Respiration During Exercise hk468 PDF

Chapter 10
The pathway for O2 from lung to skeletal

muscle mitochondria
Copyright 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 10
Respiration During Exercise
Chapter 10
Outline
Function of the Lung
Structure of the
Respiratory System
Conducting Zone
Respiratory Zone
Mechanics of
Breathing
Inspiration
Expiration
Airway Resistance
Ventilation-Perfusion
Relationships
O2 and CO2 Transport
in Blood
Hemoglobin and O2
Transport
Oxyhemoglobin
Dissociation Curve
O2 Transport in Muscle
O2 Transport in Blood
Ventilation and AcidBase Balance

Pulmonary Ventilation
Ventilation and BloodPulmonary Volumes
Gas Responses to
and Capacities
Exercise
Rest-to-Work Transition
Diffusion of Gases
Prolonged Exercise in a
Blood Flow to the
Hot Environment
Lung
Incremental Exercise
Control of Ventilation
Ventilatory Regulation at
Rest
Respiratory Control
Center
Effect of Blood PCO2,
PO2, and Potassium on
Ventilation
Neural Input to the
Respiratory Control
Center
Ventilatory Control During
Submaximal Exercise
Ventilatory Control During
Heavy Exercise
Do the Lungs Adapt to

Exercise Training?
Does the Pulmonary
System Limit Maximal
Exercise
Performance?
Chapter 10
Introduction
Pulmonary respiration
Ventilation
Exchange of O2 and CO2 in the lungs
Cellular respiration
O2 utilization and CO2 production by the tissues
Purposes of the respiratory system during exercise

Gas exchange between the environment and the body
Regulation of acid-base balance during exercise
CO
Structure of the Respiratory System
Chapter 10
Major Organs of the Respiratory System
Name of branches
Frontal
sinus
Trachea
Nasal
cavity
Soft palate
Pharynx
Nostril
Epiglottis
Oral
cavity
Esophagus
Larynx
Conducting zone
Bronchi
Hard
palate
Bronchioles
Trachea
Terminal bronchioles
Bronchus
Respiratory zone
Respiratory bronchioles
Alveolar ducts
Alveolar sacs
Right lung
Left lung
Figure 10.3 The conducting zones
of the pulmonary system.

Figure
10.1All Major
organs
of the respiratory
system.
Copyright 2015 McGraw-Hill
Education.
rights reserved.
No reproduction
or distribution without
the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 10
Conducting and Respiratory Zones

Conducting zone
Conducts air to respiratory
zone
Humidifies, warms, and
filters air
Components:
Trachea
Bronchial tree
Bronchioles
Respiratory zone
Exchange of gases between
air and blood
Components:
Alveolar sacs
Surfactant prevents alveolar
collapse
Chapter 10
Conducting
and
Respiratory
Zones
Name of branches
Number
of tubes
in branch
Trachea
Bronchi
Pharynx
Epiglottis
Esophagus
Conducting zone
Soft palate
4
8
Bronchioles
16
32
Trachea
Terminal bronchioles
6 x 104
Respiratory zone
5 x 105
Alveolar ducts
Alveolar sacs
Left lung
8 x 106
Figure 10.3 The conducting zones and respiratory zones

CONFIRMING PAG
Chapter 10
The Bronchial Tree

Respiratory zone
Conducting zone
Number of
branches
Terminal bronchiole
(1) Trachea
(2) Primary
bronchus
Respiratory
bronchioles
(500,000)
Bronchial
tree
Alveolar sacs
(8 million)
(60,000)
Figure 10.4
Alveolus
Terminal
bronchioles
The bronchial tree consists of the passageways that connect the trachea and the alveoli.
functions to filter
and humidify the air as it moves
e Chapter
lung tissue
10 from
rcise when breath-
within tiny air sacs called alveoli.

