineral from the kaolin group that forms
through the weathering of feldspar and mica group
minerals. Unlike some clay minerals like
montmorillonite, kaolinite is not prone to shrinking or
swelling with changes in water content.
karst
A type of topography formed in areas of widespread
carbonate rocks through dissolution. Sink holes, caves
and pock-marked surfaces are typical features of a karst
topography.
kerogen
The naturally occurring, solid, insoluble organic matter
that occurs in source rocks and can yield oil upon
heating. This is the portion of naturally occurring organic
matter that is nonextractable using organic solvents.
Typical organic constituents of kerogen are algae and
woody plant material. Kerogens have a high molecular
weight relative to bitumen, or soluble organic matter.
Bitumen forms from kerogen during petroleum
generation. Kerogens are described as Type I, consisting

of mainly algal and amorphous (but presumably algal)
kerogen and highly likely to generate oil; Type II, mixed
terrestrial and marine source material that can generate
waxy oil; and Type III, woody terrestrial source material
that typically generates gas.
lacustrine
Pertaining to an environment of deposition in lakes, or
an area having lakes. Because deposition of sediment in
lakes can occur slowly and in relatively calm conditions,
organic-rich source rocks can form in lacustrine
environments.
listric fault
A normal fault that flattens with depth and typically
found in extensional regimes. This flattening manifests
itself as a curving, concave-up fault plane whose dip
decreases with depth.
lithology
The macroscopic nature of the mineral content, grain
size, texture and color of rocks.
lithostratigraphy
The study and correlation of strata to elucidate Earth
history on the basis of their lithology, or the nature of
the well log response, mineral content, grain size,
texture and color of rocks.
lamination
A fine layer (~ 1 mm thick) in strata, also called a
lamina, common in fine-grained sedimentary rocks such
as shale, siltstone and fine sandstone. A sedimentary
bed comprises multiple laminations, or laminae.
lithification
The process by which unconsolidated sediments become
sedimentary rock. Sediments typically are derived from
preexisting rocks by weathering, transported and
redeposited, and then buried and compacted by
overlying sediments. Cementation causes the sediments
to harden, or lithify, into rock.
lithosphere
The brittle outer layer of the Earth that includes the
crust and uppermost mantle. It is made up of six major
and several minor tectonic plates that move around on
the softer asthenosphere. The lithosphere of the oceans
tends to be thinner (in some oceanic areas, less than 50
km [30 miles] thick) and more dense than that of the

continents (more than 120 km [70 miles] thick in places
like the Himalayas) because of isostasy. The movement
of the plates of the lithosphere results in convergence,
or collisions, that can form mountain belts and
subduction zones, and divergence of the plates and the
creation of new crust as material wells up from below
separating plates. The lithosphere and asthenosphere
are distinguished from the crust, mantle and core of the
Earth on the basis of their mechanical behavior and not
their composition.
littoral
Pertaining to an environment of deposition affected by
tides, the area between high tide and low tide. Given the
variation of tides and land forms from place to place,
geologists describe littoral zones locally according to the
fauna capable of surviving periodic exposure and
submersion.
lease
1. The act of acquiring acreage for exploration or
production activity. 2. An area of surface land on which
exploration or production activity occurs.
lithofacies
A mappable subdivision of a stratigraphic unit that can
be distinguished by its facies or lithology-the texture,
mineralogy, grain size, and the depositional
environment that produced it.
lithostatic pressure
The pressure of the weight of overburden, or overlying
rock, on a formation; also called geostatic pressure.
low velocity layer

Also known as weathered layer, a near-surface, possibly
unconsolidated layer of low seismic velocity. The base of
the weathered layer commonly coincides with the water
table and a sharp increase in seismic velocity. The
weathered layer typically has air-filled pores.
limestone
A carbonate sedimentary rock predominantly composed
of calcite of organic, chemical or detrital origin. Minor
amounts of dolomite, chert and clay are common in
limestones. Chalk is a form of fine-grained limestone.
lineament
A long linear or gently curving feature on the surface of

a terrestrial planet or moon that is suggestive of an
underlying geologic structure or contact. Most
lineaments are identified through remote sensing, such
as satellite imagery or topographic, gravimetric and
magnetic data.
lithologic contact
The surface that separates rock bodies of different
lithologies, or rock types. A contact can be conformable
or unconformable depending upon the types of rock,
their relative ages and their attitudes. A fault surface
can also serve as a contact.
Ma
Mega annum. The abbreviation for million years that is
most commonly used in the geologic literature.
matrix
The finer grained, interstitial particles that lie between
larger particles or in which larger particles are
embedded in sedimentary rocks such as sandstones and
conglomerates.
micropaleontology
The study of microfossils too small to be seen without
the use of a microscope. Marine microfossils such as
foraminifera are important for stratigraphic correlation.
Moho
The boundary between the crust and the mantle of the
Earth, which varies from approximately 5 km [3 miles]
under the midoceanic ridges to 75 km [46 miles] deep
under the continents. This boundary, commonly called
"the Moho," was recognized in 1909 by Croatian
seismologist Andrija Mohorovicic on the basis of its
abruptly higher compressional wave (P-wave) velocity.
mafic
Pertaining to minerals or igneous rocks composed of
minerals that are rich in iron and magnesium, dense,
and typically dark in color. The term comes from the
words magnesium and ferric. Common mafic minerals
are olivine and pyroxene. Basalt is a mafic igneous rock.
(Compare with felsic.)
maturity
The state of a source rock with respect to its ability to
generate oil or gas. As a source rock begins to mature, it
generates gas. As an oil-prone source rock matures, the
generation of heavy oils is succeeded by medium and

light oils. Above a temperature of approximately 100 oC
[212 oF], only dry gas is generated, and incipient
metamorphism is imminent. The maturity of a source
rock reflects the ambient pressure and temperature as
well as the duration of conditions favorable for
hydrocarbon generation.
midoceanic ridge
The mountainous, linear axis of ocean basins along
which rifting occurs and new oceanic crust forms as
magma wells up and solidifies. The most prominent
midoceanic ridges are those of the Atlantic and Indian
Oceans. The new crust is made of mafic igneous rock
called basalt, commonly referred to as midocean ridge
basalt, or MORB, whose composition reflects that of the
deeper mantle of the Earth. The presence of the
spreading plate boundaries of the midoceanic ridges;
their symmetrically spreading, successively older crust
outward from the ridge; and the lack of oceanic crust
older than approximately 200 Ma support the theory of
plate tectonics and the recycling of oceanic crust
through the process of subduction.
Mohorovicic discontinuity
The boundary between the crust and the mantle of the
Earth, which varies from approximately 5 km [3 miles]
under the midoceanic ridges to 75 km [46 miles] deep
under the continents. This boundary, commonly called
"the Moho," was recognized in 1909 by Croatian
seismologist Andrija Mohorovicic on the basis of its
abruptly higher compressional wave (P-wave) velocity.
magma
The molten rock in the Earth that can either rise to the
surface as lava and form extrusive igneous rock or cool
within the Earth to form plutonic igneous rock.
metamorphic
One of three main classes of rock. These rocks form
from the alteration of preexisting rocks by changes in
ambient temperature, pressure, volatile content, or all of
these. Such changes can occur through the activity of
fluids in the Earth and movement of igneous bodies or
regional tectonic activity. The texture of metamorphic
rocks can vary from almost homogeneous, or
nonfoliated, to foliated rocks with a strong planar fabric
or foliation produced by alignment of minerals during
recrystallization or by reorientation. Common foliated
metamorphic rocks include gneiss, schist and slate.
Marble, or metamorphosed limestone, can be foliated or
non-foliated. Hornfels is a nonfoliated metamorphic rock.

