Professional Documents
Culture Documents
SCALES
.1-0.Introduction:
Drawings of small objects can be prepared of the same size as the
.
o b j e c t st h e y r e p r e s e n tA
. - j 5 0 m m l o n g p e n c i lm a y b e s h o w n b y a d r a w i n t
of 5.0 rr.l.mlength. Drawings drawn Jf the same size as the objects, ar;
..i _
c a l l e d f u l l - s i z e d r a w i n g s .T h e o r d i n a r y f u l l _ s i z es c a l e sa r e u s e d f o r
such
drawings.A scale is defined as the ratio of the rineardimensionsof erement
o f t h e o b j e c t .a s r e p r e s e n t e di n a d r a w i n gt o t h e a c t u a ld i m e n s i o n so f
the
same elemeni of the obiect itself.
1-1. Scales:
..1191generallyused {or generalengineering
drawingsare snown
. th,"
in table4-1 [SP: 46(19S8)].
TABTE4.1
Reducingscales
Enlargingscales
1..2
'l:2O
l:200
1 : 2000
50:1
5:
1:5
1 :50
1:500
1 : 5000
20t1
2 t1
1 :
1 :
1 :
1 :
10:
10
100
1000
'10000
1
1:1
A l l t h e s e s c a l e sa r e u s u a l l y3 0 0 m m l o n g a n d s u b _ d i v i d e d
throughout
their .lengths. The scale is indicated on thj drawing at a suitatlle"place
thg title.. The compiete designationof a scale c"onsistsof word scale
:glr
t o t i o w e d b y t h e r a t i o , i . e . s c a l e I : 1 o r s c a l e ,f u l l s i z e .
' a , - " y n o t b e a l w a y s . p o s s i b lteo p r e p a r ef u l l _ s i z ed r a w i n g s .T h e y
are,
-theretorei
,
drawn proportionately smaller or larger. When drawings are
drawn smaller than the actual
.size of the objects (as in case of bui-ldings,
bridges, large machines etc.) the
scale used is said to be a reducing scZle
(1 :5). Drawings of small machrneparts, mathematicalinstruments/
watches
etc. are made larger than their real size. These are said to be drawn
on
an enlargingsca/e (5 : 1).
The scalescan be expressedin the following three ways:
( i ) E n g i n e e r ' ss c a l e : l n t h i s c a s e ,t h e r e l a t i o nb e t w e e n
the dimension
on the drawingand the actualdimensionof the object is mentionednumerically
in the style as 10 mm = 5 m erc.
(ii) Graphical scale: The scale is drawn on the
drawing itself. As the
.
drawing becomes old, the engineer,sscale may shrink and may
not give
a c c u r a t er e s u l l s .
5 2 E n g i n e e r i n BD r a w i n g
However, such is not the case with graphical scale because if the
d r a w i n g s h r i n k s ,t h e s c a l e w i l l a l s o s h r i n k . H e n c e , t h e g r a p h i c a ls c a l e i s
c o m m o n l y u s e d i n s u r v e ym a p s .
(iii) Representativefraction: The ratio of the length of the drawing to
the actual length of the object representedis calied the Representative
F r a c t i o n( i . e . R .F . ) .
Length of the drawing
R.F. _
Actual length of object
W h e n a l c m l o n g line in a drawing represents1 metre length of the
object, the R.F.is equal .
-'
,H
*,,
r0o1
Scales 53
( i i ) F r o m t h e z e r o m a r k , t h e u n i t s s h o u l d b e n u m b e r e dt o t h e r i s h t
a n d i t s s u b - d i v i s i o ntso t h e i e f t .
( i i i ) T h e n a m e s o f t h e u n i t s a n d t h e s u b - d i v i s i o n ss h o u l d b e s t a t e d
c l e a r l yb e l o w o r a t t h e r e s p e c t i v ee n d s .
( i v ) T h e n a m e o f t h e s c a l e ( e . g . s c a l e ,j : 1 0 ) o r i t s R . F .s h o u l d b e
m e n t i o n e db e l o w t h e s c a l e .
Problem a'1. ffig. 4-1)t Constructa scaleof 1 :4 to show centrmetres
and long enough to measureupto 5 decimettes.
CENTIMETRES
DECIMETRES
R . F .= %
Ftc.4_.1
(i)
D e t e r m i n e R . F .o f t h e s c a l e . H e r e i t i s ] .
METRES
,I
Ftc.4-2
60
54
Engineeting Drar'ving
_1.
(i) Determine R.F.oi the scale, here R.F.- 60
( i i ) D e t e r m i n el e n g t ho f L h es c a l e .
'I
1
L e n g t ho f t h e s c a l e: 6 0 - * 6 . = 1 0 m e t r e : 1 0 c m '
( i i i ) D r a w a l i n e 1 0 c m l o n g a n d d i v i d ei t i n t o 6 e q u a lp a r t s '
( i v ) D i v i d e t h e f i r s t p a r t i n t o 1 0 e q u a l d i v i s i o n sa n d c o m p l e t et h e s c a l e
a s s h o w n .T h e l e n g t h3 . 7 m e t r e si s s h o w n o n t h e s c a l e '
= 'l foot to shot\
Problem 4-3. (fi8. 4-g)t Constructa scaleof 1'5 inches
inchesand long enough to measurcupto 4 feet'
2 FT.t0 rN -.
Frc.4-3
R . F .= %
= I
Determine R.F.of the scale. R.F.= *@.,, t.nu;
( i i ) D r a w a l i n e ,1 . 5 x 4 = 6 i n c h e sl o n g .
one foot'
iiii) oiuia" it into four equal parts, each part representing
representinS
e
a
c
h
p
a
r
t
s
,
iiui oiuio" the first division into 12 equal
T
he distance
4
1
p
r
o
b
l
e
m
i
n
1 " . C o m p l e t et h e s c a l ea s e x p l a i n e d
2 ' - 1 Q " i s s h o w n m e a s u r e di n t h e f i g u r e .
:
to read yards
Probtem 4-a. (fig. 4-4)t Constructa scaleof R'F
AO
and feet, and long enough to measure upta 5 yards'
(i)
3Y.rF.
Ftc.4-4
R.F. =
-L
60
(i) Length
of thescale= R.F.x max.length: fr " S ya
= 3 inches'
:
iro
( i i ) D r a w a l i n e 3 i n c h e sl o n g a n d d i v i d e i t i n t o 5 e q u a l p a r t s '
( i i i ) D i v i d e t h e f i r s t p a r t i n t o 3 e q u a ld i v i s i o n s .
(iv) Mark the scale as shown in the figure.
1
=
to show miles
Probtem 4-5. (fig. 4'5): Constructa scaleof R.F
*a*
and furlongs and long enough to measurcupto 6 miles'
MILES
I
FlG.4-5
84480
Scales
*ir'
.6:
Ss
11'
;I-r +* u o u m i l e s = 4 ; .
I
( i i ) D r a w u t i n " 4 i l o n g a n d d i v i d ei t i n r o 6
e q u a lp a r t s .D i v i d et h e f i r s t
p a r t i n t o B e q u a l d i v i s i o n sa n d c o m p l e t et h e s c a l ea s s h o w n .
T h e d i s t a n c e4 m i l e sa n d 3 f u r l o n g si s s h o w nm e a s u r e di n t h e f i g u r e .
D^iagonalscales:A diagonalscaleis used when very minute distances
,(ii)
such as 0.1 mm etc. are to be accuratelymeasuredor when measuremenfs
are. required in three units; {or example, dm, cm and mm,
or yard, foot
and inch.
S m a l l d i v i s i o n so f s h o r t l i n e s a r e o b t a i n e db y t h e p r i n c i p l eo f d i a g o n a l
d i v i s i o n ,a s e x p l a i n e db e l o w .
P r i n c i p l eo f d i a g o n a ls c a l e :T o o b t a i n d i v i s i o n so f a g i v e ns h o r t l i n e
AB
1
i n m u l t i p l e so f
i r s l e n g t h ,e . g . 0 . 1 A B ,O . Z A B ,0 . 3 A B e t c . ( f i g . 4 _ 6 ) .
1O
( i ) A t o n e . e n d ,s a y 8 , d r a w a l i n e p e r p e n d i c u l a r
to
B and ending at C.
( i i ) N u m b e rt h e d i v i s i o n - p o i sn,t9 , 8 , 7 , . . . . . 1a s
shown.
r i i i ) J o i nA w i r h c .
( i v ) T h r o u g ht h e p o i n t sj , 2 e r c .d r a w l i n e sp a r a l l e l
to
A B a n d c u t t i n gA C a t 1 ' , 2 , e t c . t t i s e v i d e n tt h a t
t r i a n g l e s1 ' 1 C, Z ' 2 C . . . A B C a r e s i m i l a r .
S i n c eC 5 : 0 . 5 8 C ,t h e l i n e 5 , 5 = 0 . 5 4 8 .
S i m i l a r l y ,1 ' 1 : O . 1 A 8 , 2 , 2 = 0 . 2 4 8 e t c .
Thus, each horizontal line below ,48 becomes
progressivelyshorter in length by
AA giuing lengthsin
fr
m u l t i p l e so f 0 . 1 4 8 -
i['"f",F
'.f,
" \
s'r
4
7
6
5
3
I
Frc.
3ft
x 6 m = 9cm.
|,/,'
url
FI
ull
=i
r!l
ul
DECIMETRES
n.r'=,1
240
Ftc.4-7
METRES
56
Enginee.ing Drawing
1
4000
4000
Frc. 4-B
1
4000
x500m=6
metre= 12.5cm.
Scales 57
'l
L e n g t ho f t h e s c a l e -
20 cm - 8 cm.
,., "
( i ) D r a w a l i n e B c m l o n g a n d d i v i d e i t i n t o 4 e q u a l p a r t s . E a c hp a r t
w i l l r e p r e s e n at l e n g t ho f 5 c m .
( i i ) D i v i d et h e f i r s tp a r ti n t o 5 e q u a ld i v i s i o n sE. a c hd i v i s i o nw i l l s h o w . l c m .
( i i i ) A t t h e l e f t - h a n de n d o f t h e l i n e , d r a w a v e r t i c a l l i n e a n d o n i t
s t e p - o f f1 0 e q u a l d i v i s i o n so f a n y l e n g t h .
C o m p l e t et h e s c a l ea s e x p l a i n e di n p r o b l e m4 - 6 . T h e d i s t a n c eb e t w e e n
p o i n t sC a n d D s h o w s 1 3 . 4 c m .
url
FI
srl
EI
tl
:t
CENTIMETRES
Frc.4-9
Problem 4-9. (fig. 4-10)t Constructa diagonatscaleof R.F.
yards, feet and inches and to measure upto 4 yards.
"
32
showing
4 yd = tB yd = ^ 1 "
2
YARDS
Frc.4-.10
(i) Drawa lineN
+!
bng.
32
( i i ) D i v i d e i t i n t o 4 e q u a l p a r t s t o s h o w y a r d s .D i v i d e t h e f i r s t p a r t A 0
i n t o 3 e q u a l d i v i s i o n ss h o w i n gf e e t .
(iii) At A, erect a perpendicularand step-off along it, 12 equal divisions
o f a n y l e n g t h , e n d i n g a t D . C o m p l e t et h e s c a l e a s e x p l a i n e di n
problem 4-6.