The air passages of the respiratory Structure
system areof the Respiratory System
divided into two functional zones: (1) conducting zone; and (2) respiratory zone.
Type II Alveolar Cells
curs across about

rmous number of
g with a large suris estimated that
r diffusion in the
meters (i.e., size of
iffusion is further
veolus is only one
-gas barrier is only
and capillary cell)
Fluid with surfactant

Type I alveolar cell
Type II alveolar cell
Alveolus
White blood cell

Red blood cell
Macrophage
the ideal structure

ese tiny bubbles
ung. For example,
essure exerted due
e liquid lining the
velop, which tend
me of the alveolar
synthesize and reCapillary
which lowers the
hus prevents their
Figure 10.5 Relationship between type II alveolar cells
Chapter 10

Lungs are enclosed by membranes called pleura
Visceral pleura
On outer surface of lung
Parietal pleura
Lines the thoracic wall
Intrapleural space
Intrapleural pressure is lower than atmospheric
Prevents collapse of alveoli
Chapter 10
Right lung
Left lung
Figure 10.3
The conduct
of the pulmonary system
Position of the Lungs, Diaphragm, and

Pleura
structures (e.g., trache
Figure 10.1
Major organs of the respiratory system.
Parietal pleura
Mediastinum
that air passes through

The region of the lung
labeled the respiratory
ratory bronchioles, alv
Respiratory bronchiole
because they contain
Conducting Zone
Air enters the trache

which receives air from
ties. At rest, healthy
nose. However, during
the mouth becomes t
Diaphragm
(33). For gas to enter
pass through a valve-lik
which is located betwe
Visceral pleura
The trachea branch
(right and left) that en
tree then branches sev
ing bronchioles. Brochi
Figure 10.2 Position of the lungs, diaphragm, and pleura.
bronchial tree. The bro
times
before they beco
Copyright 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill
Education.
Mechanics of Breathing
Chapter 10
Movement of air occurs via bulk flow
Movement of molecules due to pressure difference
Inspiration
Diaphragm pushes downward, ribs lift outward
Volume of lungs increases
Intrapulmonary pressure lowered
Expiration
Diaphragm relaxes, ribs pulled downward
Volume of lungs decreases
Intrapulmonary pressure raised
Chapter 10
The Mechanics of Inspiration

and Expiration
Chapter 10
The Mechanics of Inspiration

and Expiration
CONFIRMING
PAGES
Mechanics
of Breathing
Chapter 10
The Muscles of Respiration

Muscles of inspiration
Muscles of expiration
Sternocleidomastoid
Scalenes
External intercostals
Internal intercostals
Diaphragm
Internal intercostals
External abdominal oblique
Internal abdominal oblique

Transversus abdominis
Rectus abdominis
Figure 10.7
The
muscles of respiration. The principal muscles of inspiration are shown on the left side of the trunk;
Chapter 10
Airway Resistance
Airflow depends on:
Pressure difference between two ends of airway
Resistance of airways
P1 P2
Airflow =
Resistance
Airway resistance depends on diameter

Chronic obstructive lung disease
Asthma and exercise-induced asthma
Chapter 10
The amount of air moved in or out of the lungs per
minute (V)
Tidal volume (VT)
Amount of air moved per breath
Breathing frequency (f)

Number of breaths per minute
V = VT x f
Alveolar ventilation (VA)
Volume of air that reaches the respiratory zone
Dead-space ventilation (VD)
Volume of air remaining in conducting airways
V = VA + VD
Pulmonary Volumes and Capacities
Chapter 10

Vital capacity (VC)
Maximum amount of gas that can be expired after a maximum
inspiration
Residual volume (RV)

Volume of gas remaining in lungs after maximum expiration
Total lung capacity (TLC)

Amount of gas in the lungs after a maximum inspiration.
Pulmonary VolumesCONFIRMING
and CapacitiesP
Chapter 10
Lung Volumes and Capacities

6,000
Maximum possible inspiration
Lung volume (mL)
5,000
4,000
Inspiratory
Vital capacity capacity
Inspiratory
reserve volume
Tidal
volume
3,000
Total lung capacity
2,000
1,000
Expiratory
reserve volume
Maximum voluntary
expiration
Residual
volume
Functional residual
capacity
re 10.9 A spirogram showing lung volumes and capacities at rest.
al capacity (VC)
is defined as the maximum
does not affect any of these lung volumes or ca
volume of gas remaining in the lungs after a maximum
Chapter
10 Finally, total lung capacity (TLC) is deexpiration.
fined as the volume of gas in the lungs after a maximum inspiration; it is the sum of the two lung volumes
(VC 1 RV) just mentioned. Note that exercise training
diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disPulmonary Volumes and Capacities