Graphite, chlorite, talc, mica, garnet and staurolite are
distinctive metamorphic minerals.
migrate
For hydrocarbons to move from their source into
reservoir rocks. The movement of newly generated
hydrocarbons out of their source rock is primary
migration, also called expulsion. The further movement
of the hydrocarbons into reservoir rock in a hydrocarbon
trap or other area of accumulation is secondary
migration. Migration typically occurs from a structurally
low area to a higher area because of the relative
buoyancy of hydrocarbons in comparison to the
surrounding rock. Migration can be local or can occur
along distances of hundreds of kilometers in large
sedimentary basins, and is critical to the formation of a
viable petroleum system.
moldic porosity
A type of secondary porosity created through the
dissolution of a preexisting constituent of a rock, such as
a shell, rock fragment or grain. The pore space
preserves the shape, or mold, of the dissolved material.
metamorphism
The process by which the characteristics of rocks are
altered or the rock is recrystallized. Metamorphism of
igneous, sedimentary, or preexisting metamorphic rock
can produce new metamorphic rock. Such alteration
occurs as rocks respond to changes in temperatures,
pressures and fluids, commonly along the edges of
colliding lithospheric plates. The pressures and
temperatures at which metamorphism occurs are higher
than those of diagenesis, but no clear boundary
between the two has been established.
migration
The movement of hydrocarbons from their source into
reservoir rocks. The movement of newly generated
hydrocarbons out of their source rock is primary
migration, also called expulsion. The further movement
of the hydrocarbons into reservoir rock in a hydrocarbon
trap or other area of accumulation is secondary
migration. Migration typically occurs from a structurally
low area to a higher area because of the relative
buoyancy of hydrocarbons in comparison to the
surrounding rock. Migration can be local or can occur
along distances of hundreds of kilometers in large
sedimentary basins, and is critical to the formation of a
viable petroleum system.
montmorillonite
A type of smectite clay mineral that tends to swell when
exposed to water. this forms through the alteration of
silicate minerals in alkaline conditions in basic igneous
rocks, such as volcanic ash that can accumulate in the
oceans. Montmorillonite is a component of bentonite
commonly used in drilling fluids.
mantle
The intermediate layer of the Earth beneath the crust
that is about 2900 km thick [1820 miles] and overlies
the core of the Earth. The mantle consists of dense
igneous rocks like pyroxenite and dunite, composed of
the minerals pyroxene and olivine. The crust, mantle
and core of the Earth are distinguished from the
lithosphere and asthenosphere on the basis of their
composition and not their mechanical behavior. The
Mohorovicic discontinuity abruptly separates the crust
from the mantle, where the velocity of compressional
waves is significantly higher.
methane
The lightest and most abundant of the hydrocarbon
gases and the principal component of natural gas.
Methane is a colorless, odorless gas that is stable under
a wide range of pressure and temperature conditions in
the absence of other compounds.
Milankovitch cycles
The variation of the Earth's exposure to the sun's rays,
or insolation, that results from variations in the orbit of
the Earth and the tilt of its axis, and that might affect
climate, sea level and sedimentation. Such variations
are thought to occur in distinct time periods on the order
of thousands of years. Ice ages might be a consequence
of Milankovitch cycles. Milutin Milankovitch (1879 to
1958) was a Yugoslavian mathematician and physicist
who specialized in studies of solar radiation and the
orbit of the Earth.
Magnetic Reversal Sequence (MRS)

The periodic switching of the magnetic north and south
poles of the Earth throughout time, probably as a result
of movement of fluid within the Earth's core. The onset
and duration of the many episodes of reversed polarity
have been documented by examining the polarity of
magnetic minerals within rocks of different ages from
around the world, particularly in basalts or igneous rocks
of the oceanic crust. Oceanic basalts record the Earth's
magnetic field as they solidify from molten lava

symmetrically on each side of the midoceanic ridges.
These data have been compiled to create a time scale
known as the geomagnetic polarity time scale (GPTS). In
the oil field, borehole recordings allow direct correlation
to GPTS and well-to-well correlations.
marine
Pertaining to sediments or environments in seas or
ocean waters, between the depth of low tide and the
ocean bottom.
methane hydrate
molecules of methane are trapped in ice molecules.
More generally, hydrates are compounds in which gas
molecules are trapped within a crystal structure.
Hydrates form in cold climates, such as permafrost
zones and in deep water. To date, economic liberation of
hydrocarbon gases from hydrates has not occurred, but
hydrates contain quantities of hydrocarbons that could
be of great economic significance. Hydrates can affect
seismic data by creating a reflection or multiple.
mineral
A crystalline substance that is naturally occurring,
inorganic, and has a unique or limited range of chemical
compositions. These are homogeneous, having a
definite atomic structure. Rocks are composed of These,
except for rare exceptions like coal, which is a rock but
not a mineral because of its organic origin. Minerals are
distinguished from one another by careful observation
or measurement of physical properties such as density,
crystal form, cleavage (tendency to break along specific
surfaces because of atomic structure), fracture
(appearance of broken surfaces), hardness, luster and
color. Magnetism, taste and smell are useful ways to
identify only a few minerals.
My
Abbreviation for million years apart from Ma.
marsh
An environment from which water rarely drains that
supports primarily grassy vegetation and does not form
peat.
mica
A group of sheet silicates characterized by a platy
appearance and basal cleavage most common in
igneous and metamorphic rocks. Several clay minerals,

such as chlorite and glauconite, are closely related to
the mica group.
miscible
Pertaining to a condition in which two or more fluids can
mix in all proportions and form a single homogeneous
phase.
millions of years before present

What is MYBP
massif
A block of rock that forms a structural or topographic
feature, such as a block of igneous of metamorphic rock
within an area of mountain building, or orogeny. A
massif can be as large as a mountain and is typically
more rigid than the rocks that surround it.
micrite
Dense, fine-grained carbonate mud or rocks composed
of mud that forms by erosion of larger carbonate grains,
organic precipitation (such as from algae), or inorganic
precipitation. The grains in micrite are generally less
than 4 microns in size.
natural fracture
A crack or surface of breakage within rock not related to
foliation or cleavage in metamorphic rock along which
there has been no movement. A fracture along which
there has been displacement is a fault. When walls of a
fracture have moved only normal to each other, the
fracture is called a joint. Fractures can enhance
permeability of rocks greatly by connecting pores
together, and for that reason, fractures are induced
mechanically in some reservoirs in order to boost
hydrocarbon flow. Fractures may also be referred to as
natural fractures to distinguish them from fractures
induced as part of a reservoir stimulation or drilling
operation. In some shale reservoirs, natural fractures
improve production by enhancing effective permeability.
In other cases, natural fractures can complicate
reservoir stimulation.
neritic
Describing the environment and conditions of the
marine zone between low tide and the edge of the
continental shelf, a depth of roughly 200 m [656 ft]. A
neritic environment supports marine organisms, also
described as neritic, that are capable of surviving in

shallow water with moderate exposure to sunlight.
normal fault
A type of fault in which the hanging wall moves down
relative to the footwall, and the fault surface dips
steeply, commonly from 50 to 90. Groups of normal
faults can produce horst and graben topography, or a
series of relatively high- and low-standing fault blocks,
as seen in areas where the crust is rifting or being pulled
apart by plate tectonic activity. A growth fault is a type
of normal fault that forms during sedimentation and
typically has thicker strata on the downthrown hanging
wall than the footwall.
normal pressure. Ask what is pressure gradient for

freshwater and for water with dissolved solids
The pore pressure of rocks that is considered normal in
areas in which the change in pressure per unit of depth
is equivalent to hydrostatic pressure. The normal
hydrostatic pressure gradient for freshwater is 0.433
pounds per square inch per foot (psi/ft), or 9.792
kilopascals per meter (kPa/m), and 0.465 psi/ft for water
with 100,000 ppm total dissolved solids (a typical Gulf
Coast water), or 10.516 kPa/m.
natural gas
A naturally occurring mixture of hydrocarbon gases that
is highly compressible and expansible. Methane [CH4] is
the chief constituent of most natural gas (constituting as
much as 85% of some natural gases), with lesser
amounts of ethane [C2H6], propane [C3H8], butane
[C4H10] and pentane [C5H12]. Impurities can also be
present in large proportions, including carbon dioxide,
helium, nitrogen and hydrogen sulfide.
nonconformity
A geological surface that separates younger overlying
sedimentary strata from eroded igneous or metamorphic
rocks and represents a large gap in the geologic record.
offset
The horizontal displacement between points on either
side of a fault, which can range from millimeters to
kilometers. Perhaps the most readily visible examples of
offset are features such as fences or roads that have
been displaced by strike-slip faults, such as the San
Andreas fault of California, USA.
oil sand
A porous sand layer or sand body filled with oil.
onlap
The termination of shallowly dipping, younger strata
against more steeply dipping, older strata, or the
termination of low-angle reflections in seismic data
against steeper reflections. Onlap is a particular pattern
of reflections in seismic data that, according to
principles of sequence stratigraphy, occurs during
periods of transgression.
overmature
Pertaining to a hydrocarbon source rock that has
generated as much hydrocarbon as possible and is
becoming thermally altered.
oil field
An accumulation, pool or group of pools of oil in the
subsurface. A this consists of a reservoir in a shape that
will trap hydrocarbons and that is covered by an
impermeable or sealing rock. Typically, industry
professionals use the term with an implied assumption
of economic size.
oil water contact

predominantly oil occurs and below which
predominantly water occurs. Although oil and water are
immiscible, the contact between oil and water is
commonly a transition zone and there is usually
irreducible water adsorbed by the grains in the rock and
immovable oil that cannot be produced. The oil-water
contact is not always a flat horizontal surface, but
instead might be tilted or irregular.
orogenic
Pertaining to a major episode of plate tectonic activity in
which lithospheric plates collide and produce mountain
belts, in some cases including the formation of
subduction zones and igneous activity. Thrust faults and
folds are typical geological structures seen in areas of
orogeny.
overpressure
Subsurface pressure that is abnormally high, exceeding
hydrostatic pressure at a given depth. The term
geopressure is commonly, and incorrectly, used
synonymously. Abnormally high pore pressure can occur
in areas where burial of fluid-filled sediments is so rapid
that pore fluids cannot escape, so the pressure of the
pore fluids increases as overburden increases. Drilling

