CONSTRUCT ADMINISTER & EVALUATE CLINICAL EVALUTION

TOOL IN THE FORM OF :

RATING SCALE
A rating scale is a set of categories designed to elicit information about a
quantitative attribute in social science. A rating scale is a method by which we
systematize the expression of opinion concerning a trait.
The ratings are done by parents, teachers, a board of interviewers and judges and by
the self as well.
These ratings scale given an idea of the personality of an individual.
Examples are the Likert scale and 1-10 rating scales for which a person selects the
number which is considered to reflect the perceived quality of a product.
Types of Rating Scale

Numerical rating scales,

Narrative scales,
Behaviorally anchored rating scale and
Graphic rating scale
Descriptive rating scale

1. Numerical Scale
Numerical scales use numbers to rate performance.
Applicants must display an ability or skill in certain areas or an understanding of
certain factors.
Marks are awarded for each area or factor.
One problem with numeric scales is that a rating such as a 3 in and of itself is
not clear and often means different things to different people.
To make such a number relevant, it needs to be anchored by some type of
objective criteria.
Example:
Problem Solving Ability
a) defines the problem

- 2 Points

b) identifies cause of the problem - 3 Points

c) identifies possible solutions

- 3 Points

d) recommends a solution

- 2 Points

TOTAL

10 Points

A more simple scale would be to have a rating scale of 1-5, 1-10, etc. with one point
being awarded for each correct answer to a question that has multiple parts.

Here, the number next to each response has no meaning except as a placeholder for
that response. The choice of a "2" for a lawyer and a "1" for a truck driver is arbitrary
-- from the numbering system used we can't infer that a lawyer is "twice" something
that a truck driver is.

2. Narrative Rating Scales

Narrative scales use adjectives such as excellent or poor to rate performance.

Applicants are rated on how well they meet mandatory and desirable selection
criterion.
These scales may be used in their narrative form with a pass or fail being used
to identify applicants who qualify or not for further consideration.
This may be an appropriate approach for a short listing exercise where marks
would not be carried forward to the next phase of the selection process, or for
when a pool of applicants is being created where ranking is not important to the
outcome, or for past work performance checking.

Example of a narrative rating scale:

Outstanding:

The applicant, beyond having met all mandatory factors, exceeds or meets many
desirable factors.

Very good:

The applicant, beyond having met all mandatory factors, exceeds in one or more of
the desirable factors.

Suitable:

The applicant meets all mandatory sub-factors, and is assessed at being able to
perform at a fully satisfactory level on the job.

Not Suitable:

The applicant does not meet one or more mandatory factors and is therefore assessed
as being unable to perform at a fully satisfactory level on the job.
3. Behavioural-Anchored Rating Scales (BARS):

A BARS describes behaviours differentiating between effective and ineffective

performers that can be observed and anchors them at points on a scale.

The applicants behaviour displayed (e.g. role-play, oral presentation, in-basket) or

past behaviour described (e.g. behavioral interview, reference checks) are
compared to these examples and rated accordingly.
The content of the scale is developed from a job analysis and is based on
responses to critical job incidents or situations.
The scale used is usually a 3-Point or 5-Point scale but could also be narrative if
appropriate.
Sample Behaviorally-Anchored Rating Scales.

Advantages

These types of rating scales are particularly effective for assessing competencies,
skills and abilities.

BARS rating scales are highly valid and job-related because important job
requirements are covered.

Objective benchmarks are provided against which observations can be rated;

therefore, there is less rating error than when using other types of scales (e.g.
numeric).

Cautions:
BARS scales take some time and effort to create
4. Graphic Rating Scales

Graphic rating scales rate performance by placing a mark somewhere along a

horizontal line that is divided into sections with labels such as always,
frequently, usually, seldom, and never.
All standards of performance are listed on the evaluation tool and rated by this
scale.

Example:
Were the illustrations used interesting?
1

Too little

Little

Adequate

Much

Too much

5. Descriptive rating scales

Descriptive graphic scales describe in varying terms the degree of frequency with
which each standard of performance is met and these descriptions are placed along
a continuum.
For example: if the standard of performance relates to accurate and complete
charting, the description at one end of the continuum might stale.
Charts accurately and completely on all patients assigned, giving meaningful
examples and observations.

The statement at the opposite end of the continuum might state.

Charting is incomplete and not always accurate.
Contains many misused and misspelled words.

While preparing black board summary how was the penmanship?

Legible, beautiful, Normally illegible Uniform size readable bad looking good looking fluent
tends to draw out lines

DEVELOPING A RATING SCALE

Using subject matter experts, identify examples of behaviors reflecting all different
levels of effectiveness ranging from ineffective to for all the different parts of the job.
These are key indicators only.
Developing a Rating Scale

It is not required to be an exhaustive list of every possible criterion.

Examples are then clustered by content and categories of performance and ranked
according to importance.
Major, essential, or core criteria are distinguished from those that are minor or
secondary within the group.
Tip: Focus on the extreme ends of each range (i.e. the 5 and the 0-1 points) and
describe them fully first OR focus on describing the "3 or 4 Point" passing answer
first, then add or subtract to define other answers.
Decide how many points will be awarded and how irrelevant or incorrect
responses will be scored. A wrong answer should result in a failing grade.
Assign marks that reflect the relative importance of the question and the
competency being assessed.
The scale may be multiplied by a factor to increase the overall weighting. For
example, a 5-point scale is multiplied by a factor of 4 to increase the weight of the
assessment to 20 points in the overall competition.

Advantages of rating scales

Technically, rating scale is standard device for recording qualitative and
quantitative judgments about observed performance.

 It measures specified outcomes or objectives of education deemed to be

significant or important to the teacher.
It evaluates procedures such as playing an instrument, operating an equipment or
machine. Working in laboratory, demonstrating the nursing procedures, acting in
play, etc.
evaluates products such as typed letter, responses of demonstration, a speech,
sample of handwriting, sample of diagram in charts, and art of work performed.
evaluates personal social development.
helps teachers to rate their students periodically on various characteristics such as
punctuality, honesty, enthusiasm, cheerfulness, cooperativeness, considerations of
others and other personality traits.
In general, rating scales with behaviorally expressed items are more helpful than
these with items expressed as a list of traits, the behaviors are less ambiguous.
They can also be used by a student to rate himself.
They can be used with a large number of students.
They tend to be very adaptable and flexible.
They can be efficient and economical in the use of a teachers time.
They can be comprehensive in the amount of information recorded.
They can help to reduce the subjectivity and unreliability that are usually
associated with observations method.
Disadvantages of Rating Scales:
Since the scales are standardized procedures, the items (behaviors) listed may or
may not be consistent with stated objectives for a particular course or learning
experience.
There is a lack of uniformity with which terms are interpreted by evaluators.
There are several common sources of errors in rating scales.
Errors

Ambiguity
Personality of the rater; Halo effect; personal bias; logical error.
Attitude of the rater
Opportunity for adequate observation

OBSERVATION CHECKLIST
An observation checklist is a list of things that an observer is going to look at
when observing a class. This list may have been prepared by the observer or the teacher or
both. Observation checklists not only give an observer a structure and framework for an
observation but also serve as a contract of understanding with the teacher, who may as a
result be more comfortable, and will get specific feedback on aspects of the class.
For example
The teacher has asked the observer to look at the issue of timing so the observer's checklist
includes these questions:
- Does the teacher follow the timings on the lesson plan?
- Does the teacher tell learners how long they have for an activity?
- Does the teacher tell learners when time is nearly up?
In the classroom
It is important that learners understand the function of the observer and are pre-warned about
the observation. If not, the observer may intimidate the class and the data gathered may not
be accurate.