To show a distanceol 1 yard,2 feet and Z inches, place one leg of the
.
dividerat P, where the horizontalthrough7,,meetsthe veriicalfrom I y:ardand
t h e o t h e r l e g a t Q w h e r e t h e d i a g o n atlh r o u g h2 , m e e t st h e s a m eh o i i z o n t a l .
Ingineeting Drawing
i"n
INCHES
TENTH5
F r c .4 - 1 1
parts Eachpart
Draw a line AB 5" long and divide it into five equal
will show one inch.
d i v i s i o nw i l l
( i i ) S u b - d i v i d et h e f i r s t P a r t i n t o . 1 0 e q u a l d i v i s i o n s 'E a c h
1
m e a s ur e 1 O I n c h '
equal
( i i i ) A t A , d r a w a p e r p e n d i c u l a tr o A B a n d o n i t ' s t e p - o f f t e n
d i v i s i o n so f a n y l e n g t h ,e n d i n ga t D '
in
(iv) Draw the reciangle,48CD and complete the scale as explained
p r o b l e m4 - 6 ' T h e l i n e Q P s h o w s 2 ' 6 8 i n c h e s '
sq m' The length
Probfem 4-11. (fig. 4-12)'.The areaof a field is 50,000
and B cm respectively'
ana tii iieuatn of tie field, on the map is 10 cm
Mark the length
m.etre'
one
upto
'""d
can
i ai^gonal scalewhich
Z.rtiirr,
scale?
ii zss ,"rr" o-n the sca/e.What is the R'F o{ the
(i)
100
100
zur
METRES
R.F.='566'
rrc.4-12
The areaof the field : 50,000sq m'
: 80 cmr'
The area of the field on the map : 10 cm x B cm
Scales 59
.- - :625
= -50000
sq m.
OU
I cm =25m.
.1
cm
1
Now representativefraction
25 m
2500
..
lsqcm
..
Lengrh
of rhescate=
s00-x100:
zllo ,
ltST
2ocm.
Take 20 cm length and divide it into 5 equal parts. Complete the scale
as shown tn fig. 4-12-
=
:
= 4s
u x ts
;
-5
5
+l
'rl
(rl
EI
inches.
C o n s t r u c t h e d i a g o n a ls c a l ea s
shown in fig. a-13(i).
F r c .J - t 3 ( t )
INCHES
Ei
[l
15 cm.
CENTIMETRES
C o n s t r u c tl h e d i a g o n a ls c a l ea s
shown in fig. a-l3(ii).
F l c . 4 - . i3 ( l )
KILOIYETRES
Ftc. 4-14
.:_
485000
Its
Engineering Drawing
L e n g t ho f k i l o m e t r e, . u t " = ; u j * o
L e n g t ho f v e r s t s c a l e :
x B 0 x 1 . 0 6 7x 1 0 0 0 x 1 0 0 : 1 7 ' 6 c m '
*arrrt
Draw the two scalesone above the other as shown in the figure'
Problem 4-14. (fig. 4-15)t On a road map, a scaleof miles is shown'
On measuringfrom this scale,a distanceof 25 miles is shown by a line
10 cm lonT. Construct this scale to read miles and to measure upto 40
miles. Constructa comparative scale, attachedto this scale,to read kilometres
upto 60 kilometres. 1 mi[e : 1.609 km.
KILOMETRES
MI L E S
F t c .4 - 1 5
(i)
Scaleof miles:
1-0 " 4 -0 =
16 cm.
2s
D r a w a l i n e 1 6 c m l o n g a n d c o n s t r u c ta p l a i n s c a l et o s h o w m i l e s '
.
L e n g t ho f t h e s c a l e
( i i ) Scaleof kilometres:
RF -
10
2 s ' l . o o t t l o o ox l o o
402250
1
1' a
Rn
30 km/hour.
or=
Frc.4-16
1
200000
Scales 61
( i ) D i s t a n c es c a j e( k i l o m e t r e s c a l e ) :
Length of the scaie = R.F.x rnnyipym distance
x 30 x looo x .too = 15 cm.
2o**
( i i ) T i m e s c a l e( m i n u t es c a l e ) :
Speed of the train = 30 km/hour.
=
i . e . 3 0 k m i s c o v e r e di n 6 0 m i n u t e s .
A s l e n g t h o f t h e s c a l e o f 1 5 c m r e p r e s e n t s3 0 k m , 6 0 m i n u t e s
w h i c h i s t h e t i m e r e q u i r e dt o c o v e r 3 0 k m , c a n b e r e p r e s e n t e d
on the same length of the scale.
(iii) Draw a line.15 cm Iong and divide it into 6 equal parts.
Each
part represents 5 km for thb distance scale and -10 minutes for
the time scale.
( i v ) D i v i d e t h e f i r s t p a r t o f t h e d i s t a n c es c a l ea n d t h e t i m e
s c a l ei n t o 5
a n d 1 0 e q u a lp a r t s r e s p e c t i v e l yC.o m p j e t et h e s c a l e sa s s h o w n .T h e
d i s t a n c ec o v e r e di n 3 6 m i n u t e si s s h o w n o n t h e s c a l e .
Probfem 4.16. (fig. 4-17): On a Russianmap, a scaleof verstsis shown.
^
On measuring it with a metric scale, 150 yelsts are found to measure.lS cm.
Construct comparative scalesfor the two units to measure upto 200 versts
and 200 km respectively.'lverct = 7.067 km.
(i) Sca/e of verst:
Length of the scale -
L5-l-200 = 20 cm.
150
D r a w a l i n e 2 0 c m l o n g a n d c o n s t r u c ta p l a i n s c a l et o s h o w v e r s t s .
(ii) Sca/eof kilometres:
x 200 x i 000 x
: 12.4 cm.
#*
Construct
the plainscalei2.4 cm long,abovethe scaleof verstsand
attachedto it, to readkilometres(fig. 4-17).
'
1
160900
VERST
ttc. 4-17
(iv) Vernier scales: Vernier scales, like diagonal scales, are
used to
read to a very small unit with great accuracy."A vernier scale consists
of
a
lwo. ?.arts..-. .primary scale and a vernier. fhe primary scale is a plain
s c a l ef u l l y d i v i d e d i n t o m i n o r d i v i s i o n s .
As it would be difiicuit to sub-dividethe minor divisions in the
ordinary way, it is done with the help of the vernier. The graduations
on
the vernier are derived from those on the primary scale.
6 2 E n g i n e r i n gD r a w i n g
P r i n c i p l e o f v e r n i e r : F i g . 4 - 1 8 s h o w s a p a r t o f a p l a i n s c a l ei n w h i c h
t h e l e n g t f iA 0 r e p r e s e n t s1 0 c m . l f w e d i v i d eA 0 i n t o t e n e q u a l p a r t s ,e a c h
ourt *iil represent 1 cm. lt would not be easy to divide each of these
p a r t s i n t o t e n e q u a l d i v i s i o n st o g e t m e a s u r e m e n t isn m i l l i m e t r e s '
Now, if we take a length B0 equal to
1 0 + 1 : 1 1 s u c h e q u a l p a r t s ,t h u s
r e p r e s e n t i n1g1 c m , a n d d i v i d ei t i n t o t e n
e q' u a l d i v i s i o n s ,e a c h o f t h e s e d i v i s i o n s
11
w i l l r e p r e s e n t, , n = 1 1 c m o r 1 1 m m .
The difference between one part of A0
CENTIMETRES
a n d o n e d i v i s i o no f B 0 w i l l b e e q u a l
-l
F I C . 4 - 1B
1.1 - 1.0 = 0.1 cm or mm. Similarly,
w
i
l
l
b
e 0.2 cm or 2 mm.
the difference belween two parts o{ e a c h
o
Ihe upper sca/e 80 is the vernier. The c o m b i n a t i o n f t h e P l a i n s c a l e a n d
t h e v e r n i e ri s t h e v e r n i e rs c a l e .
n u n i t s i s d i v i d e di n t o n e q u a l p a r t s '
I n g e n e r a l ,i f a l i n e r e p r e s e n t i n g
!n = 1 u n i t B u t , i f a l i n e e q u a lt o n + l o f t h e s e u n i t s
e a c hp a r t w i l l s h o w
i s t a k e na n d t h e n d i v i i e d i n t o n e q u a lp a r t s ,e a c ho f t h e s ep a r t sw i l l b e e q u a l
1
n+1 =
ti
units The difference between one such part and one
1 +
,o
;
!#
=
, " i t S i m i l a r l yt,h e d i f f e r e n c e
f o r m e r p a r t w i l l b e e q u a la
I
i
between two parts from each will be j
unit.
DECIMETRES
Length of the scale
F r c .4 - 1 9
1
4 x 100 : 16 cm.
Scals 53
(i) Draw u
cm.long and divide it inro 4 equal parts to show
16
metres.lil".
Divide
each of tl]ese partsinto l0 equalpartsto sholv
decjmetres.
(ii) To construct a vernier, take .11
parts o f d m l e n g t h a n d d i v j d e i t
r n t o . 1 0 e q u a l p a r t s . E a c h o f t h e s e parts
will show a length of
1.1 dm or 11 cm.
a l e n g t hr e p r e s e n t i n 2
g. 3 9 m , p l a c eo n e l e g o f t h e d i v i d e r
^ .t A^ ' o
on
-.:ujr."
a
99 cm mark and the othei leg at B on t.+
m m " a r k r. h e l e n l t h
AB wilf show 2.39 metres (0.99 + j.; :
2.3g).
S i m i l a r l y ,t h e l e n g t h ,C D s h o w s 0 . 9 . 1m e t r e ( O . B
+ 0 . . 1 1= 0 . 9 1 ) .
T h e n e c e s s i t yo f d i v i d i n gt h e p l a i n s c a l ei n t o
m i n o r d i v i s i o n st h r o u g h o u t
its length is quite evidentlrom the above
measurements.
-1S. (fig. 4-2O)t Construct
a full_sizevernier scaleof inches
a_.n d,t].obf"s h o w o n i t l e n g t h s3 . 6 7 " , 1 . 5 4 " a n d 0 . 4 8 " .
Ftc.4-20
( i ) D r a w a p l a i n f u l l - s i z es c a l e4 , , l o n g
a n d d i v i d ei t f u l l y t o s h o w 0 . 1 , ,
l en g t hs .
( i i ) C o n s t r u c ta v e r n i e ro f l e n g t he q u a l
t o 1 0 + j : j l p a r t sa n d d i v i d e
i t i n t o 1 0 e q u a l p a r t s .E a c ho f t h e s e p a r t s w i l l t f f ; q
= o.rr ".
T h e l i n e A B s h o w s a l e n g t ho f 3 . 6 7 , ,( O . 7 7 "
+ 2 . g , : E . O Z , , )S. i m i t a r l y ,
,
l ]n . " t . C D a n d P Q s h o w l e n - g t h so i 1 . s 4 " ( 0 . 4 4 "
+ 1.1i = 1.s4,,) an()
0 . 4 8 " ( 0 . S 8 "- O . 4 " : 0 . 4 8 , , ) r e s p e c r r v e t y .
Probfem a-19, (lig. 4-21): Constructa vernier
scaleof R.F.= {
to ,"ud
ov
inchesand to measureupto 15 yards.