into overpressured strata can be hazardous because
overpressured fluids escape rapidly, so careful
preparation is made in areas of known overpressure.
oil kitchen
An area of the subsurface where source rock has
reached appropriate conditions of pressure and
temperature to generate liquid hydrocarbons as
opposed to gas.
overthrust
A thrust fault having a relatively large lateral
displacement.
oil pool
A subsurface oil accumulation. An oil field can consist of
one or more of these or distinct reservoirs within a
single large trap. The term "pool" can create the
erroneous impression that oil fields are immense
caverns filled with oil, instead of rock filled with small
oil-filled pores.
oil-prone
The quality of a source rock that makes it more likely to
generate oil than gas. The nature of the organic matter
(kerogen) in source rocks varies from coaly, plant-like
material commonly found in terrestrial source rocks to
algal or other marine material that makes up marine
source rocks. Marine source rocks are commonly oilprone.
outcrop
A body of rock exposed at the surface of the Earth.
Construction of highways and other man-made facilities
and resultant removal of soil and rock has created
spectacular outcrops in some regions.
overburden
The weight of overlying rock. Rock overlying an area or
point of interest in the subsurface.
paleontology
The study of fossilized, or preserved, remnants of plant
and animal life. Changes in the Earth through time can
be documented by observing changes in the fossils in
successive strata and the environments in which they
formed or were preserved. Fossils can also be compared
with their extant relatives to assess evolutionary
changes. Correlations of strata can be aided by studying

their fossil content, a discipline called biostratigraphy.
petrography
The examination of rocks in thin section. Rock samples
can be glued to a glass slide and the rock ground to
0.03-mm thickness in order to observe mineralogy and
texture using a microscope. (A petrographic microscope
is a transmitted-light polarizing microscope.) Samples of
sedimentary rock can be impregnated with blue epoxy
to highlight porosity.
plate tectonics
The unifying geologic theory developed to explain
observations that interactions of the brittle plates of the
lithosphere with each other and with the softer
underlying asthenosphere result in large-scale changes
in the Earth. The theory of plate tectonics initially
stemmed from observations of the shapes of the
continents, particularly South America and Africa, which
fit together like pieces in a jigsaw puzzle and have
similar rocks and fossils despite being separated by a
modern ocean. As lithospheric plates heat up or cool
down depending on their position, or their tectonic
environment, relative to each other and to warmer areas
deeper within the Earth, they become relatively more or
less dense than the asthenosphere and thus tend to rise
as molten magma or sink in cold, brittle slabs or slide
past each other. Mountain belts can form during plate
collisions or an orogeny; diverging plates or rifts can
create new midoceanic ridges; plates that slide past one
another create transform fault zones (such as the San
Andreas fault); and zones of subduction occur where one
lithospheric plate moves beneath another. Plate tectonic
theory can explain such phenomena as earthquakes,
volcanic or other igneous activity, midoceanic ridges
and the relative youth of the oceanic crust, and the
formation of sedimentary basins on the basis of their
relationships to lithospheric plate boundaries.
Convection of the mantle is postulated to be the driving
mechanism for the movement of lithospheric plates.
Measurements of the continents using the Global
Positioning System confirm the relative motions of
plates. Age determinations of the oceanic crust confirm
that such crust is much younger than that of the
continents and has been recycled by the process of
subduction and regenerated at midoceanic ridges.
porous
Pertaining to rocks that incorporate pores or void
spaces, which can contain air, water, hydrocarbons or
other fluids. In a body of rock, the percentage of pore

space is the porosity. Porosity can be a relic of
deposition (primary porosity, such as space between
grains that were not compacted together completely) or
can develop through alteration of the rock (secondary
porosity, such as when feldspar grains or fossils are
preferentially dissolved from sandstones). Porosity can
be generated by the development of fractures, in which
case it is called fracture porosity. Effective porosity is the
interconnected pore volume in a rock that contributes to
fluid flow in a reservoir. It excludes isolated pores. Total
porosity is the total void space in the rock whether or
not it contributes to fluid flow. Thus, effective porosity is
typically less than total porosity. Shale gas reservoirs
tend to have relatively high porosity, but the alignment
of platy grains such as clays makes their permeability
very low.
petroleum
A complex mixture of naturally occurring hydrocarbon
compounds found in rock. Petroleum can range from
solid to gas, but the term is generally used to refer to
liquid crude oil. Impurities such as sulfur, oxygen and
nitrogen are common in petroleum. There is
considerable variation in color, gravity, odor, sulfur
content and viscosity in petroleum from different areas.
plateau
A topographic feature consisting of a large flat area at a
relatively high elevation with steep sides.
palustrine
Describing material deposited in or growing in a marsh.
petroleum system
Geologic components and processes necessary to
generate and store hydrocarbons, including a mature
source rock, migration pathway, reservoir rock, trap and
seal. Appropriate relative timing of formation of these
elements and the processes of generation, migration
and accumulation are necessary for hydrocarbons to
accumulate and be preserved. The components and
critical timing relationships of a petroleum system can
be displayed in a chart that shows geologic time along
the horizontal axis and the petroleum system elements
along the vertical axis. Exploration plays and prospects
are typically developed in basins or regions in which a
complete petroleum system has some likelihood of
existing.
platform
A relatively flat, nearly level area of sedimentary rocks
in a continent that overlies or abuts the basement rocks
of a craton.
palynology
The study of fossilized remnants of microscopic entities
having organic walls, such as pollen, spores and cysts
from algae. Changes in the Earth through time can be
documented by studying the distribution of spores and
pollen. Well log and other correlations are enhanced by
incorporating palynology. Palynology also has utility in
forensics.
play
An area in which hydrocarbon accumulations or
prospects of a given type occur. For example the shale
gas plays in North America include the Barnett, Eagle
Ford, Fayetteville, Haynesville, Marcellus, and Woodford,
among many others. Outside North America, shale gas
potential is being pursued in many parts of Europe,
Africa, Asia, and South America.
preservation
The phase of a petroleum system after hydrocarbons
accumulate in a trap and are subject to degradation,
remigration, tectonism or other unfavorable or
destructive processes.
parallel fold
The deformation of rock layers in which the thickness of
each layer, measured perpendicular to initial
(undeformed) layering, is maintained after the rock
layers have been folded.
plunge
The angle between a linear feature and a horizontal line
in a vertical plane containing both lines.
pressure gradient
The change in pressure per unit of depth, typically in
units of psi/ft or kPa/m. Pressure increases predictably
with depth in areas of normal pressure. The normal
psi/ft, or 9.792 kPa/m, and 0.465 psi/ft for water with
100,000 ppm total dissolved solids (a typical Gulf Coast
water), or 10.516 kPa/m. Deviations from normal
pressure are described as high or low pressure.
parasequence
Relatively conformable depositional units bounded by

surfaces of marine flooding, surfaces that separate older
strata from younger and show an increase in water
depth in successively younger strata. Parasequences are
usually too thin to discern on seismic data, but when
added together, they form sets called parasequence
sets that are visible on seismic data.
pinch out
To taper to a zero edge.
point bar
An arcuate deposit of sediment, usually sand, that
occurs along the convex inner edges of the meanders of
channels and builds outward as the stream channel
migrates.
primary migration
The expulsion of newly generated hydrocarbons from a
source rock. The further movement of the hydrocarbons
into reservoir rock in a hydrocarbon trap or other area of
accumulation is secondary migration.
passive margin
The margin of a continent and ocean that does not
coincide with the boundary of a lithospheric plate and
along which collision is not occurring. Passive margins
are characterized by rifted, rotated fault blocks of thick
sediment, such as the present-day Gulf of Mexico and
Atlantic margins of North America.
pore
A discrete void within a rock, which can contain air,
water, hydrocarbons or other fluids. In a body of rock,
the percentage of pore space is the porosity.
primary porosity
The porosity preserved from deposition through
lithification.
pay
A reservoir or portion of a reservoir that contains
economically producible hydrocarbons. The term derives
from the fact that it is capable of "paying" an income.
Pay is also called pay sand or pay zone. The overall
interval in which pay sections occur is the gross pay; the
smaller portions of the gross pay that meet local criteria
for pay (such as minimum porosity, permeability and
hydrocarbon saturation) are net pay.
plane table
A flat drawing board mounted on a tripod used in
combination with an alidade to construct topographic or
geologic maps in the field. A sheet of paper or mylar
covering the plane table is annotated during map
construction.
pore pressure
production
The phase that occurs after successful exploration and
development and during which hydrocarbons are
drained from an oil or gas field.
permeability
The ability, or measurement of a rock's ability, to
transmit fluids, typically measured in darcies or
millidarcies. The term was basically defined by Henry
Darcy, who showed that the common mathematics of
heat transfer could be modified to adequately describe
fluid flow in porous media. Formations that transmit
fluids readily, such as sandstones, are described as
permeable and tend to have many large, well-connected
pores. Impermeable formations, such as shales and
siltstones, tend to be finer grained or of a mixed grain
size, with smaller, fewer, or less interconnected pores.
Absolute permeability is the measurement of the
permeability conducted when a single fluid, or phase, is
present in the rock. Effective permeability is the ability
to preferentially flow or transmit a particular fluid
through a rock when other immiscible fluids are present
in the reservoir (for example, effective permeability of
gas in a gas-water reservoir). The relative saturations of
the fluids as well as the nature of the reservoir affect the
effective permeability. Relative permeability is the ratio
of effective permeability of a particular fluid at a
particular saturation to absolute permeability of that
fluid at total saturation. If a single fluid is present in a
rock, its relative permeability is 1.0. Calculation of
relative permeability allows for comparison of the
different abilities of fluids to flow in the presence of each

other, since the presence of more than one fluid
generally inhibits flow.
plankton
Minute organisms that float or drift passively near the
surface of oceans and seas. Plant-like plankton, or
phytoplankton, include diatoms. Zooplankton are
animals that have a limited ability to move themselves.
The changes in plankton over time are useful for
estimation of relative ages of rocks that contain the
fossilized remains of plankton.
pore pressure gradient