BEHAVIOR OBSERVATIONAL CHECK LIST FOR EVALUTION OF

STUDENTS
Student Name:
Date:
Teacher Name:
Behavior Skill
On Time and Prepared
1. Arrives to class on time
2. Brings necessary materials
3. Completes homework
Respects Peers
1. Respects others property
2. Listens to peers
3. Responds appropriately to peers
4. Respects others opinions
5. Refrains from abusive language
Respects Teacher/Staff
1. Follows directions
2. Listens to Teacher/Staff
3. Accepts Responsibility for actions
Demonstrates Appropriate Character
Traits
1. Demonstrates positive character traits?(
i.e. kindness, trustworthy, honesty)
2. Demonstrates productive character
traits(i.e. patience, thorough,
hardworking)
3. Demonstrates a level of concern for
others
Demonstrates a Level of Concern for

Never

Rarely

Most of the Time

Always

Learning
1. Remains on task
2. Allows others to remain on task

ATTITUDE SCALES
The concept of measuring attitude is found in many areas including social
psychology and the Social Sciences; they can be complex and difficult to measure and there
are a number of different measuring instruments that have been developed to assess attitude.
Attitude is an important concept that is often used to understand and predict
people's reaction to an object or change and how behaviour can be influenced. An attitude is a
mental and neural state of readiness, organised through experience, exerting a directive or
dynamic influence upon the individual's response to all objects and situations to which it is
related (Allport, 1935 cited by Gross)
There are several types of scales that have been developed to measure attitude:
THURSTONE SCALES
This is described by Thurstone & Chave (1929) as a method of equal-appearing
intervals. Thurstone scalling is 'based on the law of comparative judgment' (Neuman, 2000).
It requires the individual to either agree or disagree with a large number of statements about
an issue or object. Thurstone scales typically present the reader with a number of statements
to which they have to respond, usually by ticking a true/false box, or agree/disagree, i.e. a
choice of two possible responses. Although one of the first scaling methods to be developed,
the questionnaires are mostly generated by face to face interviews and rarely used in
determining attitude measurement today, thus the example below (figure 1) is irrelevant to
online learners.
An example of a Thurstone Scale
ATTITUDE TOWARD WAR
An individual is asked to check those items which represent his

views.
1. A country cannot amount to much without a national honor, and
war is the only means of preserving it.
2. When war is declared, we must enlist.
3. Wars are justifiable only when waged in defense of weaker
nations.
4. Peace and war are both essential to progress.
5. The most that we can hope to accomplish is the partial elimination
of war.
6. The disrespect for human life and rights involved in a war is a
cause of crime waves.
7. All nations should disarm immediately.
ADVANTAGES

Items are weighted or valued rather than subjects

Easier to construct than a Guttman scale

DISADVANTAGES

More difficult to construct than a Likert scale

No more reliable than a Likert scale

Measures only agreement or disagreement

DIFFERENTIAL SCALES
Definition:
The semantic differential (SD) rating scale measures people reaction to stimulus
words and concepts in term of rating on bipolar scale defined with contrasting objectives at
each end.
Semantic Differential Scaling
This is concerned with the 'measurement of meaning', the idea or association that
individuals attach to words or objects. The respondent is required to mark on a scale between
two opposing opinions (bipolar adjectives) the position they feel the object holds on that scale
for them. It is often used in market research to determine how consumers feel about certain
products.
Three main factors emerge from the ratings, these are:

The evaluative factor (good-bad, pleasant-unpleasant, kind-cruel); the potency factor

(strong-weak, thick-thin, hard-soft); the activity factor (active-passive, slow-fast, hot-cold)
Although this scale is comparatively easy for the respondent to complete, the author argues
that this would not be suitable for measuring attitude of online learners as it tends to relate
more to material associations than cognizance of feelings.

An example of a Semantic Differential Scale.

ADVANTAGES

Simple to construct,

Easy for subjects to answer,

Allows for several types of analyses to take place

DISADVANTAGE

Analyses can be complex

SUMMATED SCALES
the numerical values assigned to the response categories for each question are
simply added to produce a single scale score.
The summated scale approach theoretically works because persons who are very
strongly favorable toward some idea, will more often select positive response
categories, while those who have more neutral ideas will select some positive and
some negative categories.
Finally, it is assumed that those persons who are opposed to the concept being
measured will respond by selecting those statements which reflect a negative
position
E.g: Likert Scale

LIKERT SCALE
Typically, a number of statements are developed which are thought to reflect
positive and negative attitudes toward some concept (i.e. conservatism, feminism,
religious orthodoxy, prejudice, etc.)
Each question is then written with a number of response categories.
The most common type is the 4 point Likert Scale--(1) strongly agree, (2) agree,
(3) disagree, and (4) disagree.
An individual's score would be computed by adding the values assigned to each of
the responses selected for all of items of the scale.
Steps - Likert Scaling
1. Defining the Focus.
The first step is to define what it is you are trying to measure.
Because this is a one-dimensional scaling method, it is assumed that the concept
you want to measure is one-dimensional in nature.
You might operationalize the definition as an instruction to the people who are
going to create or generate the initial set of candidate items for your scale.
2. Generating the Items.
Create the set of potential scale items.
These should be items that can be rated on a 1-to-5 or 1-to-7 Disagree-Agree
response scale.
The item creation step. For instance, you might use some form of brainstorming to
create the items.
It's desirable to have as large a set of potential items as possible at this stage,
about 80-100 would be best.
3. Rating the Items.
The next step is to have a group of judges rate the items.
Usually you would use a 1-to-5 rating scale where:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

= strongly unfavorable to the concept

= somewhat unfavorable to the concept
= undecided
= somewhat favorable to the concept
= strongly favorable to the concept

 Notice that, as in other scaling methods, the judges are not telling you what they
believe -- they are judging how favorable each item is with respect to the construct of
interest.
4. Selecting the Items.
Compute the Interco-relations between all pairs of items, based on the ratings of
the judges.
In making judgments about which items to retain for the final scale there are
several analyses you can do:
Throw out any items that have a low correlation with the total (summed) score
across all items

Compute Item-Total correlation.

For each item, get the average rating for the top quarter of judges and the bottom
quarter. - Then, do a t-test of the differences between the mean value for the item for
the top and bottom quarter judges.
* t-values mean that there is a greater difference between the highest and lowest judges. In
more practical terms, items with higher t-values are better discriminators.
5. Administering the Scale.

You're now ready to use your Likert scale.

Each respondent is asked to rate each item on some response scale.
For instance, they could rate each item on a 1-to-5 response scale where:
= strongly disagree
= disagree
= undecided
= agree
= strongly agree
There are variety possible response scales (1-to-7, 1-to-9, and 0-to-4).
All of these odd-numbered scales have a middle value is often labeled Neutral or
Undecided.
It is also possible to use a forced-choice response scale with an even number of
responses and no middle neutral or undecided choice.
In this situation, the respondent is forced to decide whether they lean more
towards the agree or disagree end of the scale for each item.
The final score for the respondent on the scale is the sum of their ratings for all of
the items (this is why this is sometimes called a "summated" scale).
On some scales, you will have items that are reversed in meaning from the overall
direction of the scale. These are called reversal items.
You will need to reverse the response value for each of these items before
summing for the total.
That is, if the respondent gave a 1, you make it a 5; if they gave a 2 you make it a
4; 3 = 3; 4 = 2; and, 5 = 1.

Likert Scale (Summated scale)

This was developed by Rensis Likert in 1932. It requires the individuals to make a
decision on their level of agreement, generally on a five-point scale (ie. Strongly Agree,
Agree, Disagree, Strongly Disagree) with a statement. The number beside each response
becomes the value for that response and the total score is obtained by adding the values for
each response, hence the reason why they are also called 'summated scales' (the respondents
score is found by summing the number of responses). Dumas (1999) suggests, ' this is the
most commonly used question format for assessing participants' opinions of usability'.
Two examples of Likert Scales

ADVANTAGES
Simple to construct
Each item of equal value so that respondents are scored rather than items
Likely to produce a highly reliable scale
Easy to read and complete
DISADVANTAGES
Lack of reproducibility
Validity may be difficult to demonstrate

ANECDOTAL RECORD
Definition:
Anecdotal record is a record of some significant item of conduct, a record of an
episode in the life of student. A word picture of the student in action a word snapshot
at the moment of the incident, any narration of events in which may be significant
about his personality. Randall
Anecdotal record, as the name implies, involves setting down an anecdote concerning
some aspects of student behavior which seems significant to the observer.
Tandler
Characteristics of Anecdotal Records
Anecdotal records must possess contain characteristics as given below:
1. They should contain a factual, description of what happened, when it happened, and
under what circumstances the behavior occurred.
2. The interpretations and recommended action should be noted separately from the
description.
3. Each anecdotal record should contain a record of a single incident.
4. The incident recorded should be considered significant to the students growth and
development.
Example:
Name of the student: Gunasree
Year: III year B.Sc. (N)
Name of the institution: Maaruthi College of Nursing
Setting: Class Room
Incident:
Gunasree was caught reading a Medical-Surgical Nursing book during Community
Health Nursing hour and was asked to leave the room.
Interpretation:
Gunasree is very much interested in Medical Surgical Nursing
Recommendation:
Gunasree should be encouraged to do more in Medical Surgical Nursing and also not
to neglect Community Health Nursing and other subjects.
Merits of Anecdotal Records
These records help in clinical service practices.

They provide a factual record.

They stimulate teacher to use the records and contribute to them.
They record critical incidents of spontaneous behavior in natural setting.
They provide the teacher with objective description.
They are very good for young children, who are unable to use paper-pencil test.
They direct the teachers attention to a single student.
They provide commutative record of growth and development.
They can be used by the counselor as a source of information for giving evidence.
They provide specific and exact description of personality and minimizes
generalizations.
They provide more complete descriptions of behavior better suited to
understanding and guiding students than the other observational tools available.
They can be used as a supplement to quantitative data.
The new members may use these records and acquaint themselves with the
students.