ease (COPD). For example, because of increased airway resistance, COPD patients will have a diminished
vital capacity and a reduced rate of expired airflow
during a maximal expiratory effort. An illustration
Definitions of Pulmonary Volumes

and Capacities
TABLE 10.1 Respiratory Volumes and Capacities for a 70-Kg Young Adult Male
Measurement
Respiratory Volumes
Tidal volume ( TV)
Typical Value
500 mL
Inspiratory reserve volume ( IRV)
3,000 mL
Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
1,200 mL
Residual volume (RV)
1,300 mL
Respiratory Capacities
Vital capacity ( VC)
4,700 mL
Inspiratory capacity ( IC )
3,500 mL
Functional residual capacity (FRC)
2,500 mL
Total lung capacity ( TLC)
6,000 mL
Definition
Amount of air inhaled or exhaled in one breath
during quiet breathing
Amount of air in excess of tidal volume that can
be inhaled with maximum effort
Amount of air in excess of tidal volume that can
be exhaled with maximum effort
Amount of air remaining in the lungs after
maximum expiration; that is, the amount of
air that can never be voluntarily exhaled
Amount of air that can be forcefully exhaled
following a maximum inspiration VC 5
(ERV 1 TV 1 IRV)
Maximum amount of air that can be inhaled
following a normal expiration (IC 5 T V 1 IRV)
Amount of air remaining in the lungs following
a normal expiration (FRC 5 RV 1 ERV)
Maximum amount of air in the lungs at the
end of a maximum inspiration (TLC 5 RV 1 VC)
Chapter 10
Lung Volumes and Capacities
Diffusion of Gases
Chapter 10
Partial Pressure of Gases

Daltons law
The total pressure of a gas mixture is equal to the sum of the
pressure that each gas would exert independently
Calculation of partial pressure

Pair = PO2 + PCO2 + PN2
Gas
% in air
Fraction
Barometric P
Partial P
O2
20.93
0.2093
760 mmHg
159 mmHg
CO2
0.03
0.0003
760 mmHg
0.3 mmHg
N2
79.04
0.7904
760 mmHg
600.7 mmHg
Total
100
760 mmHg
Chapter 10
Chapter 10

Alveolar air does not have the same concentrations of
gases as atmospheric air
1) the alveolar air is only partially replaced by atmospheric air with each breath
2) oxygen is constantly being absorbed into the pulmonary blood from the
alveolar air
3) Third, carbon dioxide is constantly diffusing from the pulmonary blood into the
alveoli
4) atmospheric air that enters the respiratory passages is humidified even before
it reaches the alveoli
Diffusion of Gases
Chapter 10
Diffusion of Gases
Ficks law of diffusion
The rate of gas transfer (V gas) is proportional to the tissue
area, the diffusion coefficient of the gas, and the difference in
the partial pressure of the gas on the two sides of the tissue,
and inversely proportional to the thickness.
V gas =
A
x D x (P1 P2)
T
V gas = rate of diffusion

A = tissue area
T = tissue thickness
D = diffusion coefficient of gas
P1 P2 = difference in partial pressure
Diffusion of Gases
Chapter 10
CONFIRMING PAGES
Partial Pressures of O2 and CO2 and

Gas Exchange
Expired air
PO2 116 mm Hg
PCO2 32 mm Hg
Alveolar
gas exchange
Alveolar air
PO2 104 mm Hg
PCO2 40 mm Hg
O2 loading
CO2 unloading
CO2
Gas transport
O2 carried
from alveoli
to systemic
tissues
CO2 carried
from systemic
tissues to
alveoli
Inspired air
PO2 159 mm Hg
PCO2 0.3 mm Hg
O2
Pulmonary circuit
Deoxygenated
blood
PO2 40 mm Hg
PCO2 46 mm Hg
Oxygenated blood
PO2 95 mm Hg
PCO2 40 mm Hg
Systemic circuit
Systemic
gas exchange
CO2
O2
O2 unloading
CO2 loading
Tissue fluid
PO2 40 mm Hg
PCO2 46 mm Hg
Figure 10.11 Partial pressures of oxygen (PO2) and carbon dioxide (PCO2) in blood as a result of gas exchange in the
Chapter 10
Diffusion of Gases
Partial Pressures of O2 and CO2 and