The change in pore pressure per unit of depth, typically
in units of psi/ft or kPa/m. Pressure increases predictably
with depth in areas of normal pressure. The normal
psi/ft, or 9.792 kPa/m, and 0.465 psi/ft for water with
100,000 ppm total dissolved solids (a typical Gulf Coast
water), or 10.516 kPa/m. Deviations from normal
pressure are described as high or low pressure.
progradation
The accumulation of sequences by deposition in which
beds are deposited successively basinward because
sediment supply exceeds accommodation. Thus, the
position of the shoreline migrates into the basin during
episodes of progradation, a process called regression.
plastic
Pertaining to a material that can deform permanently
without rupturing.
prospect
An area of exploration in which hydrocarbons have been
predicted to exist in economic quantity. This is
commonly an anomaly, such as a geologic structure or a
seismic amplitude anomaly, that is recommended by
explorationists for drilling a well. Justification for drilling
a prospect is made by assembling evidence for an active
petroleum system, or reasonable probability of
encountering reservoir-quality rock, a trap of sufficient
size, adequate sealing rock, and appropriate conditions
for generation and migration of hydrocarbons to fill the
trap. A single drilling location is also called a prospect,
but the term is more properly used in the context of
exploration. A group of prospects of a similar nature
constitutes a play.
plastic deformation
Permanent mechanical or physical alteration that does
not include rupture. Plastic deformation of rocks
typically occurs at high temperatures and pressures,
conditions under which rocks become relatively viscous.
porosity
The percentage of pore volume or void space, or that
volume within rock that can contain fluids. Porosity can
be a relic of deposition (primary porosity, such as space
between grains that were not compacted together
completely) or can develop through alteration of the
rock (secondary porosity, such as when feldspar grains
or fossils are preferentially dissolved from sandstones).
Porosity can be generated by the development of
fractures, in which case it is called fracture porosity.
Effective porosity is the interconnected pore volume in a
rock that contributes to fluid flow in a reservoir. It
excludes isolated pores. Total porosity is the total void
space in the rock whether or not it contributes to fluid
flow. Thus, effective porosity is typically less than total
porosity. Shale gas reservoirs tend to have relatively
high porosity, but the alignment of platy grains such as
clays makes their permeability very low.
pyrolysis
A type of geochemical analysis in which a rock sample is
subject to controlled heating in an inert gas to or past
the point of generating hydrocarbons in order to assess
its quality as a source rock, the abundance of organic
material in it, its thermal maturity, and the quality of
hydrocarbons it might generate or have generated.
Pyrolysis breaks large hydrocarbon molecules into
smaller molecules. This process is used to determine the
quality of shale as a source rock and is instrumental in
evaluating shale gas plays.
quartz
An abundant rock-forming mineral composed of silicon
and oxygen, also called silica. Quartz sand grains are a
major constituent of sandstone and other clastic
sedimentary rocks.
radial faulting
Multiple faults whose fault planes strike outward from a
common center. Such faults typically are associated with
salt domes, impact craters or volcanoes.
relative age
The approximate age determination of rocks, fossils or

minerals made by comparing whether the material is
younger or older than other surrounding material.
Relative age is estimated according to stratigraphic and
structural relationships, such as superposition, and by
fossil content, since the relative ages and successions of
fossils have been established by paleontologists. The
measurement of the decay of radioactive isotopes,
especially uranium, rubidium, argon and carbon, has
allowed geologists to more precisely determine the age
in years of rock formations, known as the absolute age.
Tree rings and seasonal sedimentary deposits called
varves can be counted to determine absolute age.
Although the term implies otherwise, "absolute" ages
typically have some amount of potential error and are
inexact.
retrogradation
The accumulation of sequences by deposition in which
beds are deposited successively landward because
sediment supply is limited and cannot fill the available
accommodation. Thus, the position of the shoreline
migrates backward onto land, a process called
transgression, during episodes of retrogradation.
rheology
Generally, the study of how matter deforms and flows,
including its elasticity, plasticity and viscosity. In
geology, rheology is particularly important in studies of
moving ice, water, salt and magma, as well as in studies
of deforming rocks.
reef
A mound, ridge, or buildup of sediment or sedimentary
rock, most commonly produced by organisms that
secrete shells such as corals. These are typically taller
than the sediment that surrounds them, resistant to
weathering and wave action, and preserved within
sediment of a different composition. Carbonate reefs
form in a limited range of temperatures, water depths,
salinities and wave activities, so their occurrence can be
used to interpret past environmental conditions.
Because the rocks that surround reefs can differ in
composition and permeability, porous reefs can form
stratigraphic traps for hydrocarbons. Porosity of reefal
limestones depends on post-depositional diagenetic
changes.
relative permeability
A dimensionless term devised to adapt the Darcy
equation to multiphase flow conditions. This is the ratio
of effective permeability of a particular fluid at a

particular saturation to absolute permeability of that
fluid at total saturation. If a single fluid is present in a
rock, its relative permeability is 1.0. Calculation of
relative permeability allows comparison of the different
abilities of fluids to flow in the presence of each other,
since the presence of more than one fluid generally
inhibits flow.
reverse fault
A type of fault formed when the hanging wall fault block
moves up along a fault surface relative to the footwall.
Such movement can occur in areas where the Earth's
crust is compressed. A thrust fault, sometimes called an
overthrust if the displacement is particularly great, is a
reverse fault in which the fault plane has a shallow dip,
typically much less than 45o.
rhombohedral packing
The most compact arrangement in space of uniform
spheres (atoms and molecules in mineral crystals, or
grains in sedimentary rocks) that results in a structure
having no more than 26% porosity. Rhombohedral
packing is more stable mechanically than cubic packing.
Cubic packing is the most porous packing arrangement,
with about 47% porosity in the ideal situation. Most
sediments, however, are not uniform spheres of the
same size, nor can they be arranged in a cubic structure
naturally, so most sediments have much less than 47%
porosity of ideal cubic packing and commonly less than
the 26% porosity of ideal rhombohedral packing.
reservoir
A subsurface body of rock having sufficient porosity and
permeability to store and transmit fluids. Sedimentary
rocks are the most common reservoir rocks because
they have more porosity than most igneous and
metamorphic rocks and form under temperature
conditions at which hydrocarbons can be preserved. A
reservoir is a critical component of a complete
petroleum system.
rift (noun)
Region in which the Earth's crust is pulling apart and
creating normal faults and down-dropped areas or
subsidence.
Rift (vt.)
To pull apart the Earth's crust.
regression
The migration of shoreline into a basin during
progradation due to a fall in relative sea level.
Deposition during a regression can juxtapose shallowwater sediments atop deep-water sediments.
reservoir pressure
rock
An aggregate of minerals or organic matter (in the case
of coal, which is not composed of minerals because of
its organic origin), or volcanic glass (obsidian, which
forms a rock but is not considered a mineral because of
its amorphous, noncrystalline nature). Rocks can contain
a single mineral, such as rock salt (halite) and certain
limestones (calcite), or many minerals, such as granite
(quartz, feldspar, mica and other minerals). There are
three main types of rocks. Sedimentary rocks like
sandstone and limestone form at the Earth's surface
through deposition of sediments derived from
weathered rocks, biogenic activity or precipitation from
solution. Igneous rocks originate deeper within the
Earth, where the temperature is high enough to melt
rocks, to form magma that can crystallize within the
Earth or at the surface by volcanic activity. Metamorphic
rocks form from other preexisting rocks during episodes
of deformation of the Earth at temperatures and
pressures high enough to alter minerals but inadequate
to melt them. Such changes can occur by the activity of
fluids in the Earth and movement of igneous bodies or
regional tectonic activity. Rocks are recycled from one
type to another by the constant changes in the Earth.
s.g.
The dimensionless ratio of the density of a material to
that of the same volume of water. Most common
minerals have specific gravities between 2 and 7.
seep
A naturally occurring, typically slow leakage of fluid