Demerits of Anecdotal Records

They tend to be less reliable than other observational tools as they tent to be less
formal and systematic.
They are time-consuming to write.
It is difficult for the observer to maintained objectivity when he/she records the
incident observed.
When incidents are noted and read out of context, they may lose their meaning.
The observer tends to record only undesirable incidents and neglect the positive
incidents.
They present only a verbal description of the incident.
They do not reveal causes.
Format of Anecdotal Record
Name of the school or college
Name of the student Class..
Name of the observer ..
Date and Place..
Objective
description..

.
.
Comments of the Observer
..
Signature of the Observer:

Signature of the student:

NON STANDARDISED TEST

INTRODUCTION
Test is part of a n evaluation technique which helps to assess the level of the student and also
plays major role in identifying the mistake by both teacher and student and also improvement
in teaching type and improvement of the student.
DEFINITION
Test is a device procedure for confornding a subject with a set of questions.
NON STANDARDISTED TEST OR TEACHER MADE TEST
These test are very useful in evaluating the students progress to report parents and
administrations. It can be conducted as written , oral or practical and can be conducted as
essay type , short answer type, objective type.
USES
to know the about ability and achievements of student
help the teracher to assess the strength, weakness of student.
Motivates the students
Achieve particular objectives
Provides continous evaluation and feedback to the teacher.
LIMITATION
Ofen ambigious and unclear.
They are either too short or too lengthly.
Supervision is not proper
Test do not cover the content.

 Answer books not marked with care.

ESSAY TYPE TEST
It require the student to structure a long written response up to several paragraph
FEATURES
No single answer can be considered.
The examinee is permitted freedom of response.
The answer vary in their degree of equality.
TYPES OF ESSAY QUESTION:
Based on the amount of freedom given to a student to organize his ideas and write his answer
the easy questions are divided into 2 types.
Extended response

No restriction.

Most important, pertinent and relevant material whatever he wishes

can be used.

Permits to demonstrate his ability to recall and evaluate factual

knowledge.

Restricted response
Less scope, limited nature.
PRINCIPLES FOR ESSAY QUESTION
o Do not give too lengthy questions
o Avoid phases
o Well structured with specific purpose.
o Words simple, clear, unambiguous and carefully selected.

o Do not allow too many choices.

o According to level of students
SCORING PROBLEM
For every question, set out the elements which accordingly to you , should appear in
the answer bypoint scoring system.
Score the answer of all the students for one question, before going on to scoring of
another questions.
When two or more teachers corrected the same test, the should agree on the scoring
procedure before the test and correct the answer scripts.
The time allowed and the marks allotted will acts as a guide to the students to answer
the questions.
ADVANTAGES
Tests the ability to communicate in writing depth of knowledge and understading.
It require short time for the teacher to prepaire the test administer.
It can be successfully for all the school subjects.
Student can have the ability for free thinking.
DISADVANTAGES:
Lack objectively
Provide little useful feed back.
Limited condent sampling
Long time to score.
Subjectivity to scoring.
SHORT ANSWER TYPE TEST

The student responds my selection of one or more of several given alternatives my giving or
filling in a word or phrase.
PRINCIPLES
Use action oriented precise verbs.
Each item should deal with important content area.
Question can be as long as possible, but answer should be short.
Provide the necessary spase fpr the answes below each question.
ADVANTAGES
Easy to score.
Reliability of the score is improved.
Quick response.
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
A traditional multiple choice question (or item) is one in which a student chooses one answer
from a number of choices supplied.
Parts of a multiple choice question:
A multiple choice question consists of

a stem - the text of the question

options - the choices provided after the stem

the key: the correct answer in the list of options

distracters: the incorrect answers in the list of options

Advantages in Using Multiple-Choice Items

Multiple-choice items can provide...
versatility in measuring all levels of cognitive ability.
highly reliable test scores.
scoring efficiency and accuracy.

 objective measurement of student achievement or ability.

a wide sampling of content or objectives.
a reduced guessing factor when compared to true-false items.
different response alternatives which can provide diagnostic feedback.
Disadvantages in Using Multiple-Choice Items
takes a long time to construct in order to avoide arbitrary and ambiguous questions.
Also require careful preparation to avoid questions testing only recall.
Provide clues that do not exist in practice.
VARIATION OF MULTIPLE CHOICE ITEMS
One correct answer.
Best answer.
Analogy type.
Reserve type.
Limitations in Using Multiple-Choice Items
Multiple-choice items ..
are difficult and time consuming to construct.
lead an instructor to favor simple recall of facts.
place a high degree of dependence on the students reading ability and instructors
writing ability.

INTELLIGENCE TEST
INTRODUCTION
Intelligence tests are psychological tests that are designed to measure a variety of mental
functions, such as reasoning, comprehension, and judgment.
DEFINITION
A questionnaire or series of exercises designed to measure intelligence. It is generally
understood that intelligence tests are less a measure of innate ability to learn as of what the
person tested has already learned. There are many types of intelligence tests, and they may
measure learning and/or ability in a wide variety of areas and skills. Scores may be presented
as an IQ (intelligence quotient), a mental age, or on a scale.
PURPOSE

In most cases, intelligence testing is required by federal special education

regulations to confirm or rule-out the presence of mental disabilities and to establish
IQ for the purposes of diagnosing a learning disability;
Depending on the type of intelligence test administered, it may provide important
information on how students approach problem solving; and
Properly interpreted, intelligence testing help educators develop appropriate specially
designed instruction and educational strategies for IEP developme

The goal of intelligence tests is to obtain an idea of the person's intellectual potential. The
tests center around a set of stimuli designed to yield a score based on the test maker's model
of what makes up intelligence. Intelligence tests are often given as a part of a battery of tests.
ADVANTAGES
In general, intelligence tests measure a wide variety of human behaviors better than any other
measure that has been developed. They allow professionals to have a uniform way of
comparing a person's performance with that of other people who are similar in age. These
tests also provide information on cultural and biological differences among people.
Intelligence tests are excellent predictors of academic achievement and provide an outline of a
person's mental strengths and weaknesses. Many times the scores have revealed talents in

many people, which have led to an improvement in their educational opportunities. Teachers,
parents, and psychologists are able to devise individual curricula that matches a person's level
of development and expectations.
DISADVANTAGES
Some researchers argue that intelligence tests have serious shortcomings. For example, many
intelligence tests produce a single intelligence score. This single score is often inadequate in
explaining the multidimensional aspects of intelligence. Another problem with a single score
is the fact that individuals with similar intelligence test scores can vary greatly in their
expression of these talents. It is important to know the person's performance on the various
subtests that make up the overall intelligence test score. Knowing the performance on these
various scales can influence the understanding of a person's abilities and how these abilities
are expressed. For example, two people have identical scores on intelligence tests. Although
both people have the same test score, one person may have obtained the score because of
strong verbal skills while the other may have obtained the score because of strong skills in
perceiving and organizing various tasks.
Furthermore, intelligence tests only measure a sample of behaviors or situations in which
intelligent behavior is revealed. For instance, some intelligence tests do not measure a
person's everyday functioning, social knowledge, mechanical skills, and/or creativity. Along
with this, the formats of many intelligence tests do not capture the complexity and immediacy
of real-life situations. Therefore, intelligence tests have been criticized for their limited ability
to predict non-test or nonacademic intellectual abilities. Since intelligence test scores can be
influenced by a variety of different experiences and behaviors, they should not be considered
a perfect indicator of a person's intellectual potential.
DESCRIPTION
When taking an intelligence test, a person can expect to do a variety of tasks. These tasks may
include having to answer questions that are asked verbally, doing mathematical problems, and
doing a variety of tasks that require eye-hand coordination. Some tasks may be timed and
require the person to work as quickly as possible. Typically, most questions and tasks start out
easy and progressively get more difficult. It is unusual for anyone to know the answer to all of
the questions or be able to complete all of the tasks. If a person is unsure of an answer,
guessing is usually allowed.