Ftc. 4-21
.
8b
ts yd =
?"
yd = d4
(i)
64
Engineering DtatYing
( i i ) A t B ' e r e c td P e r p e n d i c u l a r '
t*
t""t*' describean^arcAC cutting
ff:11:"l::
(iii) With S
AC ) subtendsan
chord
"'
(or
the
arc'4C
ut u pt'iii c in""' the
angle of 90' at the centre 8'
may be done
( i v ) D i v i d eA C i n t o n i n e e q u a l p a r t s 'T h i s
p1:'j:Jjtu*'"g
( a ) b y d i v i d i n gt h e a r c A C i n t o t h r e e " e q u a l
and then
A8'
radius
and
C
u"' *ittt ZentresA and
three equal parts by
(b) by dividing each o{ these parts into
t
h
e nine equal parts
iach of
t"'itoa
t'i"i';;i''";
c e n t r e8 '
' u [ t " n a t a n a n g l eo f 1 0 ' a t t h e
arc to the straiSht line
(v) franster each divisi"on-pointfrom the
and radii equal to chords
A8-procluced'by taking A as centre
A -10, A -20 etc'
rectanqle below AD' The
(vi) ComPlete the scale by drawing a
d i v i s i o n s o b t a i n e d a r e u n e q U a | / o e c r e a s i n "fgr ogm
r a' dAl atlol y far o m
lvident'that the distance
to D' ; ;;';"i;
t o t h e l e n g t ho f t l r e : - 1 : 1 1
C i v i s i o n - p o i not n t h e s c a l ei s e q u a l
be noreo
b v i t a t l h e c e n r r eB l t m a v
tt th;;I;i;'t;;renJed
A
8
'
the radius
tn"t tni lnoJ 4-60 is equal to
ten equal
i ' e e a c h d i v i s i o nd i v i d e di n t o
T h e s c a l er n u , * ' u " ' d i v i d e d '
of 5'
d e g r e e sa r e s h o w n i n m u l t i p l e s
o a r t s t o s h o w d e g r e e s l' n t h e f i g u r e '
F$' 4-23
Ftc.4-22
anglesof 47' and 125' by means
P r o b l e m 4 ' 2 0 . ( f i 8 . 4 - 2 3 ) : Construct
of the scale of chords'
(i) Draw any line AB
and radius equal to.0-60
(ii) With any Point P on it as centre
point R'
at"* an arc cutting AP at a
(from the scaleo{ iorltl,
to 0-47 (chord of 47') cut
( i i i ) W i t h R a s c e n t r e and radius equal
the arc at a Point T.
ZRPT = 47"'
( i v ) D r a w a l i n e j o i n i ng P with T fhen
Scales 65
ErerciseslV
1. Fill-upthe blanksin the followingsentences,
usingappropriatewords,'
selectedfrom thosegivenin the brackets:
(a) The ratio of the length of the drawing of the object.to the
actuallengthof the object is called
(resultingfraction,
representativefigure, representative
fraction).
(b) When the drawing is drawn of the same size as that of the
object,the scaleusedis _
(diagonalscale,full-sizescale,
vernierscale).
(c) For drawingsof small instruments,watchesetc. ___
scale
is alwaysused(reducing,full-size,enlarging).
(d) Drawingsof buildingsare drawn using
_.__ (full-sizescale,
reducingscale,scaleof chords).
(e) The R.F.in caseof (b), (c) and (d) abovewould be,
and _
respectively(equalto 1, less than 1,
greaterthan 1).
(f) When measurements
are requiredin three units__
scaleis
used (diagonal,plain,comparative).
(g) The scale of chords is used to set out or measure
(chords,lines,angles).
Answercto Ex. (1):
a-3,b-2, c-3, d-2, e-1, 3 and 2, 11, g-3.
2 . Constructa scaleof 1:5 to show decimetresand centimtresand to
readupto 1 metre.Showthe lengthof 7.Gdm on it.
3 . Constructa scaleof 1.5 cm = 1 dm to readupto 1 metreand show on
it a lengthof 0.6 metre.
Draw a diagonalscaleof R.F.=
1fu, showingmetres,decimetresand
centimetres,and to measureupto S metres.Show the lengthof 3.69
metreson it.
5 . Draw a scaleof 1:50 showingmetresand decimetres,
and to measure
upto 8 metres.
66
E n g i n e e r i n gD r a w i n g
s l e n g t ho f 4 m e t r e s .E x t e n dt h i s l i n e t o
6 . A 3.2 cm long line representa
25
metres
and show on it units of metre and 5
measure lengihs upto
m
m e t r e s .S h o w t h e l e n g t ho f 1 7 e t r e so n t h i s l i n e .
Construct a diagonal scale of R.F. = ar*1 a read upto 1 kilometre
and to read metres on it. Show a length of 653 metres on it.
B . O n a m a p , t h e d i s t a n c eb e t w e e n t w o p o i n t s i s 1 4 c m ' T h e r e a l
d i s t a n c eb e t w e e nt h e m i s 2 0 k m . D r a w a d i a g o n a ls c a l e o f t h i s m a p
to read kilometres and hectametres,and to measure upto 25 km.
S h o w a d i s t a n c eo f 1 7 . 6 k m o n t h i s s c a l e .
9 . A n a r e a o f 1 4 4 s q c m o n a m a p r e p r e s e n t sa n a r e a o f 3 6 s q k m o n
t h e f i e l d . F i n d t h e R . F .o f t h e s c a l ef o r t h l s m a p a n d d r a w a d i a g o n a l
scale to show kilometres,hectametresand decametresand to measure
u p t o 1 0 k i l o m e t r e s .I n d i c a t eo n t h e s c a l ea d i s t a n c eo f 7 k i l o m e t r e s ,
5 hectametresand 6 decametres.
1 0 . C o n s t r u c tt h e f o l l o w i n g s c a l e sa n d s h o w below each, its R.F.and the
u n i t s w h i c h i t s d i v i s i o n sr e p r e s e n t :
7.
Scales 67
it lensrhs
* t !r,
z slo ^a 2]o.
l;
lengthsand mark on
2 1 . C o n s t r u c ta s c a l eo f * . r . =
t o s h o w d e c i m e t r e sa n d c e n t i m e t r e s
+
a n d b y a v e r n i e rt o r e a d m i i l i m e t r e st,o m e a s u r eu p t o 4 d e c i m e t r e s .
2 2 . C o n s t r u c ta v e r n i e rs c a l et o s h o w y a r d s ,t h e R . F .b e i n g
] . n n . S h o wt n e
d i s t a n c er e p r e s e n t i n 2
g f u r l o n g s9 9 y a r d s .
2 3 . C o n s t r u c t a s c a l e o f c h o r d s s h o w i n g 5 " d i v i s i o n sa n d r v i t h i t s a i d
s e t - o f fa n g l e so f 2 5 ' , 4 0 ' , 5 5 ' a n d 1 3 d . .
2 4 . D r a w a t r i a n g l eh a v i n gs i d e sB c m , 9 c m a n d 1 0 c m l o n g r e s p e c t i v e l
and measure its angleswith the aid of a scale of chords.
The distance between Vadodaraand Surat is 130 km. A trarn covers
t h i s d i s t a n c ei n 2 . 5 h o u r s .C o n s t r u c a
t p l a i n s c a l et o m e a s u r et i m e u p t o
a s i n g l e m i n u t e . T h e R . F .o f t h e s c a l e , ,
,*bb'.
covered by the train in 45 minutes.
2 6 . O n a b u i l d i n gp l a n , a l i n e 2 0 c m l o n g r e p r e s e n t sa d i s t a n c eo f 1 0 m .
D e v i s e a d i a g o n a ls c a l e f o r t h e p l a n t o r e a d u p t o 1 2 m , s h o r v i n e
metres, decimetresand centimetres.Show on your scale the lengths
6 . 4 8 m a n d 1 ' 1 . 1 4m .
2 7 . A room of 1728 m3 volumeis shownby a cube of 216 cm3 volume.
F i n d R . F .a n d c o n s t r u c ta p l a i n s c a l et o m e a s u r eu p t o 4 2 m . M a r k a
distance of 22 m on the scare.
28. A n o l d p l a n w a s d r a w n t o a s c a l e o { 1 c m = 2 4 n . l t h a s s h r u n K
so that actual length of 100 m at site now works out to 96 rn ds pei
scale on plan. Find out the shrinkagefactor and the corrected R.F.of
t h e p l a n . ( H i n t : S h r i n k a g ef a c t o r = p r e s e n t l e n g t h o n s c a l e / o r i g i n a
Iength on scale.)
2 9 . The actual length of 500 m is representedby a line of 15 cm on a
drawing. Construct a vernier scale to read upto 600 m. MJrk on the
scale a length of 549 m.
und I
cm ancl tc
measure upto 5 cm. Mark on the scale distinces of 2.112"
cm
GEOMETRICA
CONSTR,UCTIO
5-0. Introduction:
I n t h i s c h a p t e r ,w e s h a l l d e a lw i t h p r o b l e m so n g e o m e t r i c a l
w h i c h a r e m o s t l y b a s e do n p l a n eg e o m e t r ya n d w h i c h a r e v e r y e s s e n t i a.l
. h e y a r e d e s c r i b e da s u n d e r :
t l r e p r e p a r a t i o no f e n g i n e e r i n gd r a w i n g s T
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
1.1.Specialmethodsof d
B i s e c t i na
g line
p
e
r
p
e
n
d
i
c
u
l
a
r
s
regularpolygons
To draw
inscr
polygons
12. Regular
To draw parallel ines
circles
To dividea line
1 3 . T o d r a w r e g u l a rf i g u r e su s i
T o b i s e c ta n a n g l e
T-squareand set-squares
T o t r i s e c ta n a n g l e
14. To draw tangents
To find the centre of an arc
T o c o n s t r u c te q u i l a t e r atlr i a n g l e s 1 5 . L e n g t h so f a r c s
1 6 . C i r c l e sa n d l i n e si n c o n t a c
T o c o n s t r u c ts q u a r e s
1 7 . l n s c r i b e dc i r c l e s .
T o c o n s t r u c tr e g u l a rp o l y S o n s
Then/E:EB=;AB.
Ceometrical Construclion 69
(o)
I
Frc.5-3
It
@)
7 C E n g i n e e r i n SD r a w i n S
( a ) W h e n t h e p o i n t i s n e a r e rt h e c e n t r et h a n t h e e n d o f t h e l i n e .
LetAB be the given line and P the point,
(i) With centre P and any convenient radius, draw an arc cutting
AB at C and D.
( i i ) W i t h a n y r a d i u sg r e a t e rt h a n h a l f C D a n d c e n t r e sC a n d D .
(iii) Draw the arcs intersectingeach other at E.
(iv) Drirw a line joining P and E and cutting AB at Q.
T h e n P Q i s t h e r e q u i r e dp e r p e n d i c u l a r .
(b)
(o)
Flc.5-4
(b) When the point is nearer the end than the centre of the line.
L e t A B b e L h eg i v e n l i n e a n d P t h e p o i n t .
(i) With centre A and radius equal to AP, draw an arc [F cutting
AB or AB-produced,at C.
(ii) With centreC and radiusequalto CP,draw an arc cutting FFat Dg B at Q.