Gas Exchange
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Diffusion of Gases
Chapter 10
In Summary
Gas moves across the blood-gas interface in the lung due to simple
diffusion.
The rate of diffusion is described by Ficks law and diffusion is greater
when the surface area is large, the tissue thickness is small, and the
driving pressure is high.
Blood Flow to the Lung
Chapter 10

Pulmonary circuit
Same rate of flow as systemic circuit
Lower pressure
When standing, most of the blood flow is to the base

of the lung
Due to gravitational force
During exercise, more blood flow to apex
Chapter 10
The Pulmonary
and Systemic
Circulation
CO2
O2
Pulmonary
circulation Pulmonary
artery
Lungs
R.A.
R.V.
Ventilation
(L/min)
Apex
0.24
Base
0.82
Pulmonary
vein
L.A.
L.V.
Heart
Liver
Hepatic
portal vein
Aorta
Systemic
circulation
Vena cava
Hepatic
artery
Intestines
Kidneys
Tissue capillaries
CO2
Fluid
Figure 10.14
The relationsh
blood flow (ventilation/pe
(apex) and the base of the
that the base of the lung i
ventilation and that the a
to ventilation. This uneve
ventilation results in less-
O2
generally not equal to 1

varies depending on the
Tissue cells
sidered (32, 40, 57, 67, 11
Fig. 10.14, where the
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Education.
Figure 10.12 The pulmonary circulation is a lowFluid
0.07
Blood Flow to the
Lungli
Chapter 10
Blood flow
Regional Blood Flow within the Lung
5
Bottom
Figure 10.13
Rib number
2
Top
Regional blood flow within the lung. Note

that
there is a linear decrease in blood flow from the
0.24/0
propor
flow, w
the ven
0.82 li
minute
less th
ventila
ratios
ditions
greater
change
W
ratio? L
relation
small V
in gas
inequa
sion is
misma
Chapter 10
In Summary
The pulmonary circulation is a low-pressure system with a rate of
blood flow equal to that in the systemic circuit.
In a standing position, most of the blood flow to the lung is distributed
to the base of the lung due to gravitational force.
Ventilation-Perfusion Relationships
Chapter 10
Ventilation/perfusion ratio (V/Q)
Indicates matching of blood flow to ventilation
Ideal: ~1.0
Apex of lung
Underperfused (ratio <1.0)
Base of lung
Overperfused (ratio >1.0)
During exercise
Light exercise improves V/Q ratio
Heavy exercise results in V/Q inequality
Chapter 10
Ventilation/Perfusion Ratios
Ventilation
(L/min)
Blood flow
(L/min)
Ratio
Apex
0.24
0.07
3.43
Base
0.82
1.29
0.64
Pulmonary
vein
Aorta
Figure 10.14 The relationship between ventilation and
Chapter 10
In Summary
Efficient gas exchange between the blood and the lung requires
proper matching of blood flow to ventilation (called ventilationperfusion relationships).
The ideal ratio of ventilation to perfusion is 1.0 or slightly greater,
since this ratio implies a perfect matching on blood flow to ventilation.
O2 and CO2 Transport in Blood
Chapter 10
O2 Transport in the Blood

99% of O2 is transported bound to hemoglobin (Hb)
Oxyhemoglobin: Hb bound to O2
Deoxyhemoglobin: Hb not bound to O2
Amount of O2 that can be transported per unit volume

of blood is dependent on the Hb concentration
Each gram of Hb can transport 1.34 ml O2
Oxygen content of blood (100% Hb saturation)

Males:
150 g Hb/L blood x 1.34 ml O2/g Hb = 200 ml O2/L blood
Females:
130 g Hb/L blood x 1.34 ml O2/g Hb = 174 ml O2/L blood
Chapter 10
Oxyhemoglobin Dissociation Curve

Deoxyhemoglobin + O2 Oxyhemoglobin
Direction of reaction depends on:
PO2 of the blood
Affinity between Hb and O2
At the lung
High PO2 = formation of oxyhemoglobin
At the tissues
Low PO2 = release of O2 to tissues
with O2, the healthy

Chapter 10
approximately
200 ml
, per liter of blood at
curve is well designed to meet human O2 transport

needs. The relatively flat portion
of the curve (above a
PO2 of approximately 90 mm Hg) allows arterial PO2 to
oscillate from 90 to 100 mm Hg without a large drop
Oxygen-Hemoglobin Dissociation Curve