The four most commonly used intelligence tests are:

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales

Wechsler-Adult Intelligence Scale

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children

Wechsler Primary & Preschool Scale of Intelligence

INTERPRETING RESULTS
The person's raw scores on an intelligence test are typically converted to standard scores. The
standard scores allow the examiner to compare the individual's score to other people who
have taken the test. Additionally, by converting raw scores to standard scores the examiner
has uniform scores and can more easily compare an individual's performance on one test with
the individual's performance on another test. Depending on the intelligence test that is used, a
variety of scores can be obtained. Most intelligence tests generate an overall intelligence
quotient or IQ. As previously noted, it is valuable to know how a person performs on the
various tasks that make up the test. This can influence the interpretation of the test and what
the IQ means. The average of score for most intelligence tests is 100.
PRECAUTIONS
There are many different types of intelligence tests and they all do not measure the same
abilities. Although the tests often have aspects that are related with each other, one should not
expect that scores from one intelligence test, that measures a single factor, will be similar to
scores on another intelligence test, that measures a variety of factors. Also, when determining
whether or not to use an intelligence test, a person should make sure that the test has been
adequately developed and has solid research to show its reliability and validity. Additionally,
psychometric testing requires a clinically trained examiner. Therefore, the test should only be
administered and interpreted by a trained professional.
A central criticism of intelligence tests is that psychologists and educators use these tests to
distribute the limited resources of our society. These test results are used to provide rewards
such as special classes for gifted students, admission to college, and employment. Those who
do not qualify for these resources based on intelligence test scores may feel angry and as if the

tests are denying them opportunities for success. Unfortunately, intelligence test scores have
not only become associated with a person's ability to perform certain tasks, but with selfworth.
COMMON TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE TESTS
Intelligence tests (also called instruments) are published in several forms:

Group intelligence tests usually consist of a paper test booklet and scanned scoring
sheets. Group achievement tests, which assess academic areas, sometimes include a
cognitive measure. In general, group tests are not recommended for the purpose of
identifying a child with a disability. In some cases, however, they can be helpful as a
screening measure to consider whether further testing is needed and can provide good
background information on a child's academic history.
Individual intelligence tests may include several types of tasks and may involve easel
test books for pointing responses, puzzle and game-like tasks, and question and
answer sessions. Some tasks are timed.
Computerized tests are becoming more widely available, but as with all tests,
examiners must consider the needs of the child before choosing this format.

EXAMPLES OF INTELIGENCE TEST

STANFORD-BINET INTELLIGENCE TEST:
Definition
The Stanford-Binet intelligence scale is a standardized test that assesses intelligence
and cognitive abilities in children and adults aged two to 23.
Purpose
The Stanford-Binet intelligence scale is used as a tool in school placement, in
determining the presence of a learning disability or a developmental delay, and in
tracking intellectual development. In addition, it is sometimes included in
neuropsychological testing to assess the brain function of individuals with
neurological impairments.
Precautions
Although the Stanford-Binet was developed for children as young as two, examiners
should be cautious in using the test to screen very young children for developmental
delays or disabilities. The test cannot be used to diagnose mental retardation in
children aged three and under, and the scoring design may not detect developmental
problems in preschool-age children.
Intelligence testing requires a clinically trained examiner. The Stanford-Binet
intelligence scale should be administered and interpreted by a trained professional,
preferably a psychologist.

Description
The Stanford-Binet intelligence scale is a direct descendent of the Binet-Simon scale,
the first intelligence scale created in 1905 by psychologist Alfred Binet and Dr.
Theophilus Simon. This revised edition, released in 1986, was designed with a larger,
more diverse, representative sample to minimize the gender and racial inequities that
had been criticized in earlier versions of the test.
The Stanford-Binet scale tests intelligence across four areas: verbal reasoning,
quantitative reasoning, abstract/visual reasoning, and short-term memory. The areas
are covered by 15 subtests, including vocabulary, comprehension, verbal absurdities,
pattern analysis, matrices, paper folding and cutting, copying, quantitative, number
series, equation building, memory for sentences, memory for digits, memory for
objects, and bead memory.
All test subjects take an initial vocabulary test, which along with the subject's age,
determines the number and level of subtests to be administered. Total testing time is
45-90 minutes, depending on the subject's age and the number of subtests given. Raw
scores are based on the number of items answered, and are converted into a standard
age score corresponding to age group, similar to an IQ measure.
The 1997 Medicare reimbursement rate for psychological and neuropsychological
testing, including intelligence testing, is $58.35 an hour. Billing time typically includes
test administration, scoring and interpretation, and reporting. Many insurance plans
cover all or a portion of diagnostic psychological testing.
Normal results
The Stanford-Binet is a standardized test, meaning that norms were established during
the design phase of the test by administering the test to a large, representative sample
of the test population. The test has a mean, or average, standard score of 100 and a
standard deviation of 16 (subtests have a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 8).
The standard deviation indicates how far above or below the norm the subject's score
is. For example, an eight-year-old is assessed with the Stanford-Binet scale and
achieves a standard age score of 116. The mean score of 100 is the average level at
which all eight-year-olds in the representative sample performed. This child's score
would be one standard deviation above that norm.
While standard age scores provide a reference point for evaluation, they represent an
average of a variety of skill areas. A trained psychologist will evaluate and interpret an
individual's performance on the scale's subtests to discover strengths and weaknesses
and offer recommendations based upon these findings.
INDIVIDUAL PERFORMANCE TEST
Building block test or cube construction
Fitting the block in the holes
Tracing a maze
Picture arrangement or picture completion
CONCEPT OF MENTAL AGE AND IQ
IQ testing is a method used by psychologists to measure what is generally considered
intelligence. The concept of IQ, or "Intelligence Quotient" was first introduced by French

psychologist Alfred Binet in 1904. The "quotient" refers to Binet's definition of IQ as

(Mental Age) divided by (Chronological Age) or M.A./C.A. This quotient is then multiplied
by 100 to make it a whole number. An 8 year old child with the mental ability of a 12 year
old has a mental age which is 1.50 times his chronological age (12/8 = 1.5). Multiplying this
quotient by 100 gives the child's ratio IQ: 150. Using this method, a child functioning at the
average level for her age would obtain an IQ of 100.
Most of the abilities measured by an IQ test tend to level off around age 16, so this method
does not work for adults. To convert a mentally retarded adult's IQ into a rough age
equivalent, multiply the IQ by 16, and then divide by 100. So an adult with a 50 IQ is
functioning at roughly an 8-year-old level.
Modern IQ tests use a "deviation IQ" rather than a ratio IQ. With this method, test takers are
referenced to other people of their own age. The average IQ is still 100, but deviations from
the average are assigned a number which corresponds to a percentile rank.
Most IQ tests consist of subtests measuring various qualities, such as factual knowledge,
short-term memory, abstract reasoning, visual-spatial abilities, and common sense.
Intelligence is always measured relative to a particular culture; "culture free" tests of
intelligence do not exist. IQ tests do a good job of predicting academic success. They are not
good at measuring such qualities as interpersonal skill or creativity. Although IQ scores tend
to be fairly stable, IQ will vary over time. The Wechsler tests are the most common
individually administered IQ tests. They currently include the WISC-IV (age 6-16 years), the
WAIS-IV (age 16-89 years), and the WPPSI-III (age 2.5 - 7 years). Shown below are the
labels and frequency of Wechsler IQ scores. Keep in mind that, due to random factors, IQ
scores can vary about 5 points from week to week, and can often change by 10 points or even
more over a period of years.
IQ
10
25
40
55
70
85
100
115
125
130
145

Archaic Description
Idiot
"
Imbecile
Moron
Dull Normal

Genius

Description
Score higher than:
Profound Mental Retardation Fewer than 1 out of 100,000
Severe Mental Retardation "
Moderate Mental Retardation 3 out of 100,000
Mild Mental Retardation
13 out of 10,000
Borderline
2 out of 100
Low Average
16 out of 100
Average
Half
High Average
84 out of 100
Superior
95 out of 100
Very Superior/Gifted
98.5 out of 100
9,913 out of 10,000

Wechsler IQ tests include the subtests below:

VERBAL SCALES:

Information: Similar to "Trivial Pursuit," this subtest measures fund of factual

information. It is strongly influenced by culture. An American education and intact

long-term memory will contribute to a higher score. Sample question (not really on the
tests): "What is the capital of France?"
Comprehension: This subtest measures understanding of social conventions and
common sense. It is also culturally loaded. Sample question: "What is the thing to do
if you find an injured person laying on the sidewalk?"
Digit Span: Requires the repetition of number strings forward and backwards.
Measures concentration, attention, and immediate memory. Lower scores are obtained
by persons with an attention deficit or anxiety.
Similarities: This subtest measures verbal abstract reasoning and conceptualization
abilities. The individual is asked how two things are alike. Sample question: "How are
a snake and an alligator alike?"
Vocabulary: This test measures receptive and expressive vocabulary. It is the best
overall measure of general intelligence (assuming the test-taker's native language is
English). Sample question: "What is the meaning of the word 'articulate'?"
Arithmetic: Consists of mathematical word problems which are performed mentally.
Measures attention, concentration, and numeric reasoning. Sample question: "John
bought three books for five dollars each, and paid ten percent sales tax. How much
did he pay all together?"