( i i i ) D r a w a l i n e . j o i n i n gP a n d D a n d i n t e r s e c t i n A
T h e n P Q i s t h e r e q u i r e dp e r p e n d i c u l a r .
(i)
(iv) Draw a straight line through P and Q. Then this i:: the
r e q u i r e dl i n e .
GeometricalConstruction
71
Frc.5-6
Probfem 5-6. To.draw a line parallel to and at a given distance
from a
given straight /ine (fig. 5-6).
Let AB be the given line and R the given distance.
(i) Mark points.p and e on AB, as far apart
as convenient.
( i i ) W i t h p a n d e . a s c e n t r e sa n d r a d i u s
e q u a lt o R , d r a w a r c s o n t h e
samesideof AB.
(iii) Draw the line CD, just touching the two
arcs. CD is the required
l i ne .
Ftc.5-7(i)
7 2 E n g i n e e r i n BD r a w i n g
6 ' a , i , a a n dt '
and a AB as shown
Frc.5-7(ii)
Frc.5-B
A8, ; A B
Ceometrical Construction 73
L e t , 4 8 Cb e t h e g i v e n a n g l e .
( i ) W i t h I a s c e n t r e a n d a n y r a d i u s ,d r a w a n a r c c u t t i n g A B a t D
ano 5L ar t.
( i i ) W i t h c e n t r e s D a n d I a n d t h e s a m e o r a n y c o n v e n i e n tr a d i u s ,
draw arcs intersectingeach other at F.
(iii) Draw a line joining I and F. 8f bisects the angle ABC, i.e.
ZABF : z FBC.
Problem 5-9. To dnw a line inclined to a given line at an angle
equal to a given angle (fig. 5-9).
Frc.5-9
Let PQ be ihe given line and AO8 the given angle.
(i) With O as centre and any radius, draw an arc cutting OA at C
and OB at D.
(ii) With the same radius and centre P/ draw an arc EF cutting PQ at F.
(iii) With F as centre and radius equal to CD, draw an arc cutting
rne arc tf ar L.
( i v ) F r o m P , d r a w a l i n e p a s s i n gt h r o u g h C . T h i s i s t h e r e q u i r e dl i n e .
Flc. 5-10
z,oec.
F l c .5 - 1 1
-:
E cs i ne e r i n g D . a w i n t
Ftc. 5-12
F r c .S - 1 3
Frc.5-14(a)
Frc.5-14(b)
Ceometrical Construction 75
L e tA B a n d A C b e t h e g i v e n l i n e sa n d R t h e g i v e n r a d i u s .
( i ) D r a w a l i n e P Q p a r a l l e tl o a n d a t a d i s t a n c ee q u a l t o R f r o m A B .
( i i ) S i m i l a r l y ,d r a w a l i n e [ f p a r a l l e lt o a n d a t a d i s t a n c ee q u a l t o
R from AC, intersectingPQ at O.
( i i i ) W i t h O a s c e n t r ea n d r a d i u se q u a l t o R , d r a w t h e r e q u i r e da r c .
Probfem 5"15. Io draw an arc of a given radius touching a given arc
and a given straighLline.
C a s e I ; [ f i g . 5 - 1 5 ( a ) ] :L e t A B b e t h e g i v e n l i n e , C D r h e g i v e n a r c d r a w n
w i t h c e n t r eO a n d r a d i u se q u a l t o R . , ,a n d R , t h e g i v e n r a d i u s .
(i) With O as centre and radius equal to (R1- R2), draw an arc FF.
( i i ) D r a w a l i n e p a r a l l e lt o a n d a t . a d i s t a n c ee q u a l t o R 2 f r o m A B
and intersectin6
gf at a point P.
( i i i ) W i t h P a s c e n t r ea n d r a d i u se q u a lt o R 2 , d r a w t h e r e q u i r e da r c .
F r c .s - 1 5 ( a )
F r c . 5 - 15 ( b )
Case ,r: tfig. 5-15(b)l: Let AB be the given line, CD the given arc
drawn with centre O and radius equal to R.,,and R2 the given radius.
( i ) W i t h O a s c e n t r ea n d r a d i u se q u a lt o ( R 1 * R 2 ) ,d r a w a n a r c E F .
( i i ) D r a w a l i n e p a r a l l e lt o a n d a t a d i s t a n c ee q u a l t o R 2 f r o m A B a n d
intersectingff at a point P.
( i i i ) W i t h P a s c e n t r ea n d r a d i u se q u a lt o R 2 , d r a w t h e r e q u i r e da i c .
Problem 5"16. Io draw an arc of a given radius touching two given
. - |bl,
a f c s ( T r g5
Let AB be the given arc drawn with centre O and radius equal to
R1; CD the arc drawn with centreP and radiusequal to R2, and R3 the
eiven radius.
Case ,:
( i ) With O as centre and radius equal to (R1 + R3), draw an arc EF.
( i i ) With O as centre and radius equal to (R2 + R3), draw an arc
intersectingfF at a point Q.
(i i i ) With Q as centre and radius equal to R3, draw the required arc.
Case II:
( i ) With O as centre and radius equal to (R1- R3), draw an arc ff.
( i i ) W i t h P a s c e n t r e a n d r a d i u s e q u a l t o ( R 2 + R 3 ) , d r . a wa n a r c
intersectingEF at a point Q.
(i i i ) With Q as centre and radius equal to R3, draw the required arc.
75 tngineering Drawin8
Case III:
(i) With O as centre and radius equal to (R3- R1), draw an arc EF.
(ii) With P as centre and radius equal to (R3 - R2). draw an arc
intersecting
fF at a point Q.
( i i i ) W i t h Q a s c e n t r ea n d r a d i u se q u a l t o R 3 , d r a w t h e r e q u i r e da r c .
T]]IO
Ftc.5-16
F t C .S - 1 7
: r c .5 - 1 8
LeIA, B, C, D and f be the givenpoints.
(i) Draw linesjoining.,4with 8, I with C, C with D etc.
(ii) Draw perpendicular
bisectorso{ AB and 8C intersecting
at O.
(iii) With O as centreand radiusequalto OA, draw an arc ABC.
(iv) Draw a line joining O and C.
Ceom etaical.Construction 77
( v ) D r a w t h e p e r p e n d i c u l a rb i s e c t o r o f C D i n t e r s e c t i n eO C o r O C
produced, at P.
(vi) With P as centre and radius equal to pC, draw an arc CD.
( v i i ) R e p e a tt h e s a m e c o n s t r u c t i o n N
. ote that the centreof the arc is
a t t h e i n t e r s e c t i o no f t h e p e r p e n d i c u l abr i s e c t o ra n d t h e l i n e , o r
t h e l i n e - p r o d u c e dj ,o i n i n g t h e p r e v i o u sc e n t r e w i t h t h e l a s t p o i n t
o f t h e p r e v i o u sa r c .
5-8. To constructequilateraltriangles:
Problem 5-1g. To construct an equilateral
of the side (fie.5-19).
""*^*-.,
(o)
f rc. 5-19
,*
-rr"
(b)
7B Enginering Drawing
(o)
(b)
Flc.5-20
5-9. To onstructsquares:
Problem 5-21. To construct a square, Iengthof a side given (fi8. 5-21).
'a) With T-squareand set-squareonly.
With the T-square,draw a line AB equal to the given length.
(ii) At A and 8, draw verticalsz\f and 8F.
(iii) Draw a line AC inclined at 45" to AB, cutting 8F at C'
(iv) Draw a line BD inclined at 45" to AB, cutting AE at D.
(i)
( v ) D r a w a l i n e j o i n i n gC w i t h D .
Then ABCD is the required square.
(b)
(o)
Ftc.5-21
Ceometli.alConstruction
79
Y
(o)
(b)
Ftc, S_22
D r a w p e r p e n d i c u l a rb i s e c t o r s o l A 2
each other at O.
and Ag intersecting
B0 Engineering Drawing
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
( i ) D r a w a l i n e A B e q u a lt o t h e g i v e n l e n g t h .
( i i ) A t 8 , d r a w a l i n e 8 P p e r p e n d i c u l aar n d e q u a l t o A B '
( i i i ) D r a w a l i n e . i o i n i n gA w i t h P .
(iv) With centre I and radius AB, draw the quadrantAP'
( v ) D r a w t h e p e r p e n d i c u l a rb i s e c t o r o f A B t o i n t e r s e c t t h e
s t r a i g h tl i n e A P i n 4 a n d t h e a r c A P i n 6 .
A square of a side equal to AB can be inscribedin the circle
d r a w n w i t h c e n t r e4 a n d r a d i u s4 4 '
A r e g u l a r h e x a g o no f a s i d e e q u a l t o A B c a n b e i n s c r i b e d i n
the circle drawn with centre 6 and radius 46.
T h e m i d - p o i n t5 o f t h e l i n e 4 - 6 i s t h e c e n t r eo f t h e c i r c l e o f t h e
r a d i u s A i i n w h i c h a r e g u l a r p e n t a g o no f a s i d e e q u a l t o A B
can be inscribed.
To locate centre 7 for the regular heptaSon of side AB, step-off
a d i v i s i o n6 - 7 e q u a l t o t h e d i v i s i o n5 - 6 .
( i ) W i t h c e n t r e 7 a n d r a d i u se q u a l t o 4 7 , d r a w a c i r c l e '
( i i ) S t a r t i n gf r o m 8 , c u t i t i n s e v e n e q u a l d i v i s i o n sw i t h r a d i u s
equal to AB.
(iii) Draw lines 8C, CD etc and complete the heptaSon'
Regularpolygons of any number of sides can be drawn by this method'
I
Frc.5-23(i)
+
Frc.5-23(ii)
Frc.s-23(iii)
ceometricalConstructionBl
Alternative method ltig. 5-23(ii)l:
(i) On AB as diameter,describea semi-circle.
(ii) With either A or B as centre and AB as radius, describe an arc
o n t h e s a m es i d e a s t h e s e m i - c i r c l e .
( i i i ) D r a w a p e r p e n d i c u l a rb i s e c t o r o f A B c u t t i n g t h e s e m i - c i r c l e
at point 4 and the arc at point 6.
( i v ) O b t a i n p o i n t s 5 , 7 , 8 e t c . a s e x p l a i n e di n m e t h o d , l t .
Fig. 5-23(iii) shows a square, a regular pentagont a regular hexagon
and a regularoctagon, all constructedon AB as a common side.
( i i ) W i t h c e n t r eA a n d r a d i u sA 8 , d e s c r i b ea c i r c l e - l .
(iii) With centre I and the same radius, describe a circle-2 cuttting
circle-l at C and D.
(iv) With centre C and the same radius, draw an arc to cut circle-1
and circle-2 at f and F respectivelv.
(v) Draw a perpendicularbisectorof the line AB to cut the arc fF at C.
(vi) Draw a line fC and produce it to cut circle-2 at p.
(vii) Draw a line FC and produce it to cut circle-j at R.
(viii) With P and R as centres and AB as radius, draw arcs intersecting
each other at Q.
(ix) Draw lines 8P, PQ, QR and RA, thus completingthe pentagon.
X
Ftc.5-24
Ftc.5-25
82
Engineering Dlawing
D r a w a l i n e A B e q u a lt o t h e g i v e n l e n g t h .