20
Amount of O2 unloaded to tissues

80
15
60
10
40
Veins
(at rest)
20
20
40
60
5
Arteries
80
100
Oxygen content
(ml O2/100 ml blood)
Percent oxyhemoglobin saturation
100
PO2 (mm Hg)
Chapter 10
Oxygen-Hemoglobin Dissociation Curve

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4161259966001
Chapter 10
Effect of pH, Temperature, and 23 DPG

on the O2-Hb Dissociation Curve
pH
Decreased pH lowers Hb-O2 affinity
Results in a rightward shift of the curve
Favors offloading of O2 to the tissues
Temperature
Increased blood temperature lowers Hb-O2 affinity
Results in a rightward shift of the curve
23 DPG
Byproduct of RBC glycolysis
May result in a rightward shift of the curve
During altitude exposure
Not a major cause of rightward shift during exercise
Chapter 10
is the fact that hydrogen ions bind to hemoglobin,

moglobin dissociat
O2 and CO2 Transport
in Blood
which reduces its O2 transport capacity. Therefore,
of 23 DPG
in re
when there is a higher-than-normal concentration of
cells are unique in
hydrogen ions in the blood (i.e., acidosis), there is a
cleus or mitochond
Effect of pH on the Oxygen-Hemoglobin

Dissociation Curve
100
90
90
80
100
pH
7.60
7.40
70
60
7.20
50
40
30
20
10
0
80
32
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
10
20
30
40 50 60
PO2 (mm Hg)
70
80
90
100
Figure 10.16 The effect of changing blood pH on the shape
10
20
Figure 10.17 The effe
ity. Therefore,
Chapter 10
ncentration of
sis), there is a
of 23 DPG in red blood cells (RBCs). RedOblood

2 and CO2 Transport in Blood
cells are unique in that they do not contain a nucleus or mitochondria. Therefore, they must rely on
Effect of Temperature on the OxygenHemoglobin Dissociation Curve

100
90
80
32
42
70
37
60
50
40
30
20
10
80
90
100
H on the shape
10
20
30
40 50 60
PO2 (mm Hg)
70
80
90 100
Chapter 10
O2 Transport in Muscle
Myoglobin (Mb)
Shuttles O2 from the cell membrane to the mitochondria
Mb has a higher affinity for O2 than hemoglobin

Even at low PO2
Allows Mb to store O2
O2 reserve for muscle
Chapter 10 2 dissociation
myoglobin-O
scharges its O2 at very low
ant because the PO2 in the
A high PCO2 causes CO2 to combine with water

to form carbonic acid. This reaction is catalyzed by
Dissociation Curves for Myoglobin and

Hemoglobin
Saturation with oxygen (percent)
100
80
Myoglobin
Hemoglobin
60
40
20
Arterial blood
Venous blood
0
20
40
60
80
100
PO2 mm Hg
120
Chapter 10
CO2 Transport in Blood

Dissolved in plasma (10%)
Bound to Hb (20%)
Bicarbonate (70%)
CO2 + H2O Carbonic anhydrase H2CO3
H+ + HCO3
At the tissue:
H+ binds to Hb
HCO3 diffuses out of RBC into plasma
Cl diffuses into RBC (chloride shift)
At the lung:
O2 binds to Hb (drives off H+)
Reaction reverses to release CO2
O2 and CO2CONFIRMING
Transport in Blood
PAGES
Chapter 10
CO2 Transport in the Blood