PERFORMANCE SCALES:

Object Assembly: Consists of jigsaw puzzles. Measures visual-spatial abilities and

ability to see how parts make up a whole (this subtest is optional on the revised
Weschler tests).
Block Design: One of the strongest measures of nonverbal intelligence and reasoning.
Consists of colored blocks which are put together to make designs.
Digit Symbol/Coding/Animal House: Symbols are matched with numbers or shapes
according to a key. Measures visual-motor speed and short-term visual memory.
Picture Arrangement: Requires that pictures be arranged in order to tell a story.
Measures nonverbal understanding of social interaction and ability to reason
sequentially.
Picture Concepts: A new subtest on the WISC-IV. Requires matching pictures which
belong together based on common characteristics. Measures non-verbal concept
formation and reasoning; a non-verbal counterpart of Similarities.
Picture Completion: Requires recognition of the missing part in pictures. Measures
visual perception, long-term visual memory, and the ability to differentiate essential
from inessential details.
Matrix Reasoning: (WAIS-III only) Modeled after Raven's Progressive Matrices, this
is an untimed test which measures abstract nonverbal reasoning ability. It consists of a
sequence or group of designs, and the individual is required to fill in a missing design
from a number of choices.
The WAIS-IV was released in January 2009. Thanks to Ann Simun, PsyD for the
following information on the new edition:
Omitted: Object Assembly; Picture Arrangement; Memory Tasks for Coding
Added:
Figure Weights: A visual measure of fluid intelligence, with complex verbal

instructions; a pointing response is allowed. The subject uses logic to determine

equivalence of figures, using a drawing of a scale; problems are presented
sequentially. Untimed. Measures quantitative and analytical reasoning. Loads on
Perceptual Organization Index.
Visual Puzzles: Measures visual spatial reasoning, whole part integration, and mental
rotation. A figure is presented, and underneath are a 6 choices. The subject is asked,
"Which 3 of these pieces go together to make this puzzle?" Mental flexibility and rule
following is also involved, as some choices involve a 2 piece solution, which would be
incorrect. Verbal directions, nonverbal responding allowed (pointing response).
Loads on Perceptual Organization Index.
Cancellation: A speeded visual scanning task, with a pencil mark response; visual
discrimination, color discrimination, information processing speed, and pencil use
speed are required. Loads on Processing Speed Index.

APTITUDE TEST
INTRODUCTION
Aptitude test measure or assess the degree or level of one's special bent or flair much the
same way as intelligence tests are employed or measuring ones intelligence. They are
chiefly used to estimate the extent to which profit from a specific course or traning, or to
predict the quality of his or her achievement in a given situation.
APTITUDE TEST
An aptitude test is a standardised test designed to measure the ability of a person to develop
skills and acquire knowledge. It measures your capabilities for thinking and reasoning;
particularly your logical and analytical reasoning abilities.
Two types of aptitude tests are usually employed. These are:
Specialized aptitude tests
General aptitude tests
SPECIALIZED APTITUDE TESTS
These aptitude tests have been devised to measure the aptitudes of individual in
various specific fields or activities. Generally these tests are divided into :
Mechanical aptitude test
Musical aptitude test
Art judgment tests
Professional aptitude tests
Scholastic aptitude test
GENERAL APTITUDE TESTS

The Genral Aptitude Test Battery(GATB) and Differential Aptitude Test (DAT) are
two example of such tests. GATB developed by the Empliyment Service Bureau of USA,
contains 12 tests 8 of these are:
Paper pencile tests, for name comparison computation, vocabulary,
arithimetic, reasoning, form matching,test and there dimensional space. The
other 4 require the use of simple equipment in the shape of movable pegs on a
board,assembling and disassembling rivets andwashers. From the scores
obtained by assembling and disassembling rivets and washers. from the scores
obtained by the subject, the experimenter is able to draw interferences about
nine aptitude factors, intelligence, verbal aptitude, nurmerical aptitude, spatial
aptitude from perception, clerical perception, motor coordination, finger
dexterity and manual dexterity. Thhe GATB has proved to be the most
successful multiple aptitudebatteries particularly for the purposes of
classification.
The DAT developed by US Psychological cooperation, has been adapted in
Hindi for use of india by SM.Ojha; by forms. It includes tests for verbal
reasoning, numerical ability, abstract reasoning spatial relation, mechanical
rasoning, clerical speed and accuracy and two tests for language , one for
spelling and other for grammer. DAT has proved very successful in
predicating acadmatic success and has been found specially useful for
providing educational and vocational gudienceprogramm to secondary school
children.
THE VALUE OF APTITUDE TESTING
Research data show that individually administered aptitude tests have the following qualities:
* They are excellent predictors of future scholastic achievement.
* They provide ways of comparing a child's performance with that of other children in the
same situation.
* They provide a profile of strengths and weaknesses.
* They assess differences among individuals.
* They have uncovered hidden talents in some children, thus improving their educational
opportunities.
* They are valuable tools for working with handicapped children.
In addition, group aptitude tests--usually given as part of a group achievement battery of
tests--can be given quickly and inexpensively to large numbers of children. Children who
obtain extreme scores can be easily identified to receive further specialized attention.
Aptitude tests are valuable in making program and curricula decisions. They can also be used
for grouping students as long as grouping is flexible.
MAIN AREAS OF NURSING APTITUDE TESTS

Most of the nursing jobs screen you through nursing aptitude tests. The psychologists build
them around the following main areas:
Applied Sciences
1- Physics
The multiple choicequestionnaire tries to measure your comprehensions for mechanics,
measurements, laws of thermodynamics, acceleration, momentum etc.
2- Organic and Inorganic Chemistry
You have to take care of the patients with certain medicines and chemicals. You are expected
to know basics of solvents, electrons, titration, periodic table etc.
Daly Life Science
You need to learn basics of TCA cycle, ATP, cardiac control, human nervous system,
endocrine glands, ECG basics, cardiovascular system, lungs and respiratory effects, thyroid
hormones, etc. You are expected to hear and use these basic things about the human medical
science for your life long nursing career.
Vocabulary Skills
The nursing career requires you to have correct knowledge of different words. Sometimes,
your wrong perception of words can put lives of the patients in severe danger. Thats why
vocabulary skills are tested with nursing aptitude test.
Mathematics Skills
Though the nursing aptitude tests include only a portion of math to test your mathematical
reasoning but it is still a important to know about real numbers, fractions, trigonometry, area
calculations, logarithmic scale etc.
Reading Comprehension
In your nursing career you will have often to read the instructions issued by the doctors
during their visits. When you fail to comprehend the simple instructions, you cant help the
patients in any way. So your readingcomprehension is also tested before you qualify for entry
level nursing jobs.
Analytical Reasoning

Analytical reasoning helps you to make quick decisions during emergency. Most of the
nursing aptitude tests include this portion before you are selected for a nursing career.
UTILITY OF APTITUDE TESTS
Aptitude tests are the back bone of the guidance services.
The result of these tests enable us to locate with reasonable degree of certainty, the
field of activity in which an individual would be most likely to be successful.
These test are to be found verey useful for vocational and educational selection.
They helps in the systemic selection of sutible candidates for the various educational
and professional courses as well as for specialized job.
Aptitude tests are thus properly anticipate the future potentials of individual.
Tests help us in selecting individuals who are likely to benefit most from the pre
professional traning or experiences.
CONCLUSION
Tests can help a great extent, in avoiding considerable wate of human as well as
material resources by placement of individuals in places and lines of in which they are most
likely to be productive.

PERSONALITY TEST
INTRODUCTION
The term personality is derived from the Latin word persona meaning a mask.
Personality is a patterned body of habits, traits, attitudes and ideas of an individual as these
are organized externally into roles and statuses and as they relate internally to motivation,
goals and various aspects of selfhood.
DEFINITION
1. Personality may be defined as the most characteristic integration of an individuals
structure, modes of behaviour. Interests, attitudes, capacities, abilities, and aptitudes.
- Munn N L
2. Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychological
systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment.
- Gordon Allport.(1937)
TYPES OF PERSONALITY
Personality can classified through type approach and trait approach.

1. Type base on temperament:

David Keirsey's temperament theory extends the scheme laid down by Hippocrates, Galen,
and Kretschmer. The 16 temperament and personality types described in PTypes are classified
in groups of four under Ernst Kretschmer's hyperesthetic, anesthetic, depressive, and
hypomanic temperaments.
According to the Encyclopdia Britannica, in psychology, temperament is the aspect of
personality concerned with emotional dispositions and reactions and their speed and
intensity; the term often is used to refer to the prevailing mood or mood pattern of a person.
The notion of temperament in this sense originated with Galen who developed it from an
earlier physiological theory of four basic body fluids (humours): blood, phlegm, black bile,
and yellow bile. According to their relative predominance in the individual, they were
supposed to produce, respectively, temperaments designated

sanguine (warm, pleasant, blood)

phlegmatic (slow-moving, apathetic, mucus)
melancholic (depressed, sad, yellow bile)
choleric (quick to react, hot tempered, black bile)
2. Type based on body build

Sheldon's Body Personality(1954)

Sheldon noted three personalities based on their physical make-up.
1. ENDOMORPH
The Endomorph is physically quite 'round', and is typified as the 'barrel of fun' person. They
tend to have:

Wide hips and narrow shoulders, which makes them rather pear-shaped.

Quite a lot of fat spread across the body, including upper arms and thighs.

They have quite slim ankles and wrists, which only serves to accentuate the fatter
other parts.