water, oil or gasat the Earth's surface. This results
from migration of the fluid from its source or reservoir
formation because the formation pressure exceeds the
formation's seal capacity such as during rapid loading of
the overburden by sedimentation or during fluid
expansion or from damage to the seal such as by
faulting or tectonism.
smectite
A group of clay minerals that includes montmorillonite.
This type of mineral tends to swell when exposed to
water. Bentonite includes minerals of the smectite
group.
strike-slip fault
A type of fault whose surface is typically vertical or
nearly so. The motion along a strike-slip fault is parallel
to the strike of the fault surface, and the fault blocks
move sideways past each other. A strike-slip fault in
which the block across the fault moves to the right is
described as a dextral strike-slip fault. If it moves left,
the relative motion is described as sinistral. Local
deformation near bends in strike-slip faults can produce
pull-apart basins and grabens. Flower structures are
another by-product of strike-slip faults. A wrench fault is
a type of strike-slip fault in which the fault surface is
nearly vertical.
sabkha
An environment of coastal sedimentation characterized
by arid or semiarid conditions above the level of high
tide and by the absence of vegetation. Evaporites,
eolian deposits and tidal-flood deposits are common in
sabkhas.
seismite
An injectite attributable to earthquake or seismic
shaking.
soft rock
A general term for sedimentary rocks, although it can
imply a distinction between rocks of interest to the
petroleum industry and rocks of interest to the mining
industry.
structural
The geometry and spatial arrangement of rocks. The
structure or deformation can include many mechanisms,
such as folding, faulting and fracturing. Structure can
usually be interpreted in terms of the deformation of the

crust of the Earth as continents and tectonic plates
move and collide.
salt
[NaCl] A soft, soluble evaporite mineral also known as
halite or rock salt. Because salt is less dense than many
sedimentary rocks, it is relatively buoyant and can form
salt domes, pillars or curtains by flowing and breaking
through or piercing overlying sediments, as seen in the
Gulf of Mexico and the Zagros fold belt. Halite can be
critical in forming hydrocarbon traps and seals because
it tends to flow rather than fracture during deformation,
thus preventing hydrocarbons from leaking out of a trap
even during and after some types of deformation.
sequence
A group of relatively conformable strata that represents
a cycle of deposition and is bounded by unconformities
or correlative conformities. Sequences are the
fundamental unit of interpretation in sequence
stratigraphy. Sequences comprise systems tracts.
sorting
The range of sedimentary grain sizes that occurs in
sediment or sedimentary rock. The term also refers to
the process by which sediments of similar size are
naturally segregated during transport and deposition
according to the velocity and transporting medium.
Well-sorted sediments are of similar size (such as desert
sand), while poorly-sorted sediments have a wide range
of grain sizes (as in a glacial till). A well-sorted
sandstone tends to have greater porosity than a poorly
sorted sandstone because of the lack of grains small
enough to fill its pores. Conglomerates tend to be poorly
sorted rocks, with particles ranging from boulder size to
clay size.
structural trap
A variety of sealed geologic structure capable of
retaining hydrocarbons, such as a fault or a fold.
Stratigraphic traps form where changes in rock type can
retain hydrocarbons.
salt dome
A mushroom-shaped or plug-shaped diapir made of salt,
commonly having an overlying cap rock. Salt domes
form as a consequence of the relative buoyancy of salt
when buried beneath other types of sediment. The salt
flows upward to form salt domes, sheets, pillars and
other structures. Hydrocarbons are commonly found

around salt domes because of the abundance and
variety of traps created by salt movement and the
association with evaporite minerals that can provide
excellent sealing capabilities.
sequence boundary
A surface that separates older sequences from younger
ones, commonly an unconformity (indicating subaerial
exposure), but in limited cases a correlative conformable
surface. A sequence boundary is an erosional surface
that separates cycles of deposition.
sour
Contaminated with sulfur or sulfur compounds,
especially hydrogen sulfide. Crude oil and gas that are
sour typically have an odor of rotten eggs if the
concentration of sulfur is low. At high concentrations,
sulfur is odorless and deadly.
structure
A geological feature produced by deformation of the
Earth's crust, such as a fold or a fault; a feature within a
rock, such as a fracture or bedding surface; or, more
generally, the spatial arrangement of rocks.
sand
A detrital grain between 0.0625 mm and 2 mm in
diameter. This is larger than silt but smaller than a
granule according to the Udden-Wentworth scale. Sand
is also a term used for quartz grains or for sandstone.
sequence stratigraphy
A field of study in which basin-filling sedimentary
deposits, called sequences, are interpreted in a
framework of eustasy, sedimentation and subsidence
through time in order to correlate strata and predict the
stratigraphy of relatively unknown areas. Sequences
tend to show cyclicity of changes in relative sea level
and widespread unconformities, processes of
sedimentation and sources of sediments, climate and
tectonic activity over time. Sequence stratigraphic study
promotes thorough understanding of the evolution of
basins, but also allows for interpretations of potential
source rocks and reservoir rocks in both frontier areas
(having seismic data but little well data) and in more
mature hydrocarbon provinces. Prediction of reservoir
continuity is currently a key question in mature
hydrocarbon provinces where sequence stratigraphy is
being applied.
The field originated during the 1960s with the study of

the stratigraphy of the continental USA, where
numerous unconformities could be correlated widely,
and led to the proposal that major unconformities
might mark synchronous global-scale events. Through
sequence stratigraphy, widely-separated sediments
that occur between correlatable unconformities could
be compared with each other. Studies of outcrops and
seismic lines bore out these concepts, which initially
were called "Seismic Stratigraphy" and first published
widely in 1977. Further study of seismic lines led to
the interpretation of the geometry or architecture of
seismic events as representing particular styles of
sedimentation and depositional environments, and the
integration of such interpretations with well log and
core data. Because of the simultaneous, competitive
nature of the research, numerous oil companies and
academic groups use the terminology of sequence
stratigraphy differently, and new terms are added
continually.
...
source rock
A rock rich in organic matter which, if heated
sufficiently, will generate oil or gas. Typically these are
usually shales or limestones and contain about 1%
organic matter and at least 0.5% total organic carbon
(TOC), although a rich source rock might have as much
as 10% organic matter. Rocks of marine origin tend to
be oil-prone, whereas terrestrial source rocks (such as
coal) tend to be gas-prone. Preservation of organic
matter without degradation is critical to creating a good
source rock, and necessary for a complete petroleum
system. Under the right conditions, source rocks may
also be reservoir rocks, as in the case of shale gas
reservoirs.
structure map
A type of subsurface map whose contours represent the
elevation of a particular formation, reservoir or geologic
marker in space, such that folds, faults and other
geologic structures are clearly displayed. Its appearance
is similar to that of a topographic map, but a
topographic map displays elevations of the Earth's
surface and a structure map displays the elevation of a
particular rock layer, generally beneath the surface.
sandstone
A clastic sedimentary rock whose grains are
predominantly sand-sized. The term is commonly used
to imply consolidated sand or a rock made of

predominantly quartz sand, although sandstones often
contain feldspar, rock fragments, mica and numerous
additional mineral grains held together with silica or
another type of cement. The relatively high porosity and
permeability of sandstones make them good reservoir
rocks.
shale
A fine-grained, fissile, detrital sedimentary rock formed
by consolidation of clay- and silt-sized particles into thin,
relatively impermeable layers. It is the most abundant
sedimentary rock. Shale can include relatively large
amounts of organic material compared with other rock
types and thus has potential to become a rich
hydrocarbon source rock, even though a typical shale
contains just 1% organic matter. Its typical fine grain
size and lack of permeability, a consequence of the
alignment of its platy or flaky grains, allow shale to form
a good cap rock for hydrocarbon traps. Gas shows from
shales during drilling have led some shales to be
targeted as potential gas reservoirs. Various clay types
and volumes influence the quality of the reservoir from
a petrophysical and geomechanical perspective. The
quality of shale reservoirs depends on their thickness
and extent, organic content, thermal maturity, depth
and pressure, fluid saturations, and permeability, among
other factors.
stylolite
Wave-like or tooth-like, serrated, interlocking surfaces
most commonly seen in carbonate and quartz-rich rocks
that contain concentrated insoluble residue such as clay
minerals and iron oxides. Stylolites are thought to form
by pressure solution, a dissolution process that reduces
pore space under pressure during diagenesis.
saturation
The relative amount of water, oil and gas in the pores of
a rock, usually as a percentage of volume.
shale oil
Oil obtained by artificial maturation of oil shale. The
process of artificial maturation uses controlled heating,
or pyrolysis, of kerogen to release the shale oil.
spill point
The structurally lowest point in a hydrocarbon trap that
can retain hydrocarbons. Once a trap has been filled to
its spill point, further storage or retention of
hydrocarbons will not occur for lack of reservoir space