( i i ) B i s e c tA B i n a p o i n t C .
( i i i ) D r a w a l i n e B D p e r p e n d i c u l aar n d e q u a l t o A B .
(iv) With centre C and radius CD, draw an arc to intersect the
line AB-producedat E.
(v)
( i i ) F r o n iA , d r a w l i n e s A 1 a n d / 2 m a k i n g 6 0 ' a n d 1 2 0 " a n g l e s
respectivelywith A8.
(iii) From 8, draw lines 83 and 84 making 60' and 120' angles
respectivelywith AB.
(iv) From O the point of intersectionof 41 and 83, draw a line
parallelto AB and intersectingA2 at F and 84 at C.
(v)
ut
(o)
Ftc.5-26
Gometrical Codstruclion 83
Ftc.5-28
8 4 E n g i n e e r i n gD r a w i n g
Frc.5-30
(o)
Ftc.5-31
(b)
( f i g . 5 - 3 1: .
Applythe samem e t h o da s s h o w n i n P r o b l e m5 - 2 4 ( b ) .
Note;(a) When two sides of the hexagon are required to be horizontal the
s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r s t e p p i n g - o f fe q u a l d i v i s i o n s s h o u l d b e o n a n e n c
of the horizontal diameter.
(b) lf they are to be vertical, the starting point should be on an end o:'
the vertical diameter
In either case, to avoid inaccuracy, the points should be joined with the
aid of T-square and 30"-6O" sef-sguare.
ceometrical Construction 85
Flc.5-32
Ftc.5_33
Problem 5-31. To inscribea regular octagonin a given
circle(fig. 5-33).
(i) With centre O, draw the given circle.
(ii) Draw diametersAB and CD at right angles
to each other.
(iii) Draw diametersEF and CH bisecting
angles,4OC and COB.
(iv) Draw lines Af, 6C etc. and complete
the octagon.
Ftc.5-34
(i) With centre O, draw the given circle.
( i i ) D r a w a v e r t i c a lr a d i u sO 4 .
86
Enginering Dtawing
( i i i ) D r a w r a d i i O B a n d O C w i t h a 3 0 ' - 6 0 ' s e t - s q u a r e ,s u c h t h a t
/AOB=ZAOC=12o"'
(iv) At A, I and C, draw tangents to the circle, i'e' a. horizontal line
EF through A, and lines FC and Cf through B and C respectivel\
with a 30'-60" set-square.
Tlren fFC is the required triangle.
Problem g-33. To draw a squareabout a given circle (fig' 5-35)'
(i) W'th centre O, describethe given circle.
(ii) Draw diametersAB and CD at right anglesto each other as shown'
(iii) At A and B, draw vertical lines, and at C and D, draw horizonta
fines intersectingat E, F, C and H.
EFCH is the required square.
Problem 5-34. To describe a regular hexagon about a Siven circle
Ifits.5-36(d)1.
'
(i) With centre O, draw the given circle.
( i i ) D r a w h o r i z o n t a ld i a m e t e rA 8 , a n d d i a m e t e r sC D a n d E F m a k i n g
6 0 ' a r r g l ew i t h A B .
(iii) uraw tangents at all the six ends, i.e' verticals at A and B'
a n d l i n e i w i t h a 3 0 ' - 6 0 ' s e t - s q u a r ea t t h e r e m a i n i n gp o i n t s
at 1, 2,....-6.
intersecting
A hexagonwith two sides horizontal can be drawn by drawing a
vertical diaireter AB and the other lines as shown in fig 5-36(b)'
(o)
Frc.s-36
(b)
l-tL.
J-J
Ceometrical Conslruction 87
f r tcc. . s5--3399
F
F r c .5 _ 4 0 ( a )
F t c . s-40(b)
Frc.
5_40(b)
Problem 5-38(a),.Io draw a tangent to a given arc of inaccessible
centre at any point on it ftig.5_40(a)1.
Let AB be the given arc and p the point on it.
(i) With centre P and any radius, draw arcs cutting
the arc AB at C
and D. Draw EF,the bisector of the arc CD. lt will pass through p.
(ii) Through P. draw a line RS perpendicularto EF. RS'is
rhe req'uired
tangent.
. Probfem 5-38(b). Io draw a tarigentto a given circle
and parallelto
a Biven line tfig. 5-a0(b)1.
The circle with centre O and the line Ag are given.
(i) From O, draw a line perpendicularto Ag and
c u t t i n gt h e c i r c l e a t
a point P or Q.
(ii) Through P or Q, draw the required tangent
CD or C1 D1
( P r o b l e m5 - 3 6 ) .
Drawing
Engineering
Problem 5-39. Io draw a common tangent to two given circles of
e q u a l r a d i i ( fi g . 5 - 4 1 ) .
Draw the given circles with centres O and P.
(al Externaltangents[fig. 5-41(a)]:
( i ) D r a w a l i n e j o i n i n gO a n d P .
(ii) At O and P, erect perpendicularsto OP on the same side oi
it and intersectingthe circles at A and 8.
( i i i ) D r a w a l i n e t h r o u g hA a n d 8 . T h i s l i n e i s t h e r e q u i r e dt a n g e n t '
At 81 is the other tangent. \
Ftc.5-41(a)
Ceometrical Const.uction 89
Ftc.5-42(a)
Frc.5-42(b)
Ftc.5-43
Let AB be the given arc drawn with centre O.
(i) At A, draw a tangent to the arc.
(ii) Draw the chord AB and produce it beyondA to a point
C
such that AC =
; AB.
(iii) With cenrre C and radius equal to CB, describe an arc cutting
the tangent at D.
( i v ) T h e n t h e l e n g t h A D i s a p p r o x i m a l e l yequal to the length
of
the arc AB-
9 0 E n g i n e e r i n gD r a w i n g
D r a w a d i a m e t e rA B .
( i i ) A t A , d r a w a t a n g e n tA C e q u a lt o 3 t i m e s A B .
( i i i ) D r a w a r a d i u sO D m a k i n ga n a n g l eo f 3 0 . w i t h O B .
( i v ) F r o m D , d r a w a l i n e D E p e r p e n d i c u l at ro O B .
( v ) D r a w a l i n e j o i n i n g f a n d C . T h e n f C i s a p p r o x i m a t e l ye q u a l i n
l e n g t ht o t h e c i r c u m f e r e n coef t h e c i r c l e .
ttc.5-44
Flc.5-45
GeometricalConsiruclion
F C.
t c .5-4b
5-46
91
Ftc. 5_47
Problem 5.45, To draw a circle to touch a given line and a given circle
at a given point on it (fig. 5-47).
A i i n e A 8 , a c i r c l e w i t h c e n t r eC a n d a p o i n t p o n t h e c i r c l e a r e g i v e n .
From P, draw a tangent to the circle intersectingAB in D.
(a) Draw a bisector ol ZPDB, to intersect the line throueh C and p
a t O . W i t h c e n t r e O a n d r a d i u s O p , ' d r a w t h e r e o u i r e dc i r c l e .
(b) Draw a bisector ol IPDA to meet the line throush C and p aI O'.
Then O'is the centre of anothercircle which will include the
given circle within it.
Probfem 5-46. To draw a circle to touch a given circle and a given line
at a given point on it (fig. 5-a8).
A circle with centre C and a I i n e A B w i t h d p o i n t P i n i t a r e g i v e n .
Through C, draw a line
p e r p e n d i c u l a rt o A B d n d c u l t i n g
t h e c i r c l ei n E o r F .
(a) Draw a line joiningP and
F a n d i n t e r s e c t i n gt h e
circleat C.
At P, drawa perpendicular
to ,,48intersectingthe line
throughC and C at O. With
centre O and radius OP,
d r a w t h e r e q u i r e dc i r c l e .
Frc.5-48
(b) Draw a line through P and f and obtain centre O, for another
c i r c l e i n t h e s a m e m a n n e r .l t w i l l i n c l u d et h e g i v e n c i r c l e w i t h i n i t .
Probfem 5-47. To draw a circle touching two given circles,one of them
at a given point on it [fig. 5-49(a) and fig. 5-49(b)].
Circles with centres A and B, and a point p on the circle A are given
tfig.s-ae(a)1.
92
E n g i n e e r i n gD r a w i n g
( i ) D r a w a l i n e j o i n i n gA a n d P .
( i i ) T h r o u g h8 , d r a w a l i n e p a r a l l etl o , 4 P a n d i n t e r s e c t i ntgh e c i r c l ei n C .
( i i i ) D r a w a l i n e P C a n d p r o d u c e i t ( i f n e c e s s a r y )t o c u t t h e c i r c l e
( w i t h c e n t r e- B ) i n D .
( i v ) D r a w a i i n e t h r o u g hD a n d I t o i n t e r s e c t . 4 P
o r A P - p r o d u c e da, t O .
W i t h c e n t r eO a n d r a d i u sO P , d r a w t h e r e q u i r e dc i r c l e .
Frc.5-49(a)
F t c . s-49(b)
5 . 1 7 . I n s c r i b e dc i r c l e s :
Problem 5-48. To insuibe a circle in a given triangle (fig. 5-50).
Let ABC be the triangle.
(i) Bisect any two angles by lines intersectingeach other at O.
( i i ) D r a w a p e r p e n d i c u l a frr o m O t o a n y o n e s i d e o f t h e t r i a n g l e ,
meeting it at P.
( i i i ) W i t h c e n t r eO a n d r a d i u sO P , d e s c r i b et h e r e q u i r e dc i r c l e .
Problem 5-49. To draw a circle touching three lines inclined to each
other but not fotming a triangle (fig. 5-51).
Let AB, BC and AD be the given lines.
(i)
Geometrical Construction 93
Frc.5-50
Ftc.5-51
Flc.5-52
Problem 5-51. To draw in a regular polygon, the same number of
equal circles as the sides of the polygon,
-circlei
.each circle touching one side
of the polygon and two of the oihe;
1fig. s_sr).
(i)
( i i ) D r a w b i s e c t o r so f a l l t h e a n g l e so f t h e s q u a r e .T h e y
will meet at
O , t h u s d i v i d i n g t h e s q u a r ei n t o f o u r e q u a l t r i a n g l e s .
I n e a c h t r i a n g l ei n s c r i b ea c i r c l e ( p r o b l e m5 - 4 g ) . E a c hc i r c l e w i l l t o u c h
a s i d e o f t h e s q u a r ea n d t w o o t h e r c i r c l e s a s r e q u i r e d .
F i g . 5 - 5 4 s h o w s f i v e e q u a l c i r c l e s i n s c r i b e di n a r e g u l a rp e n t a g o n
in
.,
the same manner-
rrL. i-i.t
FllCc.. 55_-5544
F
Probfem 5-52. To draw in a regularpolygon, the same number
-potygon,'"each
of
equal circles as the sldes of th.e
circle touchrng two
adjacent sides of the polygon and two oi tne otne, circles (fig. s_is).
94
E n g i n e e r i n gD r a w i n g
F trcc..5 - 5 55
Ftc.5-56
Divide the given circle into four equal parts by diametersAB and CD.
( i i ) D r a w a t a n g e n t t o t h e c i r c l e a t D . D r a w l i n e s b i s e c t i n gZ A O D
and ZBOD and meeting the tangent at 1 and 2.