Psychologically, the endomorph is:

Sociable

Fun-loving

Love of food

Tolerant

Even-tempered

Good humored

Relaxed

With a love of comfort

And has a need for affection

2. ECTOMORPH
The Ectomorph is a form of opposite of the Endomorph. Physically, they tend to have:

Narrow shoulders and hips

A thin and narrow face, with a high forehead

A thin and narrow chest and abdomen

Thin legs and arms

Very little body fat

Even though they may eat as much as the endomorph, they never seem to put on weight
(much to the endomorph's chagrin). Psychologically they are:

Self-conscious

Private

Introverted

Inhibited

Socially anxious

Artistic

Intense

Emotionally restrained

Thoughtful

3. MESOMORPH

The mesomorph is somewhere between the round endomorph and the thin ectomorph.
Physically, they have the more 'desirable' body, and have:

Large head, broad shoulders and narrow waist (wedge-shaped).

Muscular body, with strong forearms and and thighs

Very little body fat

They are generally considered as 'well-proportioned'. Psychologically, they are:

Adventurous

Courageous

Indifferent to what others think or want

Assertive/bold

Zest for physical activity

Competitive

With a desire for power/dominance

And a love of risk/chance

BY PHYSIOLOGICAL TYPES:
A. INTROVERTED: Those who are interested in themselves, there own feelings,
emotions and reactions. They are busy in there own thoughts and are self centered .
B. Extroverts: Extroverts are people who take more interest in others and like to move
with people and are skilled in etiquette.
A PERSONALITY TRAITS LIST:
The Big Five Personality Traits
The "Big Five" personality traits can be viewed as one trait personality theory and an
ideal personality traits list. This big five personality theory suggests that there are five basic
personality dimensions that can explain individual differences in behavior. The personality
traits in the big five personality theory include extraversion, openness to experience,
emotional stability, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. Below are some definitions of
these five personality traits:
Extraversion: Extraversion refers the extent to which a person is sociable, talkative, lively,

active, and excitable. A highly extraverted person would be very sociable, talkative, lively,
active, and excitable.
Openness to Experience: Openness to experience refers to the extent to which a person is
imaginative, independent, and has a preference for variety. A person who is high in openness
to experience would be a creative thinker who is independent and does not like routines.
Emotional Stability: Emotional stability refers to the extent to which a person is calm and
secure. A person who is very stable emotionally would remain calm in many situations and
would feel secure.
Agreeableness: Agreeableness refers to the extent to which a person is good-natured,
helpful, trusting, and cooperative. A person who is high in agreeableness would be caring,
help others, trust others, and strive to be cooperative in groups.
Conscientiousness: Conscientiousness refers to the extent to which a person is organized,
careful, self-disciplined, and responsible. A person who is high in conscientiousness would
make an effort to be careful, organized, and responsible.

METHORDS OF PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT

PENCIL AND PAPER TEST

Interviews

Questionnaires.

The Minnesota Multiple Personality Inventory (MMPI)

The Minnesota Multiple Personality Inventory (MMPI) is one of the most frequently
used personality tests in mental health. The test is used by trained professionals to assist in
identifying personality structure and psychopathology. The original authors of the MMPI
were Starke R. Hathaway, PhD, and J. C. McKinley, MD. The MMPI is copyrighted by
the University of Minnesota.
10 SCALES OF THE MMPI
The MMPI has 10 clinical scales that are used to indicate different psychotic conditions.
Despite the names given to each scale, they are not a pure measure since many conditions
have overlapping symptoms. Because of this, most psychologists simply refer to each scale
by number.
Scale 1 Hypochondriasis: This scale was designed to asses a neurotic concern over bodily
functioning. The 32-items on this scale concern somatic symptoms and physical well being.

The scale was originally developed to identify patients displaying the symptoms of
hypochondria.
Scale 2 Depression: This scale was originally designed to identify depression,
characterized by poor morale, lack of hope in the future, and a general dissatisfaction with
one's own life situation. Very high scores may indicate depression, while moderate scores
tend to reveal a general dissatisfaction with ones life.
Scale 3 Hysteria: The third scale was originally designed to identify those who display
hysteria in stressful situations. Those who are well educated and of a high social class tend to
score higher on this scale. Women also tend to score higher than men on this scale.
Scale 4 - Psychopathic Deviate: Originally developed to identify psychopathic patients, this
scale measures social deviation, lack of acceptance of authority, and amorality. This scale can
be thought of as a measure of disobedience. High scorers tend to be more rebellious, while
low scorers are more accepting of authority. Despite the name of this scale, high scorers are
usually diagnosed with a personality disorder rather than a psychotic disorder.
Scale 5 Masculinity/Femininity: This scale was designed by the original authors to
identify homosexual tendencies, but was found to be largely ineffective. High scores on this
scale are related to factors such as intelligence, socioeconomic status, and education. Women
tend to score low on this scale.
Scale 6 Paranoia: This scale was originally developed to identify patients with paranoid
symptoms such as suspiciousness, feelings of persecution, grandiose self-concepts, excessive
sensitivity, and rigid attitudes. Those who score high on this scale tend to have paranoid
symptoms.
Scale 7 Psychasthenia: This diagnostic label is no longer used today and the symptoms
described on this scale are more reflective of obsessive-compulsive disorder. This scale was
originally used to measure excessive doubts, compulsions, obsessions, and unreasonable
fears.
Scale 8 Schizophrenia: This scale was originally developed to identify schizophrenic
patients and reflects a wide variety of areas including bizarre thought processes and peculiar
perceptions, social alienation, poor familial relationships, difficulties in concentration and
impulse control, lack of deep interests, disturbing questions of self-worth and self-identity,
and sexual difficulties. This scale is considered difficult to interpret.
Scale 9 Hypomania: This scale was developed to identify characteristics of hypomania
such as elevated mood, accelerated speech and motor activity, irritability, flight of ideas, and
brief periods of depression.

Scale 0 Social Introversion: This scale was developed later than the other nine scales as is
designed to assess a persons tendency to withdraw from social contacts and responsibilities.
PROJECTIVE TEST

A projective test is a type of personality test in which the individual offers responses
to ambiguous scenes, words or images. This type of test emerged from the psychoanalytic
school of thought, which suggested that people have unconscious thoughts or urges. These
projective tests were intended to uncover such unconscious desires that are hidden from
conscious awareness.
How Do Projective Test:
In many projective tests, the participant is shown an ambiguous image and then
asked to give the first response that comes to mind. The key to projective tests is the
ambiguity of the stimuli. According to the theory behind such tests, clearly defined questions
result in answers that are carefully crafted by the conscious mind. By providing the
participant with a question or stimulus that is not clear, the underlying and unconscious
motivations or attitudes are revealed.
Types of Projective Tests
There are a number of different types of projective tests. The following are just a few
examples of some of the best-known projective tests.

The Rorschach Inkblot Test

Description of the Rorschach: The Rorschach contains 10 inkblots. All of the
inkblots have a white background. Several of them have black blots. A couple have
black and red blots, and 3 have multiple colors. The test giver explains what will
happen in the test (you will describe what you see in some inkblots) and what the test
is used for (e.g., to help plan your therapy). The test taker then goes through the 10
cards, one by one, saying what they see in the cards. If they see only one thing per
card, they are encouraged to see some more. If they see more than 5 per card, they are
stopped at 5 (except for special circumstances). During the test, the test giver writes
down everything the taker says. After the taker has seen all ten, the giver goes over

the responses, inquiring what was seen, where it was seen and why the taker thought
it was what it was. Then the fun of scoring the thing begins. The Rorschach is difficult
to score reliably. The Rorschach Inkblot was one of the first projective tests, and
continues to be one of the best-known. Developed by Swiss psychiatrist Hermann
Rorschach in 1921, the test consists of 10 different cards that depict an ambiguous
inkblot. The participant is shown one card at a time and asked to describe what he or
she sees in the image. The responses are recorded verbatim by the tester. Gestures,
tone of voice, and other reactions are also noted. The results of the test can vary
depending on which scoring system the examiner uses, of which many different
systems exist.

The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

The TAT was first published in 1935 by Christina Morgan & Henry Murray. The TAT
contains 31 cards, 30 black and white pictures, and one blank card. Some pictures are
intended for boys, some for girls, some for women and some for men. Usually only a
subset (maybe 10) are administered. Instructions: tell a story: what is happening, what
characters are feeling, and the outcome. In the Thematic Apperception Test, an
individual is asked to look at a series of ambiguous scenes. The participant is then
asked to tell a story describing the scene, including what is happening, how the
characters are feeling and how the story will end. The examiner then scores the test
based on the needs, motivations and anxieties of the main character as well as how the
story eventually turns out.

Word association test.

Sentence completion test.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Projective Tests

Projective tests are most frequently used in therapeutic settings. In many cases,
therapists use these tests to learn qualitative information about a client. Some
therapists may use projective tests as a sort of icebreaker to encourage the client to
discuss issues or examine thoughts and emotions.