(a)
(b)
Erythrocyte
Begin
CO2 produced
Plasma
Erythrocyte
CO2
Dissolved CO2
Dissolved CO2
Capillary
wall
Atmosphere
(expired CO2)
HbCO2
Cells
Dissolved CO2
+ Hb
HbCO2
CO2 + H2O
CA
H2CO3
CO2
Hb
H2O
Dissolved
CO2
CA
H2CO3
Cl HCO
Cl
HCO3
+ H+
Alveolus
CO2
Dissolved
CO2
Cl
HCO3 + H+
Interstitial fluid
Cl
Tissue
Plasma
Capillary
wall
HCO3
Tissue capillary
Lung capillary
Lung
Figure 10.19 Summary of carbon dioxide (CO2) movement from tissues into the blood (a) and from the blood into the
alveolus of the lung (b). Note in Fig. 10.19(a) that CO2 is released from the cells and moves into the blood. Carbon
dioxide is transported in the blood in three forms: (1) dissolved CO2, (2) CO2 combined with hemoglobin (HbCO2),
2
2
Copyright
2015
rights reserved.
No reproduction
distribution
without
the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill
Education.
and (3) bicarbonate
(HCO
Notice Education.
that asAllHCO
out ofor red
blood
cells
(erythrocytes),
chloride
(Cl2) moves
3).McGraw-Hill
3 moves
Chapter 10
In Summary
More than 99% of the O2 transported in blood is chemically bonded
with hemoglobin. The effect of the partial pressure of O2 on the
combination of O2 with hemoglobin is illustrated by the S-shaped O2hemoglobin dissociation curve.
An increase in body temperature and a reduction in blood pH results
in a right shift in the O2-hemoglobin dissociation curve and a reduced
affinity of hemoglobin for O2.
Chapter 10
In Summary
Carbon dioxide is transported in blood three forms: (1) dissolved CO2
(10% of CO2 is transported in this way), (2) CO2 bound to hemoglobin
(called carbaminohemoglobin; about 20% of blood CO2 is transported
via this form), and (3) bicarbonate (70% of CO2 found in the blood is
transported as bicarbonate [HCO3]).
Chapter 10
Ventilatory and Blood-Gas Responses to Exercise
Rest-to-Work Transitions
At the onset of constant-load submaximal exercise:
Initially, ventilation increases rapidly
Then, a slower rise toward steady state
PO2 and PCO2 are relatively unchanged

Slight decrease in PO2 and increase in PCO2
Suggests that increase in alveolar ventilation is slower than increased
metabolism
Chapter 10
The Transition From Rest to Exercise
Chapter 10
Incremental Exercise in an Untrained

Subject
Ventilation
Linear increase up to ~5075% VO2 max
Exponential increase beyond this point
Ventilatory threshold (Tvent)
Inflection point where VE increases exponentially
PO2
Maintained within 1012 mmHg of resting value
Chapter 10
Incremental Exercise in an Elite Athlete

Ventilation
Tvent occurs at higher % VO2 max
PO2
Decrease of 3040 mmHg at near-maximal work
Hypoxemia
Due to:
Ventilation/perfusion mismatch
Short RBC transit time in pulmonary capillary due to high cardiac output
Chapter 10
Ventilatory Response to Incremental

Exercise
Chapter 10
Prolonged Exercise in a Hot

Environment
During prolonged submaximal exercise in a hot/
humid environment:
Ventilation tends to drift upward
Increased blood temperature affects respiratory control center
Little change in PCO2

Higher ventilation not due to increased PCO2
Chapter 10
Another interesting point illustrated in Fig.10.21

is that although ventilation is greater during exercise
in a hot/humid environment when compared to work
Exercise in a Hot/Humid Environment
n the
ercise
10.20.
tly at
se to120).
sions
g this
arterease
e exrease
ise is
41
40
PCO2
(mm Hg) 39
38
Hot/humid environment
Cool environment
60
V E
40
(,/min)
20
0
10
20
30
40
Exercise time (min)
50
Figure
10.21 Changes in ventilation and blood gas tensions
A Closer Look 10.1
Chapter 10
Respiratory Muscles and Exercise

Do respiratory muscles fatigue during exercise?
Historically believed that respiratory muscles do not fatigue
during exercise
Current evidence suggests that respiratory muscles do fatigue
during exercise
Prolonged (>120 minutes)
High-intensity (90100% VO2 max)
Do respiratory muscle adapt to training?