within that trap. The hydrocarbons spill or leak out, and
they continue to migrate until they are trapped
elsewhere.
subduction
A plate tectonic process in which one lithospheric plate
descends beneath another into the asthenosphere
during a collision at a convergent plate margin. Because
of the relatively higher density of oceanic lithosphere, it
will typically descend beneath the lighter continental
lithosphere during a collision. In a collision of plates of
continental lithosphere, the density of the two plates is
so similar that neither tends to be subducted and
mountains form. As a subducted plate descends into the
asthenosphere, Earthquakes can occur, especially in the
Wadati-Benioff zone, but, if the plate descends deeply
into the mantle, it will eventually be heated to the point
of melting. Volcanoes can form above a descending
plate.
scout
To inspect an area or to monitor activity.
scout
A petroleum industry worker who tracks competitive
exploration and production activity, either for a
company or on a free-lance basis. Scouts can facilitate
trading of technical data such as well logs among
companies before such data enter the public domain
unless the operations or data are held "tight."
strain
The permanent deformation evident in rocks and other
solid bodies that have experienced a sufficiently high
applied stress. A change in shape, such as folding,
faulting, fracturing, or change, generally a reduction, in
volume are common examples of strain seen in rocks.
Strain can be described in terms of normal and shear
components, and is the ratio of the change in length or
volume to the initial length or volume. For more on
strain: Means WD: Stress and Strain. New York, New
York, Springer-Verlag, 1976.
subsalt
An exploration and production play type in which
prospects exist below salt layers. Until relatively
recently, many explorationists did not seek prospects
below salt because seismic data had been of poor
quality below salt (i.e., it was not possible to map traps
accurately) or because they believed that reservoirquality rock or hydrocarbons did not exist below salt
layers. Advances in seismic processing and compelling
drilling results from exploration wells encouraged
companies to generate and drill prospects below salt
layers, salt sheets and other previously disregarded
potential traps. The offshore Gulf of Mexico contains
numerous subsalt-producing fields, and similar areas are
being explored internationally.
scout ticket
A brief report about a well from the time it is permitted
through drilling and completion. This typically includes
the location, total depth, logs run, production status and
formation tops.
shear strain
The amount of deformation by shearing, in which
parallel lines slide past each other in differing amounts.
The measurement is expressed as the tangent of the
change in angle between lines that were initially
perpendicular.
strata
Layers of sedimentary rock.
subsidence
The relative sinking of the Earth's surface. Plate tectonic
activity (particularly extension of the crust, which
promotes thinning and sinking), sediment loading and
removal of fluid from reservoirs are processes by which
the crust can be depressed. Subsidence can produce
areas in which sediments accumulate and, ultimately,
form sedimentary basins.
seal
anhydrite or salt, that forms a barrier or cap above and
around reservoir rock such that fluids cannot migrate
beyond the reservoir. A seal is a critical component of a
complete petroleum system. The permeability of a seal
capable of retaining fluids through geologic time is ~ 106 to 10-8 darcies.
shelf
The area at the edges of a continent from the shoreline
to a depth of 200 m [660 ft], where the continental
slope begins. The shelf is commonly a wide, flat area
with a slight seaward slope. The term is sometimes used
as a for platform.
stratigraphic analysis
An analysis of the history, composition, relative ages
and distribution of strata, and the interpretation of
strata to elucidate Earth history. The comparison, or
correlation, of separated strata can include study of
their lithology, fossil content, and relative or absolute
age, or lithostratigraphy, biostratigraphy, and
chronostratigraphy.
superposition
The stratigraphic principle that, in the case of
undeformed, flat-lying strata, younger layers are
deposited atop older ones, such that the top layer is
youngest and underlying layers increase in age with
depth. Nicolaus Steno articulated the law of
superposition of strata in the 17th century.
secondary migration
The movement of generated hydrocarbons into a
reservoir after their expulsion, or primary migration,
from a source rock.
silica
A chemically resistant dioxide of silicon that occurs in
crystalline (quartz), amorphous (opal) and
cryptocrystalline (chert) forms.
stratigraphic trap
A variety of sealed geologic container capable of
retaining hydrocarbons, formed by changes in rock type
or pinch-outs, unconformities, or sedimentary features
such as reefs. Structural traps, in contrast, consist of
geologic structures in deformed strata such as faults
and folds whose geometries permit retention of
hydrocarbons.
swamp
A wetland depositional environment in which water is
present either permanently or intermittently and in
which trees and large woody plants can grow but peat
does not form. Swamps can contain considerable
quantities of organic matter.
secondary porosity
The porosity created through alteration of rock,
commonly by processes such as dolomitization,
dissolution and fracturing.
silicate mineral
A group of rock-forming minerals in which SiO4

tetrahedra combine with cations. These minerals are the
most abundant type of mineral. Olivine, pyroxene,
amphibole, mica, quartz and feldspar are types of
silicate minerals.
stratigraphy
The study of the history, composition, relative ages and
distribution of strata, and the interpretation of strata to
elucidate Earth history. The comparison, or correlation,
of separated strata can include study of their lithology,
fossil content, and relative or absolute age, or
lithostratigraphy, biostratigraphy, and
chronostratigraphy.
sweet
Pertaining to crude oil or natural gas lacking appreciable
amounts of sulfur or sulfur compounds.
sediment
The unconsolidated grains of minerals, organic matter or
preexisting rocks, that can be transported by water, ice
or wind, and deposited. The processes by which
sediment forms and is transported occur at or near the
surface of the Earth and at relatively low pressures and
temperatures. Sedimentary rocks form from the
accumulation and lithification of sediment. Sediments
are classified according to size by the Udden-Wentworth
scale.
siliciclastic sediment
Silica-based, noncarbonaceous sediments that are
broken from preexisting rocks, transported elsewhere,
and redeposited before forming another rock. Examples
of common siliciclastic sedimentary rocks include
conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone and shale.
Carbonate rocks can also be broken and reworked to
form other types of clastic sedimentary rocks.
stratum
A layer of sedimentary rock. The plural form is strata.
syncline
Basin- or trough-shaped fold in rock in which rock layers
are downwardly convex. The youngest rock layers form
the core of the fold and outward from the core
progressively older rocks occur. Synclines typically do
not trap hydrocarbons because fluids tend to leak up the
limbs of the fold. An anticline is the opposite type of
fold, having upwardly-convex layers with old rocks in the

core.
sedimentary rocks
These rocks are formed at the Earth's surface through
deposition of sediments derived from weathered rocks,
biogenic activity or precipitation from solution. Clastic
sedimentary rocks such as conglomerates, sandstones,
siltstones and shales form as older rocks weather and
erode, and their particles accumulate and lithify, or
harden, as they are compacted and cemented. Biogenic
sedimentary rocks form as a result of activity by
organisms, including coral reefs that become limestone.
Precipitates, such as the evaporite minerals halite (salt)
and gypsum can form vast thicknesses of rock as
seawater evaporates. Sedimentary rocks can include a
wide variety of minerals, but quartz, feldspar, calcite,
dolomite and evaporite group and clay group minerals
are most common because of their greater stability at
the Earth's surface than many minerals that comprise
igneous and metamorphic rocks. Sedimentary rocks,
unlike most igneous and metamorphic rocks, can
contain fossils because they form at temperatures and
pressures that do not obliterate fossil remnants.
similar fold
A type of fold in which the thickness of the layers
remains constant when measured parallel to the axial
surface and the layers have the same wave shape, but
the thickness along each layer varies. The folded layers
tend to be thicker in the hinge of the fold and thinner
along the limbs of the fold.
stress
The force applied to a body that can result in
deformation, or strain, usually described in terms of
magnitude per unit of area, or intensity.
synthetic fault
A type of minor fault whose sense of displacement is
similar to its associated major fault. Antithetic-synthetic
fault sets are typical in areas of normal faulting.
sedimentary basin
A depression in the crust of the Earth formed by plate
tectonic activity in which sediments accumulate.
Continued deposition can cause further depression or
subsidence. Sedimentary basins, or simply basins, vary
from bowl-shaped to elongated troughs. If rich
hydrocarbon source rocks occur in combination with
appropriate depth and duration of burial, hydrocarbon

generation can occur within the basin.
sinistral
Pertaining to a strike-slip or left-lateral fault in which the
block across the fault moves to the left; also called a
sinistral strike-slip fault. If it moves to the right, the
relative motion is described as dextral.
Counterclockwise rotation or spiraling is also described
as sinistral.
strike
The azimuth of the intersection of a plane, such as a
dipping bed, with a horizontal surface.
systems tract
Subdivisions of sequences that consist of discrete
depositional units that differ in geometry from other
systems tracts and have distinct boundaries on seismic
data. Different systems tracts are considered to
represent different phases of eustatic changes. A
lowstand systems tract develops during times of
relatively low sea level; a highstand systems tract at
times of high sea level; and a transgressive systems
tract at times of changing sea level.
sedimentation
The process of creation, transportation and deposition of
sediments.
tectonic environment
Location relative to the boundary of a tectonic plate,
particularly a boundary along which plate tectonic
activity is occurring or has occurred.
tight
Describing a relatively impermeable reservoir rock from
which hydrocarbon production is difficult. Reservoirs can
be tight because of smaller grains or matrix between
larger grains, or they might be tight because they
consist predominantly of silt- or clay-sized grains, as is
the case for shale reservoirs. Stimulation of tight
formations can result in increased production from
formations that previously would have been abandoned
or produced uneconomically.
transgression
The migration of shoreline out of a basin and onto land
during retrogradation. A transgression can result in
sediments characteristic of shallow water being overlain