( i i i ) I n s c r i b ea c i r c l e i n t h e t r i a n g l eO 1 2 .
Draw the other circles in the same manner.The centresfor the remaining
c i r c l e s m a y a l s o b e d e t e r m i n e db y d r a w i n g a c i r c l e w i t h c e n t r e O a n d
r a d i u s O P t o c u t t h e d i a m e t e r sa t t h e r e q u i r e dp o i n t s .
Geometrical Construction 9S
Frc.5-57
Frc.5-5B
Frc.5-59
Ftc.5-60
P r o b l e m 5 - 5 7 . T o d r a w a c i r c l e t o u c h i n g t w o c o n v e r g i n gl i n e s a n d
passingthrough a given point between them (flg. 5_60).
(i) LinesAB and CD, and the point p are given.
( i i ) P r o d u c e l i n e s A B a n d C D t o i n t e r s e a ta t a p o i n t
f. Draw the
bisector EF of .AEC.
Engineering Drawing
Flc.5-61
( i ) L i n e sA B a n d C D a n d r a d i u sR o f t h e s m a l l e rc i r c l e a r e g i v e n '
( i i ) P r o d u c e l i n e s A B a n d C D t o i n t e r s e c ta t a p o i n t f ' D r a w t h e
bisector EF oI ZAEC.
(iii) Draw a line parallel to and at distanceR from AB to intersect Ef
in a point Q.
( i v ) D r a w t h e p e r p e n d i c u l aQr P o n t h e l i n e A B .
(v) With Q as centre and QP as radius, draw the smaller circle'
( v i ) M a r k p o i n t s f a n d N a t w h i c h t h e c i r c l ec u t s f F '
( v i i ) D r a w t h e l i n e j o i n i n g f w i t h P . D r a w a l i n e N S p a r a l l e lt o
IP intersectingAB in the Point S.
F r o m S , d r a w t h e p e r p e n d i c u l at ro A B c u t t i n gE F i n t h e p o i n t O W i t h O
as centre and OS as radius, draw the required circle.
O ' i s t h e c e n t r e o f s m a l l e rc i r c l e , o b t a i n e d i n t h e s a m e m a n n e r ,
t o u c h i n gt h e t w o S i v e nl i n e s a n d t h e S i v e nc i r c l e .
E x e r c i s eVs
1 . D r a w a l i n e 1 2 5 m m l o n g a n d q u a d r i s e citt .
2 . Draw a line AB 80 mm long and divide it into {ive parts, one of them
20 mm long and the remaining each 15 mm long, by the method of
bisection.
3. With centre O and radius equal to 50 mm, draw two arcs of any
lengths on opposite sides of O. Bisect the two arcs and produce the
b i s e c [ o r st i l l t h e v m e e t .
Ceomlrical Construction 97
4.
5.
6 . M a r k a n y p o i n t O . D r a w a l i n e A B , s u c h t h a t i t s s h o r t e s td i s t a n c e
from O is 50 mm.
7 . Construct a rectangleof sides 65 mm and 40 mm long.
B. Draw a line A8 75 mm long. Mark a point C, 65 mm from A and 90 mm
from 8. Join C with / and B. Through the poinrs A, B and C, draw
l i n e s ( i ) p e r p e n d i c u l aar n d ( i i ) p a r a l l e tl o t h e i r o p p o s i t el i n e s .
9 , C o n s t r u c ta s q u a r e o f 7 5 m m s i d e . D r a w t h e d i a g o n a l si n t e r s e c t i n g
a t O . F r o m O , d r a w l i n e s p e r p e n d i c u l at ro t h e s i d e so f t h e s q u a r e .
1 0 . D r a w a c i r c l e o f 5 0 m m r a d i u s .D i v i d e i t ( i ) i n t o B e q u a l p a r t s b y
c o n t i n u e db i s e c t i o na n d ( i i ) i n t o 1 2 e q u a l p a r t s b y b i s e c t i o no f a l i n e
and trisection of a right angle methods.
11. Draw two lines AB and AC making an angle of 25.. Draw a circle
o f 2 5 m m r a d i u st o u c h i n gt h e m .
12. Construct a right angle pQR. Describea circle of 20 mm radius
touching the sides PQ and eR.
1 3 . D r a w a l i n e A B o f a n y l e n g t h . M a r k a p o i n t O a t a d i s t a n c eo f
25 mm from AB. With O as centre, draw a circle of 40 mnr
d i a m e t e r .D e s c r i b ea n o t h e r c i r c l e ( i ) o f 2 0 m m r a d i u s ,t o u c h i n g t h e
circfe and AB; (ii) of 35 mm radius, touching AB and the circle, and
i n c l u d i n gt h e c i r c l e w i t h i n i t .
14. Draw two circles of 20 mm and 30 mm radii respectivelywitlt centres
6 5 m m a p a r t . ( i ) D e s c r i b ea t h i r d c i r c l e o f S 0 m m r a d i u s t o u c h i n g
t h e t w o c i r c l e s a n d ( a ) o u t s i d e t h e m ; ( b ) i n c l u d i n g2 0 m m c i r c l c ;
( c ) i n c l u d i n g3 0 m m c i r c l e . ( i i ) D e s c r i b ea c i r c l e o f 7 5 m n r r a d i u s ,
t o u c h i n g b o t h c i r c l e s a n d i n c l u d i n gb o t h o f t h e m w i t h i n i t .
1 5 . M a r k p o i n t s A a n d B , 5 0 m m a p a r t .M a r k a t h i r d p o i n t 7 5 m m f r o m
b o t h , 4 a n d 8 . D e s c r i b ea c i r c l e p a s s i n gt h r o u g ht h e t h r e e p o i n t s .
1 6 . D r a w t h e m a c h i n eh a n d l e s h o w n i n f i e . 5 - 6 2 . A l l d i m e n s i o n s. r r e i n
millimetres.
Flc.5-62
1''
98
Engineeling Drawing
1 8 . Draw a circle with centre O and radius equal to 30 mm. From a point
P, 75 mm from O, draw a line joining P and O, and produce it to
cut the circle at Q. From P and Q draw tangents to the circle.
1 9 . Two shafts carry pulleys of 90 cm and .135cm diametersrespectivelyThe distance between their centres is 270 cm. Draw the arrangement
showing the two pulleys connected by (i) direct belt (ii) crossed belt
T a k e1 m m : 2
cm.
20. An arc AB drawn with 50 mm radius subtendsan angle of 45' at the
centre. Determine approximatelythe length of A8.
2 1 . Determine the length of the circumferenceof a 75 mm diameter circle2 2 . .A point P is 25 mm from a lineA8. Q is a point in AB and is 50 mm
from P. Draw a circle passing through P and touching AB at Q.
2 3 . The centre O of a circle of 30 mm diameter is 25 mm from a line
A8. Draw a circle (i) to touch the given circle and the line AB at a
point P, 50 mm from O; (ii) to touch AB and the given circle at a
point Q/ 20 mm from AB.
2 4 . Construct an equilateral triangle ABC of 40 mm side. Construct a
square/ a regular pentagonand a regular hexagonon its sides ,48, 8C
and CA respectively.
2 5 . Two circles of 40 mm and 50 mm diameters have their centres
60 mm apart. Draw a circle to touch both circles and (i) to includ
the bigger circle, the point of contact on it being 75 mm from the
centre of the other circle; (ii) to include both the circles, the point
of contact being the same as in (i).
2 6 . Constructa regularpentagonof 30 mm side by three different methods
2 7 . On a line AB 40 mm long, construct a regular heptagon by two
different methods.
Construct a regular octagon of 40 mm side. Inscribe another octagoo
with its corners on the mid-points of the sides of the first octagon2 9 . Constructthe following regularpolygonsin circles of 100 mm diameter,
using a different method in each case: (i) Pentagon(ii) Heptagon.
3 0 . Draw the following regularfigures,the distancebetweentheir opposite
sides being 75 mm: (i) Square; (ii) Hexagon; (iii) Octagon.
Jt.
Construct a regular octagon in a square of 75 mm side.
32. Describe a regular pentagon about a circle.of 100 mm diameter.
.t J.
Geometrical Construction gg
3 9 . D r a w a c i r c l e o f 1 2 5 m m d i a m e t e ra n d d r a w i n i t , f i v e e o u a l
circles, each touching the given circle and two other circtes.
4 0 . C o n s t r u c t a s q u a r e o f 2 5 m m s i d e . D r a w o u t s i d e i t f o u r e q u a l.
'
circles, each touching a side of the square and two other circles.
4 1 . O u t s i d e a c i r c l e o f 2 5 m m d i a m e t e r ,d r a w f i v e e q u a l c i r c l e s ,e a c h
t o u c h i n gt h e g i v e n c i r c l e a n d t w o o t h e r c i r c l e s .
42. fwo lines convergeto a point making an angle of 30. between them.
Draw three circlesto touch both these lines,the middle circle
b e i n g o f 2 5 m m r a d i u sa n d t o u c h i n gt h e o t h e r t w o c i r c l e s .
43. Two lines convergeto a point making an angle of 30. between them.
A p o i n t P i s b e t w e e nt h e s el i n e s l 5 m m f r o m o n e l i n e a n d 2 5 m m f r o m
the other. Draw a circle to touch both the lines and pass through p.
44. Draw a series of four circles, each touching the preceding circle
and two converging lines which make an angle of 256 between them.
T a k e t h e r a d i u s o f t h e s m a l l e s tc i r c l e a s 1 0 m m .
45. A vertical straight line AB is at a distanceoI 90 mm from the centre
of a circle of 75 mm diameter. A straight line pe passes through
the centre of the circle and makes an ansle of 60. with the verticil.
Draw circles having their centres on pd and to touch the straight
l i n e A B a n d t h e c i r c l e . M e a s u r et h e r a d i u s o f e a c h c i r c l e .
4 6 . D f t w a s e m i - c i r c l eo f 1 2 5 m m d i a m e t e ra n d i n s c r i b ei n i t t h e l a r e e s t
equilateral triangle having a corner at the centre. The semi-circle is
t h e d e v e l o p m e n to f a c o n e a n d t h e t r i a n g l e t h a t o f a l i n e o n i t s
s u r f a c e .D r a w L h e p r o j e c t i o n so f t h e c o n e i e s t i n g o n i t s b a s e o n t h e
g r o u n d s h o w i n gt h e l i n e i n b o t h v i e w s .
!ii-r't
4 7 . C o n s t r u c ta l e v e r a s s h o w n i n f i s . 5 - 6 3 .
/ lr".,! I
Frc.5-63
CENTRALLiBRAR
i;';l;.:,t-f#4
1 0 0 E n g i n e e r i n BD r a w i n g
Ftc.5-64
49. Two shafts, 120 cm apart are connected by flat belt. The flat belt
pulleys of 30 cm diameter and 60 cm diameter are fixed on the
shafts. Draw the arrangementand determine approximatelylength of
the belt.
50. Draw plan-view of a hexagonal nut of 20 mm using standard
d i m e ns i ons .
5 1. ( i ) D r a w a n u m b e r ' 8 ' o f h e i g h t 1 0 5 m m a n d 1 5 m m t h i c k .
( i i ) D r a w a n a l p h a b e t' S ' o f h e i g h t 1 0 5 m m a n d 15 m m t h i c k .