Yes!
Increased oxidative capacity improves respiratory muscle
endurance
Reduced work of breathing
Chapter 10
Control of Ventilation at Rest

Inspiration and expiration
Produced by contraction and relaxation of diaphragm
Controlled by somatic motor neurons in the spinal

cord
Controlled by respiratory control center
In medulla oblongata
Chapter 10
Respiratory Control Center

Stimulus for inspiration comes from four
respiratory rhythm centers
In Medulla
preBtzinger Complex and retrotrapezoidal nucleus
In Pons
Pneumotaxic center and caudal pons
Group pacemaker hypothesis

Suggests that regulation of breathing is under redundant
control
CONFIRMING
PAGES
Chapter 10
The Brain Stem Respiratory Control

Centers
Midbrain
Pons
Brain stem
respiratory
centers
Pneumotaxic center
Caudal pons
Retrotrapezoid nucleus
PreBtzinger complex
Medulla oblongata
Figure 10.23
Locations
of the brain stem respiratory control centers.
Chapter 10
Input to the Respiratory Control Center

Humoral chemoreceptors
Central chemoreceptors
Located in the medulla
PCO2 and H+ concentration in cerebrospinal fluid
Peripheral chemoreceptors
Aortic and carotid bodies
PO2, PCO2, H+, and K+ in blood
Neural input
From motor cortex and skeletal muscle mechanoreceptors
Muscle spindles, Golgi tendon organs, joint pressure receptors
Important for regulating breathing during submaximal, steadystate exercise

Chapter 10
20
The Location
of the
Peripheral
Chemoreceptors
V E ( /min)
15
10
5
40
41
42
43
Arterial PCO2 (mm H
Figure 10.25 Changes in ventilation as a

Sensory nerve fibers
(in glossopharyngeal nerve)
of increasing arterial PCO2. Notice that

increases as a linear function of increasi
Carotid body
Carotid sinus
Common carotid
artery
Sensory nerve fibers

(in vagus nerve)
V E ( /min)
30
20
Hypoxic
10
|
20
|
40
|
60
Arterial PO2 (mm Hg

Aortic bodies
Aorta
Figure 10.26 Changes in ventilation as a
decreasing arterial PO2. Note the existen

threshold for ventilation as arterial PO2
to as the hypoxic threshold (hypoxic

(2). This hypoxic threshold usually o
arterial PO2 of 60 to 75 mm Hg. The
responsible for the increase in VE foll
Heart
to low PO2 are the carotid bodies b
tic and central chemoreceptors in hu
spond to changes in PO2 (35, 67).
Increases in blood levels of pot
stimulate the carotid bodies and prom
Figure 10.24 Illustration of the anatomical location of
in ventilation (17, 75). Because blood
Chapter 10
Effect of Arterial PCO2 on Ventilation

20
V E ( /min)
15
10
5
40
41
42
43
44
45
Arterial PCO2 (mm Hg)

Figure 10.25
Changes in ventilation as a function

of increasing arterial PCO2. Notice that ventilation
Chapter
of 10
increasing
30
V E ( /min)
e)
arterial PCO2. Notice that ventilation
increases as a linear function of increasing PCO2.
Effect of Arterial PO2 on Ventilation
20
Hypoxic threshold
10
|
20
|
40
|
60
|
80
|
100
Arterial PO2 (mm Hg)

Figure 10.26
Changes in ventilation as a function of

decreasing arterial PO2. Note the existence of a hypoxic
Chapter 10
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142832564001
Chapter 10
Ventilatory Control During Exercise

Submaximal exercise
Primary drive:
Higher brain centers (central command)
Fine tuned by:

Humoral chemoreceptors
Neural feedback from muscle
Heavy exercise
Alinear rise in VE
Increasing blood H+ (from lactic acid) stimulates carotid bodies
Also K+, body temperature, and blood catecholamines may contribute
CONFIRMING PAGES
Chapter 10
A Summary of Respiratory Control

During Submaximal Exercise
ting in the
la and spill
ts the num.
center durl peripheral
olgi tendon
7, 65, 104).
of afferent
es is impormal, steadymoreceptors
n potassium
ormation to
nput to the
rmation beted. Finally,
of the heart
Higher
brain
centers
*Peripheral
chemoreceptors
Respiratory
control
center
(Medulla
oblongata)
Primary drive
to increase
ventilation
during exercise
Skeletal muscle
Chemoreceptors*
Mechanoreceptors
Respiratory
muscles
Chapter 10
Central command
Fictive" locomotion
Induction of locomotion by stimulation of the

subthalamic locomotor region. Cats were paralyzed
with gallamine triethiod
Chapter 10
Central command
Chapter 10
Are type IIIIV muscle afferents required for a normal steadystate

exercise hyperpnoea in humans?
The Journal of Physiology

Volume 592, Issue 3, pages 463-474, 30 SEP 2013 DOI: 10.1113/jphysiol.2013.261925
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1113/jphysiol.2013.261925/full#tjp5875-fig-0001
A Closer Look 10.2
Chapter 10
Training Reduces the Ventilatory

