Topic

Fire Services in
Buildings

LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1.

Explain the principles of fire safety;

2.

Differentiate the various classifications of fire risks;

3.

Describe the operation of heat, smoke and infrared detectors;

4.

Identify the equipment used in fire suppression; and

5.

Describe the operation of hose reels, dry and wet risers and sprinklers.

X INTRODUCTION
The fire protection services of a building have increasingly adopted an integrated
engineering approach with the systematic understanding of fire behaviour. This
therefore improves the provision of fire detection and suppression equipment in
a building.
Fire protection can only function satisfactorily when they are conceived as an
integral part of a fire system. The fire systems with a sophisticated detection,
warning and suppression system give architects and designers greater freedom
of spatial planning. The fire system or plan should take consideration of the
design, the construction, the means of detection, the warning procedure, the
escape route and the fire extinguishing capabilities.

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7.1

PRINCIPLES OF FIRE SAFETY

7.1.1

Fire Behaviour

163

Knowledge of how fire behaves is fundamental to fire prevention, protection and

suppression. An understanding of how fire develops, its behaviour, and the fireextinguishing agents are a crucial elementary step towards fire prevention and
protection.
Fire develops when combustible material is maintained at above ignition
temperature in the presence of adequate supplies of oxygen. The three basic
elements which are pre- requisites for the ignition of fire are:
(a)

Fuel, which is the material to burn;

(b) Air, which is oxygen to sustain the combustion; and

(c)

Heat.

The process of combustion can be likened to a triangle as shown in Figure 7.1.

Removal of any of these elements would result in the extinguishing of the fire.
Technically, we can say that either temperature diminution, fuel elimination or
oxygen elimination will extinguish the fire. This theory forms the basis for fire
fighting.

Heat

Oxygen

FIRE

Fuel

Figure 7.1: The fire triangle

Part of the heat generated by the fire preheats ignitable material by radiation and
hence the fire spreads if enough air is available. Radiation levels must be high
enough to heat the material to above ignition temperature and for example, in
the case of dry wood, it is 13 W/m2.
The products of combustion, containing dense deposits of particles or aerosols
together with gases, rises in a plume due to buoyancy, so that air is drawn in at

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low level, thus feeding the fire below with oxygen. The peak plume temperature
can be up to 1000C.
Buildings usually contain combustible material. A house, hotel or office can
generate fire with a heat at a rate of 290 W/m2 and the fire can double in size
every five minutes. The contents of these buildings are, of course, derived from
crude oil and trees, and the wide use of plastics and timber in modern styles
furnishings all present a high risk of combustion.

7.1.2

Fire Risks

Fire risks are often classified into 4 different classes, namely class A, B C and D
(Based on MS 1182:1990). They are described in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1: Classification of Fire Risks (Based on MS 1182: 1990)
CLASS

RISK INVOLVED

METHOD OF EXTINGUISHING

Wood
Paper
Textiles

Cooling.

Inflammable liquids including

petrols, oils, greases, paints,
varnishes.

Smoothering the effects of agents.

Dry powder, foam or carbon
dioxide.

Electrical equipment.

Smothering with a nonconductive agent. Dry powder or

carbon dioxide.

Heavy metal chemical reaction

fire, metals include magnesium,
titanium, zirconium, sodium and
potassium.

Smothering effect of
which exclude oxygen.

agents

ACTIVITY 7.1
Walk around the building that you are sitting right now. Can you
identify the fire risks in the building?

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FIRE SERVICES IN BUILDING

165

Effects of Fire and Threat to Life

Deaths caused by fire are often attributed to different effects of fire upon
occupants in an enclosed space. Table 7.2 shows how the effects of fire cause
threat to the human body.
Table 7.2: Effects of Fire Upon the Human Body
Effect of Fire

Threat to the Human Body

(a)

High temperature

Damages eye and skin, scorches lungs and air

passages.

(b)

Low oxygen

It is still acceptable if the level of oxygen goes down to

15%, but lower than 5% can be fatal.

(c)

High carbon dioxide

Up to 6% of carbon dioxide is acceptable, but dangerous

if over 8%. Carbon dioxide is absorbed into the
bloodstream and causes rapid breathing.

(d)

Smoke

Solid particle, this obscures vision and impedes

escape.

poisoning - loss of coordination. This is the main

killer in fires.

Affects eyes and lungs, thus impeding escape.

In Malaysia, deaths due to fire in buildings are on the rise, in particular deaths
due to smoke. The increased use of plastics, polyethylene, PVCs and organic
materials in furnishing and construction materials often contributes to the
increase in fire deaths. These materials produce large volumes of smoke and
toxic gases during a fire which can be fatal within 30 minutes. The properties of
materials related to surface spread of flame should be taken into consideration in
choosing the construction materials for air ducts, plant and duct insulation.