While projective tests have some benefits, they also have a number of weaknesses and
limitations. For example, the respondent's answers can be heavily influenced by the
examiner's attitudes or the test setting. Scoring projective tests is also highly
subjective, so interpretations of answers can vary dramatically from one examiner to
the next.

Additionally, projective tests lack both validity and reliability. Validity refers to
whether or not a test is measuring what it purports to measure, while reliability refers
to the consistency of the test results.

TEST FOR PHYSICAL AND MENTAL DISABILITIES

INTRODUCTION
The eligibility of child for special education and related services is considered upon
completion of the administration of tests and other evulation materials. In order for a child to
be declared eligible for special education and related services it must be determined that the
child is a child with a disability and is in need of special education and related services.
The parent of the child and a team of qualified professional must determine whther the
child is a child with a disability and in need of special education and related services.( the

determination of whther a child suspected of having a specific learning disability is a child

with a disability, must be made by the childs parents and a team of qualified professionals
which must include the childs regular teacher, or a regular class room teacher qualified to
teach a child of his or her age if the child does have a child of his or age and atleast one ,
person qualified to conduct individual diagnostic examimnations of children, such as a school
psychologist , speech- language pathologist or remedial reading teacher.)
THE TEAM CONSIDERING DISABILITY
In interpreting evaluation data for the purpose of determining if a child is a child
with a disability and in need of special education, each public agency is to draw upon
information from a variety of sources, including aptitude and achievement tests, parent input,
teacher recommendations, physical condition, social or cultural background, and adaptive
behavior.
ADDITIONAL PROCEDURES FOR EVALUATING CHILDREN AND
DETERMINING THE EXISTENCE OF A SPECIFIC LEARNING DISABILITY
IDEA includes the following additional procedures when evaluating and determining the
existence of a specific learning disability:
1. A team may determine that a child has a specific learning disability if:

The child does not achieve commensurate with his or her age and ability levels in one
or more of the areas listed below, if provided with learning experiences appropriate
for the childs age and ability levels; and

The child has a severe discrepancy between achievement and intellectual ability in
one or more of the following areas: Oral expression; listening comprehension; written
expression; basic reading skill; reading comprehension; mathematics calculation;
mathematics reasoning.
2. The team may not identify a child as having a specific learning disability if the severe
discrepancy between ability and achievement is primarily the result of:
A visual, hearing, or motor impairment;
Mental retardation;
Emotional disturbance; or
Environmental, cultural or economic disadvantage.
3. Observation:

 At least one team member other than the childs regular teacher shall observe the
childs academic performance in the regular classroom setting.
In the case of a child of less than school age or out of school, a team member shall
observe the child in an environment appropriate for a child of that age.
4. Written report For a child suspected of having a specific learning disability, the
documentation of the teams determination of eligibility must include a statement of:
Whether the child has a specific learning disability.
The basis for making the determination.
The relevant behavior noted during the observation of the child.
The relationship of that behavior to the childs academic functioning.
The educationally relevant medical findings, if any.
Whether there is a severe discrepancy between achievement and ability that is not
correctable without special education and related services.
The determination of the team concerning the effects of environmental, cultural, or
economic disadvantage.
Each team member shall certify in writing whether the report reflects his or her conclusion. If
it does not reflect his or her conclusion, the team member must submit a separate statement
presenting his or her conclusions.
The Law Define A Child With A Disability
The term a child with a disability means:
A child evaluated according to IDEA as having mental retardation, a hearing
impairment including deafness, a speech or language impairment, a visual impairment
including blindness, serious emotional disturbance (referred to in IDEA as emotional
disturbance), an orthopedic impairment, autism, traumatic brain injury, an other health
impairment, a specific learning disability, deaf-blindness, or multiple disabilities, and
Who, by reason thereof, needs special education and related services.
At the discretion of the State and Local Education Agencies, a child with a
disability, aged three through nine, may include a child who is
experiencing developmental delays, as defined by the State and as measured by
appropriate diagnostic instruments and procedures, in one or more of the following
areas: physical development, cognitive development, communication development,

social or emotional development, or adaptive development, and who, by reason

thereof, needs special education and related services.
The Possible Implications For Students With Learning Disabilities When They Are
Identified As Having A Developmental Delay:
The use of a developmental delay category to determine whether a child is
eligible for special education and related services could make it possible to identify some
children early before they experience failure in school and fall behind their peers. Many
children with learning disabilities show delays in one or more of the areas specified. There is,
however, some concern that children with learning disabilities will be included in the
developmental delay category without identifying the specific processing disorder/s present
and, thus the specific intervention strategies needed will not be provided.
Parents should ensure that:
Assessment tools and strategies used gather relevant functional and developmental
information.
Tests and other evaluation materials used include those tailored to assess specific
areas of educational need.
Assessment tools and strategies provide relevant information that directly assists
persons in determining the education needs of the child.
Since States and Local Education Agencies are not mandated to follow a certain course, but
can make a choice regarding whether to use developmental delay for children aged three to
nine, parents need to determine the eligibility criteria used by their State and Local Education
Agencies. Contact special education administrators at the State Department of Education or
the local school district for this information.
TEST FOR PHYSICAL DISABILITY
There is no agreed single measure of physical disability for use either clinically or in
research. It is argued that acceptance of a single standard measure of activities of (ADL)
Might increase awareness of disability , improves clinical management of disabled
patients, and might even increase acceptance for clinical and research. The Barthel
ADL Index is proposed as the standard index for clinical and research purpose.
THE PATIENT NAME :.
BARTHEL RATER NAME :..
INDEX DATE :..
Activity score
Bowels (preceding week)

 If needs enema from nurse, then 'incontinent.'

'Occasional' = once a week.
Bladder (preceding week)
'Occasional' = less than once a day.
A catheterized patient who can completely manage the catheter alone is registered as
'continent.'
Grooming (preceding 24 48 hours)
Refers to personal hygiene: doing teeth, fitting false teeth, doing hair, shaving, washing
face. Implements can
be provided by helper.
Toilet use
Should be able to reach toilet/commode, undress sufficiently, clean self, dress, and leave.
'With help' = can wipe self and do some other of above.
Feeding
Able to eat any normal food (not only soft food). Food cooked and served by others, but not
cut up.
'Help' = food cut up, patient feeds self.
Transfer
From bed to chair and back.
'Dependent' = NO sitting balance (unable to sit); two people to lift.
'Major help' = one strong/skilled, or two normal people. Can sit up.
'Minor help' = one person easily, OR needs any supervision for safety.
Mobility
Refers to mobility about house or ward, indoors. May use aid. If in wheelchair, must
negotiate corners/doors
unaided.
'Help' = by one untrained person, including supervision/moral support.
Dressing

 Should be able to select and put on all clothes, which may be adapted.
'Half' = help with buttons, zips, etc. (check!), but can put on some garments alone.
Stairs
Must carry any walking aid used to be independent.
Bathing
Usually the most difficult activity.
Must get in and out unsupervised, and wash self.
Independent in shower = 'independent' if unsupervised/unaided.
THE BARTHELADL GUIDELINES

The Index should be used as a record of what a patient does, NOT as a record
of what a patient could do.
The main aim is to establish degree of independence from any help, physical
or verbal, however minor and for whatever reason.
The need for supervision renders the patient not independent.
A patient's performance should be established using the best available
evidence.
Asking the patient, friends/relatives, and nurses will be the usual source, but
direct observation and common sense are also important. However, direct
testing is not needed.
Usually the performance over the preceding 24 48 hours is important, but
occasionally longer periods will be relevant.
Middle categories imply that the patient supplies over 50percent of the effort.
Use of aids to be independent is allowed.

TEST FOR MENTAL DISABILITY

WAIS IQ test is the most popular intelligence assessing scale. It measures vocabulary,
arithmetic and visual-spatial capabilities. It takes into accunt general knowledge, social
awareness and short term memories as well. Psychiatrists preferably use this scale to
diagnose level of mental retardation in their patient.
WAIS stands for Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. This adult IQ test claims to
classify intelligence of human beings of 16-74 years old and above. The other two Wechsler
scales are used for kids and children.
HISTORY OF WAIS IQ TESTS

The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) intelligence quotient (IQ) tests are
the primary clinical instruments used to measure adult and adolescent intelligence.[1] The
original WAIS (Form I) was published in February 1955 by David Wechsler, as a revision of
the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale.[2] The fourth edition of the test (WAIS-IV) was
released in 2008 by Pearson.
STANDARDIZATION OF WAIS IQ TESTS
The WAIS is a standardized IQ test. For the purpose the subtests were administered to
1800 USA citizens. The sample group was representative set of men, women, white, black,
rural and urban population as per 1981 census. Other representative considerations were also
taken into account. After calculating their results, the rating on the scale were identified.
Later on psychologists of different countries customized WAIS under their culturaland
linguistic preferences. Now adapted versions, such as Australian IQ tests, Spanish IQ Tests
and Chinese IQ test are available all over the world.
DESCRIPTION
WAIS IQ tests are composed of two main scales: verbal and performance.
Verbal Scales
1. Information: 28 items on a variety of information adults have presumably had
opportunities to acquire in our culture. No specialized or academic information included;
however, some of the items cover quite sophisticated information.
2. Comprehension: 18 items that require examinee to explain what should be done in certain
circumstances, the meaning of proverbs, why certain societal practices are followed, and so
forth. The test measures practical judgement, common sense, and the ability to understand
and adapt to social customs. Score on each item varies (0-2 pts) according to the degree to
which the response describes the most pertinent aspects of the question.
3. Arithmetic: 20 arithmetic problems similar to those encountered in elementary math
courses. Problems are administered orally and must be solved without paper and pencil. In
addition to math knowledge, test measures concentration and systematic problem-solving
ability.
4. Similarities: 19 items requiring examinee to describe how two given things are alike.
Score on each item varies according to the degree to which the response describes a general
property primarily pertinent to both items in the pair. Measures concrete, functional, and
abstract concept formation.