CURVES USED IN
ENGINEERING
PN,ACTICE
6
6-0. Introduction:
Conic sections
Cycloidal curves
lnvolute
Evolutes
Spirals
Helix.
\9
F r c . 61-
F r c . 6 _ j( i )
F r c . 6 - 1( i i )
F r c .6 - 1 ( i i i )
W h e n t h e s e c t i o n p l a n e i s i n c l i n e dt o t h e a x i s a n d c u t s
all the
generators on one side of the apex, the section is
an ellipse
tfig.6-1(i)1.
( i i ) W h e n t h e s e c t i o n p l a n e i s i n c l i n e dt o
t h e a x i s a n d i s p a r a l l e lt o
_
o n e o f t h e g e n e r a l o r st,h e s e c t i o ni s a p a r a b o l a
tfig. 6_1{ii}J.
( i i i ) W h e n t h e . s e c r i o np l a n e c u t s b o t h t h e p a r t s
of ite double .one
o n o n e s i d e o f t h e a x i s ,t h e s e c t i o ni s a h y p e r b o l a
tfig. 6_1(iii)1.
(i)
1 0 2 E n g i n e e r i n gD r a w i n g
T h e c o n i c m a y b e d e f i n e da s t h e l o c u s o f a p o i n t m o v i n g i n a . p l a n ei r ' t
such a way that ihe ratio of its distancesfrorn a fixed point .and a {ixed
straight line is always constant. The fixed point is called the focus
and the fixed line, the direcfrix.
distance of the point from the focus is cailed eccentrici1
distanceof the Point from the directrix
1 for
a n d i s d e n o t e d b y e . l t i s a l w a y s l e s s t h a n 1 f o r e l l i p s e ,e. q u a l t o
=
1 for
e
<
for
ellipse,
1
e
purabolaand greaier than 1 for hyperbola i.e.
parabolaand e > 1 for hYPerbola.
T h e I i n e p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e f o c u s a n d p e r p e n d i c u l a rt o t h e
is
directrix is catied thJ axis. T6e point at which the conic cuts its axis
called the vertex.
The ratio
6-1-1. ElliPse:
, onuments'
U s e o f e l l i p t i c a lc u r v e si s m a d e i n a r c h e s ,b r i d g e s , . d a m sm
can be
ellipse
an
rnun-hol"r, glands and stuffing-bnxesetc. Mathematically
\ur)
2
v2
= 'l . Here a' and 'b are half the length oi
*
describedby equation
L,
m a j o r a n d m i n o r a x e so f t h e e l l i p s ea n d x a n d y c o - o r d i n a t e s '
(a) General method of construction of an ellipse:
Probfem 6-1. (fiC. 6-2): To construct an ellipse when the distanceoi
'j'
the focusfrom the directrixis equalto 50 mm and eccentticityis
lhus, eccentricity,=
=
lC
i.
"
(vi) A.scalemay now be constructed
on the axis(asexplained
below),
will directlygive the distanc", in if,. Lquired ratio.
yhi:h
...
.(vii)
At Y.rdraw a perpendicular
VE equalto yF. Draw a line joining
L
ano t.
I n u s , l n t n a n g t eC- .VvLE, v F 2 :
ia
ie
i
( v i i i )M a r k a n y . p o i n t . t o n t h e
axis and through it, draw a
perpendicularto meet CF_producedat 1,.
(ix) With centre F and radius equal
to 1-1,, draw arcs to intersect
the perpendicularthrough 1 ai points p1 and p1,.
T h e s ea r e t h e p o i n t s o n t h e e l l i p s e ,b e c a u s e
t h e d i s t a n c eo f p 1 f r o m
1-1' - vr
A B i s e q u a lt o C 1 , p 1 F = 1 - 1 '
=vc=i' ?.
"^A
S i m i l a r l y ,m a r k .p o i n t s 2 , 3 e t c . o n t h e a x i s
and obtain points
^
P2 and P2', p3 and p3, eic.
(x) Draw the ellipse through these points.
lt is a closed curve having
two foci and two directrices.
( b ) C o n s t r u c t i o no f e l l i p s e b y o t h e r m e t h o d s :
Ellipse is also defined as a curve traced out
by a point, moving in the
same plane as and in such a way that the sum
of itr' dirtuna", from two
fixed points is always the same.
(i) Each of the two fixed points is
called the focus.
( i i ) T h e l i n e p a s s i n gt h r o u g h t h e
two foci and terminated by the
curve, is called the major axis.
( i i i ) T h e . l i n e b i s e c t i n gt h e m a j o r
a x i s a t r i g h r a n s l e s and terminated
b y t h e c u r v e ,i s c a l l e dt h e m i n o r a x i s Conjugate axes: Ihese axes are called conjugate
axeswhen they are
parallelto the tangentsdrawn at their extremitiis.
Conjugateaxes
Frc.6-2(i)
ln fig. 6-2(i), AB is the major axis, CD the minor axis and Ft and Fz
are the foci. The foci are equidistantfrom the centre O.
The points A, P, C eIc. are on the curve and hence, according to the
definition,
( A F 1+ A F ) = ( P F j + P F ) : ( C F 1 + C F 2 ) e t a .
(AF1+ AFz\ -- AB.
But
(PFr + PF2) = A8, the major axis.
.'.
Therefore, the sum of the distancesof any point on the curve from
the two foci is equal Io the maior axis.
Again, (CF1 + CF2\ : AB.
CF1 = 67;.
But
1
CFt =CFz:tAB.
:.
Hence, the distanceof the ends of the minot axis frcm the foci is
equal to half the maior axis.
Problem 6-2. To construct an ellipse, given the maior and minor axes'
The ellipse is drawn by, first determining a number of points through
which it is known to pass and then, drawing a smooth curve through
them, either freehand or with a french curve. Largerthe number of points,
more accuratethe curve will be.
Method I:
Draw a line AB equal to the major axis and a line CD equal to the
minor axis, bisectingeach other at right angles at O.
(ii) With centre C and radius equal to half AB (i.e' AO ) draw arcs
cutting AB at F1 and f2, the foci of the ellipse.
(i)
( i i i ) M a r k a n u m b e ro f p o i n t s 1 , 2 , 3 e t c . o n 4 8 .
(iv) With centres Fl and F2 and radius equal to A1, draw arcs on both
sides of AB.
(v) With same centres and radius equal to 81, draw arcs intersecting
the previous arcs at four points marked pt.
(vi) Similarly,with radii 42 and 82, A3 and 83 etc. obtain more points.
(vii) Draw a smooth curve throughthese points.This curve is the required
e l l i os e .
Method Il:
C o n c e n t r i cc i r c l e m e t h o d
=tc. 6-4
(i)
'106 Engineering
Drawing
( i i ) I n s e r t . ap i n a t e a c hf o c u s - p o i nat n d t i e a p i e c eo f
t h r e a di n t h e f o r m
or a roop around th.epins, in such a way that the pencil point
w h 9 L p l a c e d i n . t h e l o o p ( k e e p i n gt h e t h r e a d t i g h t ) , i s j u s t o n t h e
eno L ot the mtnor axis.
(iii) Move. the pencil around the foci, maintaining an
even tension in
the thread throughout and obtain the ellipsel
I t i s e v i d e n tt h a t p F l + p F 2 : 6 p , + C F , e t c .
Oblongmethod
Ftc.6_6(i)
(i)
( v i ) D r a w t h e c u r v e t h r o u g hA , P 1 . . . . . C l.t w i l l b e o n e q u a r t e r o f t h e
e l l i ps e .
( v i i )C o m p l e t e t h e c u r v e b y t h e s a m e c o n s t r u c t i o n i n e a c h o f t h e
t h r e e r e m a i n i n gq u a d r a n t s .
As the curve is symmetricalabout the two axes/ points in the remaining
q u a d r a n t s m a y b e l o c a t e d b y d r a w i n g p e r p e n d i c u l a r sa n d h o r i z c n t a l i
Irom P1, P2 etc. and making each of them of equal length on both the
sides of the two axes.
For example, P2x : x P11and P2y = yPr,
A n e l l i p s e c a n b e i n s c r i b e dw i t h i n a p a r a l l e l o g r a m
by usingthe above
methodas shown in fig.6-6(ii).
Frc.6-6(ii)
L i n e sP Q a n d R S , . j o i n i n gt h e m i d - p o i n t so f r h e o p p o s i t es i d e s o f t h e
parallelogramare called conjugateaxes.
Method V: Trammelmethod (fig. 6-7).
Trammel method
Ftc.6-7
( i ) Draw the two axes AB and CD intersectingeach other at O. Along
the edge of a strip of paper which may be used as a trammel, mark
PQ equal to half the minor axis and pR equal to half the maior axis.
( i i ) Place the trammel so that R is on the minor axis CD and e on
the major axis A8. Then P will be on the required ellipse. By
moving the trammel to new positions,always keepingR on CD and
Q on AB, obtain other points. Draw the ellipsethrough these points.
I08
E n s i n e e r i n BD r a w i n g
f lc. 6-8
Frc.
b-B
Ftc. 6-9
Problem 6-5. (fig. 6-9): To find the major axis and minor axis of an
ellipse whose conjugate axesand angle between them are given.
Conjugateaxes PQ and R5, and the angle oc between them are given.
(i) Draw the two axes intersectingeach other at O.
( i i ) C o m p l e t e t h e p a r a l l e l o g r a ma n d i n s c r i b e t h e e l l i ps e i n i t a s
describedin problem 6-2, method (iv).
(iii) With O as centre and OR as radius, draw the semi-circle cutting
t h e e l l i p s ea t a p o i n t F .
(iv) Draw the line RE.
( v ) T h r o u g h O d r a w a l i n e p a r a l l e lt o R E a n d c u t t i n g t h e e l l i p s e a t
p o i n t sC a n d D . C D i s t h e m i n o r a x i s .
( v i ) T h r o u g hO , d r a w a l i n e p e r p e n d i c u l at ro C D a n d c u t t i n gt h e e l l i p s e
at points A and B. ,48 is the maior axis.
Probfem 6-6. (fig. 6-10): Io find the centre, maior axis and minor
axisof a given ellipse.
(i)
Draw any two chords 1-2 and 3-4 parallel to each orner.
( i i ) F . i n dt h e i r m i d - p o i n t sP a n d e , a n d d r a w a l i n e p a s s i n gt h r o u g h
them, cutting the ellipse at points R and S. Bisect the line RSrtn
t h e p o i n t O w h i c h i s t h e c e n t r eo f t h e e l l i p s e .
With O as centre and any convenientradius, draw a circle cutting the
..
ellipse in points E, F, C and H. Complete the rectangleEFCH.Throug-hO,
d r a w a I i n e p a r a l l e lt o E F c u t t i n g t h e e l l i p s e i n p o i n t s A a n d B . A g a i n
through O, draw a line parallel to FC cutting the ellipse at points C lnd
D. AB and CD are respectivelythe major axis and the minor axis.
F r c .6 - 1 0
Directrixand focus
Ftc.6-11
6-1-2. Parabola:
. . Use of parabolic curves is made in arches, bridges, sound reflectors,
l i g h t r e f l e c t o r se t c . M a t h e m a t i c a l l ya p a r a b o l ac a n b e d e s c r i b e db y a n
e q u a t i o ny 2 = 4 a x o r x 2 : 4 a y .