7.2

FIRE PREVENTION, PROTECTION AND

SUPPRESSION SYSTEM

All buildings should be designed and maintained to reduce the risk of initiation
and development of fire and should be equipped, to an appropriated extent, with
fire detection and fire suppression systems.

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Fire Protective Systems

Fire protective systems help to protect lives and property by detecting and
subsequently suppressing fire. They comprise of the fire detectors and the
warning system. Detection systems help to give early warning of a fire outbreak
and help to protect lives and property. Detection systems can range from a very
simple to a very sophisticated system.
Fire Detectors
Fire detectors are installed to detect stages of fire development such as:
(a)

Incipient invisible gases and smell;

(b) Smouldering visible gases and particles;

(c)

Flame visible gases and flame, noise, etc.; and

(d) Heat Intense heat, flame, noise, etc.

Automatic fire detectors are classed as heat detectors, smoke detectors and
infrared detectors according to the detecting function. The following are
examples of the above fire detectors to detect an early outbreak and to give
alarm:
(a)

Heat (Thermal) Detectors

Heat detectors can be fixed up to 10 m apart, and operate at the smouldering and
flame stages of fire. Heat detectors are slow to detect fire and normally not used
for life safety. However, they are not expensive, can be installed locally and have
a low rate of false alarm.
There are two types of heat detectors:
(i)

Fixed temperature of 650C reacts when the ambient temperature reaches

the nominal operating level; and

(ii) Rate of temperature rise detects a fire when there is a rapid increase of
temperature.

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167

Figure 7.2 shows an example of a heat detector.

Source: Hall (1995)

(b) Smoke Detectors

Smoke and toxic gases are the two main killers in a fire outbreak. Smoke
detectors are effective for fires which are at the smouldering stage. It detects
an outbreak at the earliest stage (incipient stage). Smoke detectors basically
work on 2 principles; ionisation and photoelectric.
(i)

Ionisation detectors this is a sensitive detector which reacts to

invisible combustion gases released in the early stages of a fire. It is a
good early detector but can be triggered even by cigar smoke, thus
making it not suitable for all locations.

(ii) Photoelectric detectors these detectors operate in the smouldering

stage of a fire, and are normally fixed at 12 m apart. The smoke from
the fire interrupts the light beam and the sensor operates automatically.
Figure 7.3 shows an example of an ionisation smoke detector.

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Figure 7.3 Ionisation smoke detector.

Source : Hall (1995)

(c)

Flame (Infrared) Detectors

Infrared detectors operate at the incipient and smouldering stages of a fire.
Infrared detectors detect the infrared radiation of a fire using a photocell
and are effective in rapidly spreading fires.
Figure 7.4 shows how smoke triggers the operation of a detector system.

Figure 7.4: Light obscuring detector system

Source : Hall (1995)

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169

Warning system
(a)

Fire Alarm Station

The simplest form of a fire alarm is a series of manually operated switches.
Located on each floor and for each zone, the fire alarm stations are for
manual operation on discovery of a fire outbreak. By breaking the
transparent plastic cover and pushing the pushbutton inside the box, a
signal is transmitted to the control panel. Accordingly, it should be placed at
a height where it is easy to reach from any location and is easy for operation.
Ideally, it should be placed along a wall which must be passed on the way
to an emergency exit.

(b) Combination Panel

The fire alarm station and location light and zone bell can be mounted as a
complete unit rather than as individual installations in a single box. This is
known as a combination panel.
(c)

Sounding Pevices
These are devices to alert the building occupants of the outbreak of fire.
They can be either:
(i)

A bell normally motor driven of low current consumption;

(ii) A siren loud alarm sound for schools, factories etc. where the sound
is required on the external of the building; and
(iii) Intermittent buzzer with lamp this is ideal as a zone annunciator.

7.3

FIRE SUPPRESSION

All buildings and more particularly, the large and those frequented by the public
must be provided with suitable fire fighting equipment.

7.3.1

Fire Fighting Equipment

There are two types of fire fighting equipment usually installed in buildings,
namely:

Portable fire fighting equipment; and

Fixed fire fighting apparatus.

(a)

Portable Equipment
Table 7.3 shows the different types of portable fire fighting equipment
available, the fire fighting elements contained and their applications.