5. Digit Span: Two parts, Digits forward and digits backwards. Examinee required to repeat 3
- 9 digits forward and 2 - 9 digits backwards. Measures short-term memory, attention, and
concentration..
6. Vocabulary: 66 words of increasing difficulty are presented orally and visually. Examinee
required to define the words. Score (0-2) based on sophistication of definition. Measures
verbal knowledge and concept formation.
7. Letter-Number Sequencing (Optional Test): Examiner presents combinations of letters
and numbers, from 2 to nine letter-number combinations. Examinee must repeat each series
by, first, repeating the numbers in ascending order, then the letters in alphabetical order (e.g.,
9-L-2-A; correct response is 2-9-A-L). Measures "working memory," the ability to
simultaneously recall and organize stimuli of different, similar types. This also is a standard
test on the Wechsler Memory Scale-III.
Performance Scales

1. Coding-Digit Symbol: Numbers 1 - 7 are paired with symbols on a key presented to

examinee. Examinee has 120 seconds to go through a grid of 90 numbers and place
the correct symbol above each number. Measures visual-motor speed and complexity,
motor coordination. There are two additional, optional extensions of the coding test
that measure the examinees skills in learning the coding process after completing the
initial task.
2. Picture Completion: 25 cards, each containing a picture having a part missing.
Examinee must identify the missing part. Measures ability to observe details and
recognize specific features of the environment (I.e., whole to part discrimination).
Also measures performance in deliberately focusing attention.
3. Block Design: Perhaps the butt of more jokes than any other WAIS scale! Included in
the test are nine red and white square blocks and a spiral booklet of cards showing
different color designs that can be made with the blocks. The examinee must arrange
the blocks to match the design formed by examiner or shown on cards. In addition to
being scored for accuracy, each item is scored for speed as well. Measures spatial
problem-solving and manipulative abilities, and part to whole organization.
4. Picture Arrangement: Eleven items. Each item consists of 3 to 6 cards containing
pictures. The examinee must arrange the pictures from left to right to tell the intended
story. Again, both accuracy and speed are scored. Partial credit is given for alternate,
but less commonly given arrangements to some items.

Measures nonverbal reasoning and sequencing skills, and grasp of social cause and
effect (also known as social intelligence).
5. Matrix Reasoning: A new test on the WAIS-III. Examinee is presented with a series
of design with a part missing. Examinee chooses the missing part that will complete
the design, from five choices. Measures nonverbal analytical reasoning.
6. Object Assembly (Optional Test): Four items, each item being a "cut up" object, like
a puzzle. Examinee must correctly assemble the parts of the puzzle. Measures visualmotor problem-solving and organizational abilities, and visual anticipation skills
7. . Symbol Search (Optional test): Examinee must match one or two symbols shown on
the left column with the same symbol/s in the right column of each page in the
supplemental test booklet. Measures organization accuracy and processing speed
CONCLUSION
WAIS underlines that the both verbal and performances scales should be
administered separately. When standard deviation between the scale is 15 point, it is a normal
phenomenon. However, if standard devitation is more thean futher investigation into the
subject is required. Without a prejudice and contempt, if you are going to encounter a WAIS
session, you are atleast average and at the maximum a super genius. The lower rating is for
the mentally retarded people.

SOCIOMETERY
MEANING
The word sociometry comes from the Latin socius, meaning social and the Latin
metrum, meaning measure. As these roots imply, sociometry is a way of measuring the
degree of relatedness among people. Measurement of relatedness can be useful not only in the
assessment of behavior within groups, but also for interventions to bring about positive
change and for determining the extent of change. For a work group, sociometry can be a

powerful tool for reducing conflict and improving communication because it allows the group
to see itself objectively and to analyze its own dynamics. It is also a powerful tool for
assessing dynamics and development in groups devoted to therapy or training.
Jacob Levy Moreno coined the term sociometry and conducted the first long-range
sociometric study from 1932-38 at the New York State Training School for Girls in Hudson,
New York. As part of this study, Moreno used sociometric techniques to assign residents to
various residential cottages. He found that assignments on the basis of sociometry
substantially reduced the number of runaways from the facility. (Moreno, 1953, p.
527). Many more sociometric studies have been conducted since, by Moreno and others, in
settings including other schools, the military, therapy groups, and business corporations.
A useful working definition of sociometry is that it is a methodology for tracking the
energy vectors of interpersonal relationships in a group. It shows the patterns of how
individuals associate with each other when acting as a group toward a specified end or goal
(Criswell in Moreno, 1960, p. 140). Moreno himself defined sociometry as the
mathematical study of psychological properties of populations, the experimental technique of
and the results obtained by application of quantitative methods (Moreno, 1953, pp. 15-16).
Sociometry is based on the fact that people make choices in interpersonal
relationships. Whenever people gather, they make choices--where to sit or stand; choices
about who is perceived as friendly and who not, who is central to the group, who is rejected,
who is isolated. As Moreno says, Choices are fundamental facts in all ongoing human
relations, choices of people and choices of things. It is immaterial whether the motivations
are known to the chooser or not; it is immaterial whether [the choices] are inarticulate or
highly expressive, whether rational or irrational. They do not require any special justification
as long as they are spontaneous and true to the self of the chooser. They are facts of the first
existential order. (Moreno, 1953, p. 720).
DEFINITON OF SOCIOMERTIC TECHNIQUES
Methods for quqntitatively assessing and measuring interpersonal and group relationships.

ADVANTAGES:
o It enables the structure of social teacher to get a comprehensive picture of the
structure of social relationship in the entire class by means of certain instruments and
method of interpreting the result obtained.
o Special methods of obtaining the information through oral questions, written
respondses, analyzing the records in studying the group.

o The curricular and co- curricular activities formation of groups, choosing companions,
patterns for specific activities.
o It brings into explicit awareness a number of themes that have been generally
overlooked by most other theories of psychology and sociology.
o It opens our minds to phenomena that are emotionally sensitive, and thus offers some
promise of understandingand sometimes meaningful insights about the ways people
interact.
o It can help a group address themes that may be operating but their action has not been
noted in of child for special educationthe sphere of explicit awareness.
o Sociometryand more, the reluctance to actively think about and explore these
issues--can also help us reflect on why there is such reluctance, in terms of individual
and cultural dynamics

BIBLIOGRAPHY
o Anthikade Jacob. Psychology for graduate nurses 2005. 3rd edition. Jaypee brothers.
P.25-8, 36-43
o Lord, F.M. "The Relationship of the Reliability of Multiple-Choice Test to the
Distribution of Item Difficulties," Psychometrika, 1952, 18, 181-194.)
o Loe ,S.A., Kadlubek, R.M. & Marks, W.J. (2007). Administration and Scoring Errors
on the WISC-IV Among Graduate Student Examiners. Journal of Psychoeducational
Assessment.2007; 25: 237-247
o Groth-Marnat, Gary. Handbook of Psychological Assessment, 3rd edition. New York:
John Wiley and Sons, 1997
o Kline, Paul. The Handbook of Psychological Testing. New York: Routledge, 1999.
o Kaufman, Alan S.; Lichtenberger, Elizabeth (2006). Assessing Adolescent and Adult
Intelligence (3rd ed.). Hoboken (NJ): Wiley. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-471-73553-3. Lay
summary (22 August 2010).
WEB REFERENCE
http// www.ScorePak run. Com
http// www Wechsler adult intelligence scale - children, adults, person, people, used,
brain, personality, score, skills http://www.minddisorders.com/Py-Z/Wechsler-adultintelligence-scale.html#ixzz1OpdqWOBI
http// www Wikipedia.com
http//www advocacy handbook: a parents guide for special education.com
http//www.deltabravo.net
http//www.washoecountry.us
http//www.cdcr.ca.gov.com

 http//www.ppicentral.com