by deeper water sediments.
true stratigraphic thickness

The thickness of a bed or rock body after correcting for
the dip of the bed or body and the deviation of the well
that penetrates it. The values of true stratigraphic
thickness in an area can be plotted and contours drawn
to create an isopach map.
tectonics
Also known as plate tectonics, the unifying geologic
theory developed to explain observations that
interactions of the brittle plates of the lithosphere with
each other and with the softer underlying
asthenosphere result in large-scale changes in the
Earth. The theory of plate tectonics initially stemmed
from observations of the shapes of the continents,
particularly South America and Africa, which fit together
like pieces in a jigsaw puzzle and have similar rocks and
fossils despite being separated by a modern ocean. As
lithospheric plates heat up or cool down depending on
their position, or their tectonic environment, relative to
each other and to warmer areas deeper within the Earth,
they become relatively more or less dense than the
asthenosphere and thus tend to rise as molten magma
or sink in cold, brittle slabs or slide past each other.
Mountain belts can form during plate collisions or an
orogeny; diverging plates or rifts can create new
midoceanic ridges; plates that slide past one another
create transform fault zones (such as the San Andreas
fault); and zones of subduction occur where one
lithospheric plate moves beneath another. Plate tectonic
theory can explain such phenomena as earthquakes,
volcanic or other igneous activity, midoceanic ridges
and the relative youth of the oceanic crust, and the
formation of sedimentary basins on the basis of their
relationships to lithospheric plate boundaries.
Convection of the mantle is postulated to be the driving
mechanism for the movement of lithospheric plates.
Measurements of the continents using the Global
Positioning System confirm the relative motions of
plates. Age determinations of the oceanic crust confirm
that such crust is much younger than that of the
continents and has been recycled by the process of
subduction and regenerated at midoceanic ridges.
tight gas
Gas produced from a relatively impermeable reservoir
rock. Hydrocarbon production from tight reservoirs can
be difficult without stimulation operations. Stimulation of
tight formations can result in increased production from

formations that previously might have been abandoned
or been produced uneconomically. The term is generally
used for reservoirs other than shales.
true vertical thickness

The thickness of a bed or rock body measured vertically
at a point. The values of true vertical thickness in an
area can be plotted and contours drawn to create an
isochore map.
tectonism
Plate tectonic activity.
tight oil
Oil found in relatively impermeable reservoir rock.
Production of tight oil comes from very low permeability
rock that must be stimulated using hydraulic fracturing
to create sufficient permeability to allow the mature oil
and/or natural gas liquids to flow at economic rates.
transpression
The simultaneous occurrence of strike-slip faulting and
compression, or convergence, of the Earth's crust. In
areas of transpression, rocks can be faulted upward to
form a positive flower structure. Areas of strike-slip
faulting in rifting or diverging crust are experiencing
transtension, in which rocks can drop down to form a
negative flower structure.
tuff
Lithified volcanic ash.
temperature gradient
Also known as geothermal gradient, the rate of increase
in temperature per unit depth in the Earth. Although the
geothermal gradient varies from place to place, it
TOC
The concentration of organic material in source rocks as
represented by the weight percent of organic carbon. A
value of approximately 0.5% total organic carbon by
weight percent is considered the minimum for an

effective source rock, although values of 2% are
considered the minimum for shale gas reservoirs; values
exceeding 10% exist, although some geoscientists
assert that high total organic carbon values indicate the
possibility of kerogen filling pore space rather than other
forms of hydrocarbons. Total organic carbon is measured
from 1-g samples of pulverized rock that are combusted
and converted to CO or CO2. If a sample appears to
contain sufficient total organic carbon to generate
hydrocarbons, it may be subjected to pyrolysis.
transtension
The simultaneous occurrence of strike-slip faulting and
extension, rifting, or divergence of the Earth's crust. In
areas of transtension, rocks can be faulted downward to
form a negative flower structure. Areas of strike-slip
faulting in converging crust are experiencing
transpression, in which rocks can be faulted upwards to
form a positive flower structure.
tuffaceaous
Containing tuff, which is lithified volcanic ash.
terrestrial
Pertaining to sediments or depositional environments on
land or above the level of high tide.
topographic map
A contour map that displays the elevation of the Earth's
surface. This map is commonly used as the base map
for surface geological mapping.
trap
A configuration of rocks suitable for containing
hydrocarbons and sealed by a relatively impermeable
formation through which hydrocarbons will not migrate.
Traps are described as structural traps (in deformed
strata such as folds and faults) or stratigraphic traps (in
areas where rock types change, such as unconformities,
pinch-outs and reefs). A trap is an essential component
of a petroleum system.
turbidite
Sedimentary deposits formed by turbidity currents in
deep water at the base of the continental slope and on
the abyssal plain. Turbidites commonly show predictable
changes in bedding from coarse layers at the bottom to
finer laminations at the top, known as Bouma
sequences, that result from different settling velocities
of the particle sizes present. The high energy associated

with turbidite deposition can result in destruction of
earlier deposited layers by subsequent turbidity
currents.
thermal gradient
Also known as geothermal gradient, the rate of increase
in temperature per unit depth in the Earth. Although the
geothermal gradient varies from place to place, it
tortuosity
A measure of the geometric complexity of a porous
medium. This is a ratio that characterizes the
convoluted pathways of fluid diffusion and electrical
conduction through porous media. In the fluid
mechanics of porous media, tortuosity is the ratio of the
length of a streamlinea flow line or pathbetween two
points to the straight-line distance between those
points. Tortuosity is thus related to the ratio of a fluid's
diffusion coefficient when it is not confined by a porous
medium to its effective diffusion coefficient when
confined in a porous medium. Tortuosity is also related
to the formation factor, which is the ratio of electrical
resistivity of a conductive fluid in a porous medium to
the electrical resistivity of the fluid itself.
trend
The azimuth or orientation of a linear feature, such as
the axis of a fold, normally expressed as a compass
bearing.
turbidity current
An influx of rapidly moving, sediment-laden water down
a slope into a larger body of water; also called a density
current because the suspended sediment results in the
current having a higher density than the clearer water
into which it flows. Such currents can occur in lakes and
oceans, in some cases as by-products of earthquakes or
mass movements such as slumps. The sedimentary
deposits that form as the current loses energy are called
turbidites and can be preserved as Bouma sequences.
Turbidity currents are characteristic of trench slopes of
convergent plate margins and continental slopes of

passive margins.
thrust fault
A type of reverse fault in which the fault plane has a
very shallow dip, typically much less than 45o. The
hanging wall fault block moves up the fault surface
relative to the footwall. In cases of considerable lateral
movement, the fault is described as an overthrust fault.
Thrust faults can occur in areas of compression of the
Earth's crust.
transform fault
A particular type of strike-slip fault that is a boundary of
an oceanic tectonic plate. The actual movement of a
transform fault is opposite to its apparent displacement
because of the interplay of spreading and faulting
between tectonic plates.
unconformity trap
A type of hydrocarbon trap whose closure is controlled
by the presence of an unconformity. There is
disagreement about whether unconformity traps are
structural or stratigraphic traps.
underpressured
Referring to pore pressure less than normal or
hydrostatic pressure. Underpressure, or a zone of
underpressure, is common in areas or formations that
have had hydrocarbon production.
uniformitarianism
The geological principle formulated by James Hutton in
1795 and publicized by Charles Lyell in 1830 that
geological processes occurring today have occurred
similarly in the past, often articulated as, "The present is
the key to the past."
Udden-Wentworth scale
A grade scale for classifying the diameters of sediments.
Particles larger than 64 mm in diameter are classified as
cobbles. Smaller particles are pebbles, granules, sand
and silt. Those smaller than 0.0039 mm are clay. Several
other grain size scales are in use, but the UddenWentworth scale (commonly called the Wentworth scale)
is the one that is most frequently used in geology.
unconventional resource
An umbrella term for oil and natural gas that is produced
by means that do not meet the criteria for conventional
production. What has qualified as unconventional at any

particular time is a complex function of resource
characteristics, the available exploration and production
technologies, the economic environment, and the scale,
frequency and duration of production from the resource.
Perceptions of these factors inevitably change over time
and often differ among users of the term. At present, the
term is used in reference to oil and gas resources whose
porosity, permeability, fluid trapping mechanism, or
other characteristics differ from conventional sandstone
and carbonate reservoirs. Coalbed methane, gas
hydrates, shale gas, fractured reservoirs, and tight gas
sands are considered unconventional resources.
undrained test
This test is one in which the fluid in the sample is not
able to flow and equilibrate to imposed pore pressure
conditions; the fluid mass remains the same while the
fluid volume and pressure will vary.
Universal Transverse Mercator grid (UTM)