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Table 7.3: Different Types of Portable Equipment and Its Application

Types

Fire Fighting Element

Remarks

Portable extinguishers

2 gallon (9 litre) capacity

Soda/acid or water/gas
pressure type

Not for use on electrical or

liquid fires

Fire buckets

2 gallons Water or sand

Sand used for liquid or

electrical fires

Foam cylinders

2 gallon

Used for liquid fires

garages and kitchens but
also general fires except
electrical

Dry powder units

Bicarbonates Injected close

to fire

Liquid, electrical and

general fires very little
mess

Carbon dioxide cylinders

Injected at root of fire to

avoid thermal up-current
action

Liquid and electrical fires

leaves no mess

Halogen liquid cylinders

Some form of halogenated

methane (BCF of Halon)

Electrical fires liquids and

gaseous fires leaves no
mess

Fire Blanket

Small fires in kitchens,

garages, laboratories
leaves no mess

ACTIVITY 7.2
Visit http://www.fpaa.com.au/publications/FSDS6-Extinguishers.pdf
for more information on the portable fire extinguishers.
How many portable fire extinguishers are available at your workplace?
Find out what type are they?

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171

(b) Fixed Apparatus

These are:
(i)

Hose reels;

(ii) Dry and wet risers; and

(iii) Sprinkler system.
(a) Hose Reels
These are small diameter rubber hoses and they can be provided for
occupants in case of an outbreak of fire. These hose reels is normally wound
on to a drum and installed in a recess along the corridor or landing wall.
Installation of hose reels has to be taken into consideration during the
planning of the buildings. Among the considerations is their locality to
ensure that they are within reasonable reach (6 m) to all parts of the
building.
(b) Dry and Wet Risers
Most major fires have to be controlled and extinguished by the use of water
from hoses operated by respective fire brigades and this water is obtained
from hydrants on public mains laid underground in or near public roads.
In highrise buildings, premises covering large areas and buildings which are
not close to public hydrants, private hydrant systems may be necessary to
be installed to enable fire brigades to get to work with the hoses without
delay. Some of these systems supply water to landing valves at the upper
storeys of buildings.
Strategically placed hydrants and landing valves on rising mains reduce the
need to carry and use long lengths of hose. There are 2 types of systems for
this purpose; dry risers and wet risers.
(i)

Dry Risers
Basically, a dry riser consists of an empty or dry pipe rising vertically
of the building level with hydrant valves on each floor and at the roof
level. Inlets are fitted at street level through which fire brigades can
pump water to the landing valves. A dry riser is therefore an extension
of the firemens hose.

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Figure 7.5 shows a typical arrangement of a dry riser system.

Figure 7.5: Typical arrangement of a dry riser system

Source: Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide, (1988)
Institute of Plumbing, England,

(ii)

Wet Risers
A wet riser is a dry riser with a permanent water supply system (usually
pumped) added to it. Water may be supplied either by a direct connection to
the towns mains or in pumps from storage tanks.

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173

Figure 7.6 shows a typical arrangement of a wet riser system.

Figure 7.6: Typical arrangement of a wet riser system

Source: Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide (1988),

(c)

Sprinkler System
Sprinkler systems are designed to automatically distribute water through
sprinklers at a defined interval distance to control or suppress fire.
A sprinkler system consists of a network of pipes connected to a suitable
water supply and fixed at ceiling level throughout the protected building. In
the event of a fire, the heat generated causes the fusible element to its fusing
point. The fusible element then melts or bursts and the levers holding the
cap fall out and thus allow water to be discharged into the fire in the form of
a fine spray.
It is by far, the most important and successful system in particular for
buildings where there is only intermittent supervision and people do not
continuously occupy. These include car parks, warehouse stores and largespace buildings.

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The sprinkler system has proven to be a very successful system. Statistics in

U.S has indicated that over 94% of the fires recorded in recent years have
either been extinguished or confined by the sprinkler system prior to the
arrival of the fire brigade.
Figure 7.7 shows a typical arrangement of a sprinkler system.

Figure 7.7: Typical arrangement of a sprinkler system

Source: Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide(1988),
Institute of Plumbing, England

Visit http://www.archive.official-documents.co.uk/document/fire/part3f.htm
to know more on fire extinguishers, hose reels and other fixed fire fighting
equipment.

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SELF-CHECK 7.1
Every year in Malaysia, statistics of fire occurrence is on the rise.
What are the major causes of these fires?

EXERCISE 7.1
1.

How does present life style of living becomes a contributing factor

towards death due to smoke during fire?

2.

Identify the various stages of fire development and for each stage,
identify the detector type suitable to be used.

3.

Sprinkler system has been known to be a very successful system.

Explain why in certain situations it is particularly suitable.

To find out more on fire protection, please visit the following websites:
http://www.bomba.gov.my
http://www.nfpa.org

In this topic, we have studied the principles of fire safety, and the protection
and suppression strategies of fires.

The proper understanding of these concepts enable builders to have greater

freedom of spatial planning and incorporating fire fighting detection and
capability in the design of buildings.