Response to Exercise
No effect on lung structure
Normal lung exceeds demand for gas exchange
Adaptation is not required for the lung to maintain blood-gas
homeostasis
One exception: Elite endurance athletes
Failure of lung to adapt to training results in hypoxemia
Ventilation is lower during exercise following training
Exercise ventilation is 2030% lower at same submaximal work rate
Mechanism:
Changes in aerobic capacity of locomotor muscles
Result in less production of H+
Less afferent feedback from muscle to stimulate breathing
A Closer Look 10.2
Chapter 10
R LOOK
10.2
Effects of Endurance Training on
Ventilation
During
atory
Response to Exercise
Exercise
Training Reduces Exercise Ventilation

90
Ventilation (liters min-1)
Before training
80
70
After training
60
50
40
30
80
|
100
|
120
|
140
|
160
|
180
|
200
|
220
Work rate (watts)
FIGURE 10.28 Illustration of the effects of endurance training on ventilation

Chapter 10
Does the Pulmonary System Limit Maximal Exercise Performance?
Does the Pulmonary System Limit

Exercise Performance?
Low-to-moderate intensity exercise
Pulmonary system not seen as a limitation
Maximal exercise
Historically not thought to be a limitation in healthy individuals at
sea level
New evidence that respiratory muscle fatigue does occur during high
intensity exercise (>90% VO2 max)
May be limiting in elite endurance athletes

4050% experience hypoxemia
Chapter 10
Effects of Respiratory Muscle Work

During Exercise on Cardiac Output
Chapter 10
Diaphragm Metaboreflex
Chapter 10
Does the Pulmonary System Limit Maximal Exercise Performance?
In Summary
The pulmonary system does not limit exercise performance in healthy
young subjects during prolonged submaximal exercise (e.g., work
rates <90% VO2 max).
In contrast to submaximal exercise, new evidence indicates that the
respiratory system (i.e., respiratory muscle fatigue) may be a limiting
factor in exercise performance at work rates >90% VO2 max. Further,
incomplete pulmonary gas exchange may occur in some elite athletes
and limit exercise performance at high exercise intensities.

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Chapter 10

The pathway for O2 from lung to skeletal

Respiration During Exercise

Ventilation and AcidBase Balance

Do the Lungs Adapt to

Purposes of the respiratory system during exercise

Major Organs of the Respiratory System

Figure 10.3 The conducting zones

of the pulmonary system.

Structure of the Respiratory System

Conducting and Respiratory Zones

Structure of the Respiratory System

Figure 10.3 The conducting zones and respiratory zones

Structure of the Respiratory System

The Bronchial Tree

within tiny air sacs called alveoli.

Type II Alveolar Cells

curs across about

Fluid with surfactant

Type II alveolar cell

White blood cell

the ideal structure

Structure of the Respiratory System

Structure of the Respiratory System

Structure of the Respiratory System

Position of the Lungs, Diaphragm, and

Major organs of the respiratory system.

that air passes through

Air enters the trache

The Mechanics of Inspiration

The Mechanics of Inspiration

The Muscles of Respiration

External abdominal oblique

Internal abdominal oblique

Airway resistance depends on diameter

Amount of air moved per breath

Breathing frequency (f)

Volume of air that reaches the respiratory zone

Dead-space ventilation (VD)

Volume of air remaining in conducting airways

Pulmonary Volumes and Capacities

Pulmonary Volumes and Capacities

Residual volume (RV)

Total lung capacity (TLC)

Lung Volumes and Capacities

Maximum possible inspiration

Lung volume (mL)

re 10.9 A spirogram showing lung volumes and capacities at rest.

volume of gas remaining in the lungs after a maximum

diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disPulmonary Volumes and Capacities

Definitions of Pulmonary Volumes

Inspiratory reserve volume ( IRV)

Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)

Residual volume (RV)

Functional residual capacity (FRC)

Total lung capacity ( TLC)

Pulmonary Volumes and Capacities

Lung Volumes and Capacities

Partial Pressure of Gases

Calculation of partial pressure

Partial Pressure of Gases

Partial Pressure of Gases

V gas = rate of diffusion