A worldwide grid system of rectangular map coordinates
that uses metric (SI) units. A location is specified on the
basis of its location within one of 60 zones worldwide of
6o of longitude and 8o of latitude each that are
subdivided into subzones that are 100,000 m [330,000
ft] on each side. Locations consist of a series of numbers
and letters that can be accurate to within an area of one
square meter. The headquarters of the Geological
Society of America are at 13TDQ8743172 (Merrill, 1986).
Information about the UTM grid, including grid ticks on
quadrangle maps, can be found on most maps produced
by the US Geological Survey. Latitude and longitude
coordinates, or geographic coordinates, are another
means of locating a point at the Earth's surface, but the
accuracy, computer compatibility and uniqueness of
UTM have resulted in its finding acceptance within the
scientific community.
unconfined compressive strength

A measure of a material's strength. The unconfined
compressive strength (UCS) is the maximum axial
compressive stress that a right-cylindrical sample of
material can withstand under unconfined conditions
the confining stress is zero. It is also known as the
uniaxial compressive strength of a material because the
application of compressive stress is only along one axis
the longitudinal axisof the sample.
underpressure
Pore pressure less than normal or hydrostatic pressure.

Underpressure, or a zone of underpressure, is common
in areas or formations that have had hydrocarbon
production.
uniaxial compressive strength

A measure of a material's strength. The uniaxial
compressive strength (UCS) is the maximum axial
compressive stress that a right-cylindrical sample of
material can withstand before failing. It is also known as
the unconfined compressive strength of a material
because confining stress is set to zero.
updip
Located up the slope of a dipping plane or surface. In a
dipping (not flat-lying) hydrocarbon reservoir that
unconformity
A geological surface separating older from younger
rocks and representing a gap in the geologic record.
Such a surface might result from a hiatus in deposition
of sediments, possibly in combination with erosion, or
deformation such as faulting. An angular unconformity
separates younger strata from eroded, dipping older
strata. A disconformity represents a time of
nondeposition, possibly combined with erosion, and can
be difficult to distinguish within a series of parallel
strata. A nonconformity separates overlying strata from
eroded, older igneous or metamorphic rocks. The study
and interpretation of unconformities locally, regionally
and globally is the basis of sequence stratigraphy.
varve
A rhythmic sequence of sediments deposited in annual
cycles in glacial lakes. Light-colored, coarse summer
grains are deposited by rapid melting of the glacier. The
summer layers grade upward to layers of finer, dark
winter grains of clay minerals or organic material that
are deposited slowly from suspension in quiet water
while streams and lakes are icebound. Varves are useful
to the study of geochronology because they can be
counted to determine the absolute age of some
Pleistocene rocks of glacial origin.
virgin pressure
The original, undisturbed pressure of a reservoir prior to
fluid production.
volcanic
Pertaining to surface features of the Earth that allow
magma, ash and gas to erupt. The vent can be a fissure
or a conical structure.
vuggy
Containing vugs, which are cavities, voids or large pores
in a rock that are commonly lined with mineral
precipitates.
vesicle
Bubble-shaped cavities in volcanic rock formed by
expansion of gas dissolved in the precursor magma.
vitrinite
A type of woody kerogen that is relatively uniform in
composition. Since vitrinite changes predictably and
consistently upon heating, its reflectance is a useful
measurement of source rock maturity. Strictly speaking,
the plant material that forms vitrinite did not occur prior
to Ordovician time. Also, because vitrinite originated in
wood, its occurrence in marine rocks might be limited by
the depositional processes that act in a given
depositional environment.
volcano
A surface feature of the Earth that allows magma, ash
and gas to erupt. The vent can be a fissure or a conical
structure.
vugular
Referring to vugs, which are cavities, voids or large
pores in a rock that are commonly lined with mineral
precipitates.
vesicular
Pertaining to vesicles, bubble-shaped cavities in volcanic
rock formed by expansion of gas dissolved in the
precursor magma.
vitrinite reflectance
A measurement of the maturity of organic matter with
respect to whether it has generated hydrocarbons or
could be an effective source rock.
vug
A cavity, void or large pore in a rock that is commonly
lined with mineral precipitates.
vugular porosity
Pore space consisting of cavities or vugs. Vugular
porosity can occur in rocks prone to dissolution, such as
limestone, in which case it is secondary porosity.
vesicular porosity
A type of porosity resulting from the presence of
vesicles, or gas bubbles, in igneous rock.
Wadati-Benioff zone
A zone of the upper mantle in which earthquakes occur
when a lithospheric plate is subducted, named in honor
of seismologists Kiyoo Wadati and Hugo Benioff. The dip
of the Wadati-Benioff zone coincides with the dip of the
subducting plate. The Wadati-Benioff zone extends to a
depth of about 700 km [435 miles] from the Earth's
surface.
weathering
The physical, chemical and biological processes that
decompose rock at and below the surface of the Earth
through low pressures and temperatures and the
presence of air and water. Weathering includes
processes such as dissolution, chemical weathering,
disintegration and hydration.
wet gas
Natural gas that contains less methane (typically less
than 85% methane) and more ethane and other more
complex hydrocarbons.
wrench fault
A type of strike-slip fault in which the fault surface is
vertical, and the fault blocks move sideways past each
other. Given the geological complexity of some
deformed rocks, including rocks that have experienced
more than one episode of deformation, it can be difficult
to distinguish a wrench fault from a strike-slip fault. Also,
areas can be deformed more than once or experience
ongoing structuring such that fault surfaces can be
rotated from their original orientations.
weathered layer
A near-surface, possibly unconsolidated layer of low
seismic velocity. The base of the weathered layer
commonly coincides with the water table and a sharp
increase in seismic velocity. The weathered layer
typically has air-filled pores.
Wentworth scale
Another name for the Udden-Wentworth scale, a grade
scale for classifying the diameters of sediments.
Particles larger than 64 mm in diameter are classified as
cobbles. Smaller particles are pebbles, granules, sand
and silt. Those smaller than 0.0039 mm are clay. Several
other grain size scales are in use, but the UddenWentworth scale (commonly called the Wentworth scale)
is the one that is most frequently used in geology.
yield point
The elastic limit, or the point at which a material can no
longer deform elastically. When the elastic limit is
exceeded by an applied stress, permanent deformation
occurs.
zone
An interval or unit of rock differentiated from
surrounding rocks on the basis of its fossil content or
other features, such as faults or fractures. For example,
a fracture zone contains numerous fractures. A
biostratigraphic zone contains a particular fossil or
fossils.

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American Association of Petroleum Geologists

What does AAPG stand for?

acoustic well logging

authority for expenditure

a large sloping sedimentary deposit at the mouth of a

American Association of Petroleum Geologists

authority for expenditure

cash flow analysis

a method of separating a solution of closely related

a light hydrocarbon liquid obtained by condensation of

5-30 miles (10-50 km)

oxygen, silicon and aluminum

cut fluorescence test

Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return

relationship between drawdown and the producing rate.

death, the cell wall persists and forms diatomite.

The charges detonated by the seismologist create

drill stem test

dry hole money

is present, and 0 when another fluid prevents all flow of

electric well log

enhanced oil recovery (EOR)

a division of geologic time; a subdivision of a geologic

expected value concept

the emission of magma at the earth's surface.

cannot always escape and must then support the total

applied pressures above 100 MPa [14,500 psi]. This zone

with reservoir-quality rocks in their core and

The condition of an environment in which free oxygen is

depositional bedding as sediments are compacted,

Barite is commonly used to add weight to drilling fluid.

thickness. The thickness of a given bed often varies

high depositional energy overlain by successively finer

ft], the edge of the continental shelf, and 2000 m [6560

The value of the separation between two adjacent

Pertaining to the movement of tectonic plates toward

the outer layers of the Earth suggests a dense inner

2. The nature of the contact between strata deposited

submarine erosion or of nondeposition, and along which

Production of natural gas from coal requires

Coal seams are typically saturated with water.

Coal seams with no water (dry coal) have been

2. The area, or areal closure, included in the lowest

Pertaining to sediments that have been compacted and

The process of precipitation of cement between mineral

coal bed methane

Production of natural gas from coal requires

Coal seams are typically saturated with water.

Coal seams with no water (dry coal) have been

according to fluid density, with gas at the top, oil in the

coal seam gas

Production of natural gas from coal requires

Coal seams are typically saturated with water.

Coal seams with no water (dry coal) have been

Production of natural gas from coal requires

Coal seams are typically saturated with water.

Coal seams with no water (dry coal) have been

can form beds, but is more common as nodules in

Production of natural gas from coal requires

Coal seams are typically saturated with water.

Coal seams with no water (dry coal) have been

Production of natural gas from coal requires