(a) General method of construction of a parabola:
Problem 6-7. (fig. 6-11)t To construct a parabola,when the destance
of the focus ftom the dircctrix is S0 mm.
( i ) D r a w t h e d i r e c t r i x , , 4a
Bn d t h e a x i s C D .
(ii) Mark focus f on CD, 50 mm from C.
(iii) Bisect CF in y the vertex (becauseeccentricity : 1).
( i v ) M a r k a n u m b e ro f p o i n t s 1 , 2 , 3
them, draw perpendicularsto it.
(v) With centre F and radius equal to C1, draw arcs cutting the
p e r p e n d i c u l atrh r o u g h 1 a t P 1 a n d P 1 ' .
(vi) Similarly, locate points P2 and P2', P3 and P3' etc. on both the
s i d e so f t h e a x i s .
( v i i )D r a w a s m o o t h c u r v e t h r o u g h t h e s e p o i n t s . T h i s c u r v e i s t h e
required parabola. lt is an open curve.
Problem 6-8. (fig. 6-12): To find the axisof a given parabola.
Draw any two chords AB and CD across the parabola, parallel to
each other and any distanceapart.
(ii) Bisect AB and CD in points E and F respectivelyand draw a line
C H p a s s i n gt h r o u g ht h e m . T h e l i n e C H w i l l b e p a r a l l e lt o t h e a x i s .
(i)
( i i i ) D r a w a c h o r d P Q , p e r p e n d i c u l atro C H .
(iv) BisectPQ in the point O and through it draw a line XY parallelto CH
Then XY is the required axis of the parabola.
F lrcc. .6 *- 1122
F t c . 6 - 13
Probfem 6-9. (fig. 6-13): To find the focus and the directrix of a
parabola whose axis is given,
(i) Mark any point P on the parabola and draw a perpendicular
PA to the axis. Mark a point B on the axis such that BV = VA
( i i ) D r a w a l i n e j o i n i n gI w i t h P .
(iii) Draw a perpendicularbisector FF o{ BP, intersectingthe axis at a
p o i n tf .
Then F is the focus of the parabola.
(iv) Mark a point O on the axis such thai OV - VF. Through O, draw
a l i n e C D p e r p e n d i c u l atro t h e a x i s . T h e n C D i s t h e d i r e c t r i xo f
the parabola.
Rectanglemethod
Ftc.6-14
Ftc.6-15
1 1 2 E n g i n e e t i n gD r a w i n g
Parallelogrammethod
F r c .6 - 1 6
6-1-3.Hyperbola:
Use of hyperbolicalcurves is made in cooling towers, water channelsetc.
Rectangular hyperbola: lt is a curve traced out by a point moving in
such a way that the product of its distancesfrom two fixed lines at riSht
angles to each other is a constant. The fixed lines are called asyrnptotes.
This curve graphically represents the Boyle's Law, viz. P x V = a
constant. lt is also useful in design of water channels.
General method of construction of a hyperbola:
Mathematically,we can describea hyperbolaby
')t = 1 . F i 8 . 6 - 1 7a n d f i g . 6 - 1 8 .
n
Problem 6-11. (fig. 6-17\2 Consttuct a hyperbola, when the distance
of the focus from the dircctrix is 65 mm and eccentricity is ;'
(i)
:
eccentricit,
Thus,
#
.
CvE,# : # = t
Thus,
in triangle
C u r v e sU s e d i n E n g i n e r i n gp r a c t i c e 1 1 3
(iv) Mark any point 1 on the axis and through it, draw a perpendicular
to meel CE-producea
dt i,.
(v) With centre F and radius equal to 1-1,, dtaw arcs intersecting
t h e p e r p e n d i c u l atrh r o u g h 1 a t p 1 a n d p 1 , .
Ftc.6-17
( v i ) S i m i l a r l y ,m a r k a n u m b e r o f p o i n t s 2 , 3
P2 and P2', P3 and p3, etc.
( v i i ) D r a w t h e h y p e r b o l at h r o u g ht h e s e p o i n t s .
P r o b f e m 6 - 1 2 . ( t i g . 6 - 1 8 ) : I o d r a w a h y p e r b o l aw h e n i t s f o c i a n d
vertices are given, and to locate its asymplotes.
(i) Draw a horizontal line as axis and on it, mark the
siven foci F anC
f | , a n d v e r t i c e sV a n d V l .
( i i ) M a r k a n y n u m b e ro f p o i n t s 1 , 2 , 3 e t c . t o t h e r i g h t o f F 1 .
(iii) With F and F1 as centres and radius, say V2, draw
four arcs.
(iv) With the same centres and radius V12, draw
four more arcs
i n t e r s e c t i n gt h e f i r s t f o u r a r c s a t p o i n t s p 2 . T h e n t h e s e p o i n t s l i e
on the hyperbola.
(v) Repeat the irrocesswith the same centres and radii V1
and V.,1.
V3 and V13 etc. Draw the required hyperbola through the
p o i n t st h u s o b t a i n e d .
(vi) With FF1as diameter,draw a circle.
(vii) Through the vertices V and Vr, draw lines perpendicular
to the
axis, cutting the circle at four points A. From O, the centre o{ the
circle, draw lines passing through points A. These Iines are the
required asymptotes.
1 1 4 E n g i n e e r i n gD r a w i n g
F rrcc..6 --1188
F r c .6 - 1 9
(i)
Ftc.6-20
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
Ftc. 6-21
J o i nP w i t h F .
From f, draw a line perpendicularto pF to meet AB at f.
Draw a line through f and p. This line is the tansent to the curve.
Through P, draw a line NM perpendicular to lp. Ntvt is the
normal to the curve.
1 1 6 E n g i n e e r i n gD r a w i n g
(r)
(i)
(ll)
Ftc.6-23
C u r v e sU s e d i n E n g i n e e r i n gp r a c t i c e 1 1 7
6-2. Cycloidalcurves:
curves are generated by a fixed point on the circumference
of
.These
a c i r c l e , w h i c h r o l l s w i t h o u t s l i p p i n ga l o n g a f i x e d s t r a i g h tl i n e
or a circle.
circle is catleC generatingcircle and the fi;d straight line
or
l,!:,]"f!"q
clrcte.
ls termed directlng line or directing circle. Cycloidal
irru", ar"
used In tooth prolile of gearsof a dial gauge.
6-2-1. Cvcloid:
C y c l o i d i s a c u r v e g e n e r a t e db y a p o i n t o n t h e c i r c u m f e r e n c e
_
o{ a
c i r c l e w h i c h r o l l s a l o n g a s t r a i g h tl i n e . I t c a n b e d e s c r i b e d
by an equatron,
y = a 1 1- c o s 0 ) o r x = a ( 0 - s i n o ) .
Problem 6-1.9..ifig. 6-24)': To constructa cycloid, given the
diameterof
.,
tne
generattng circle.
Cycloid
Ftc.6-24
(i)
1 1 8 E n g i n e r i n gD r a w i n g
SimilarlyP
, 2 will lie on the horizontal ine through2'and at the
distanceR {rom C2.
Construction:
( v i ) T h r o u g ht h e p o i n t s 1 ' , 2 ' e t c . d r a w l i n e s p a r a l l e tl o P A .
(vii) With centres C1, C2 etc. and radius equal to R, draw arcs cutting
t h e l i n e s t h r o u g h1 ' , 2 ' e t c . a t p o i n t sP 1 , P 2 e t c . r e s p e c t i v e l y .
Draw a smooth curve through pointsP, \,
t h e r e q u i r e dc y c l o i d .
P 2 . . . . AT. h i s c u r v e i s
( i i ) T h r o u g h M , d r a w a l i n e M O p e r p e n d i c u l a tro t h e d i r e c t i n g l i n e
PA and cutting it at O.
O is the point of contact and M is the position of the centre oi
the generatinBcircle, when the Seneratingpoint P is at N.
( i i i ) D r a w a l i n e t h r o u g hN a n d O . T h i s l i n e i s t h e r e q u i r e dn o r m a l .
(iv) Through N, draw a line Sf at right anglesto NO. Sf is the tangent
to the cycloid.
6-2-2.Trochoid:
Trochoid is a curve generated by a point fixed to a circle, within or
o u t s i d ei t s c i r c u m f e r e n c ea,s t h e c i r c l e r o l l s a l o n g a s t r a i S h tl i n e .
When the point is within the circle, the curve is called an inferior
trochoid and when outside the circle, it is termed a superior trochoid.
Probfem 6-21. (fig. 6-25, fig.6-26 and tig. 6-27\: To draw a trochoid,
given the rolling circle and the generating point.
h\
lnferiot trochoid:
Let Q be the point within the circle and at a distanceR1 from the
centre C.
(i) Draw the circle and mark a point Q on the line CP and at a
d i s t a n c eR r f r o m C .
( i i ) D r a w a t a n g e n t P A e q u a l t o t h e c i r c u m f e r e n c eo f t h e c i r c l e
a n d a l i n e C B e q u a l a n d p a r a l l e tl o P A .
( i i i ) D i v i d e t h e c i r c l ea n d t h e l i n e C B i n t o 1 2 e q u a l p a r t s .
Method I: (fig. 6-25): Determine the positions p1, p2 etc. for the
cycloid as shown in problem 6-19. Draw lines qP1, C2P2etc. With centres
C1, C2 etc. and radius equal to R1, draw arcs cutting C.tp1, C2p2 etc, at
points Qj, Q2 etc. respectively.
D r a w a c u r v e t h r o u g ht h e s e p o i n t s .T h i s c u r v e i s t h e i n f e r i o rt r o c h o i d .
Trochoids
F t c .6 _ 2 5
..
/f iwethod II: (fig. 6-26): With centre C and radius equal t o R t , d r a w a
u gffcle and divide it into 12 equal parts.
'
T h r o u g h t h e d i v i s i o n - p o i n t sd, r a w l i n e s p a r a l l e lt o p A . With centres
C1, C2 etc. and radius equal to R1, draw arcs to cut the l i n e s t h r o u g h
1 ' , 2 ' e t c . a t p o i n t s Q r , Q z e t c . D r a w t h e t r o c h o i dt h r o u g ht h e s e p o i n t s .
Inferior trochoid
Ftc. 6-26
(b\ Superior trochoid:
Let S be the point outside the circle and at a distance R2 from the
centre.
"\
.. .-
S u p e r i o rt r o c h o i d
Ftc. 6-27
e.
1 2 0 E n g i n e e r i n gD r a w i n g
Method I: (fig. 6-25): Adopt the same method as method I used for
i n f e r i o r t r o c h o i d . P o i n t S w i l l l i e o n t h e l i n e C P - p r o d u c e da/ t d i s t a n c eR 2
f r o m C . P o i n t s5 1 , 5 2 e t c . a r e o b t a i n e db y c u t t i n g t h e l i n e s C 1 P 1 - p r o d u c e d ,
C2P2-producedetc. with arcs drawn with centres C1, C2 etc. and radius
e q u a l t o R 2 . S , 5 1 , 5 2 e t c . a r e t h e p o i n t s o n t h e s u p e r i o rt r o c h o i d .
M e t h o d l l : l I i g . 6 - 2 7 ) : S a m e a s m e t h o d l l f o r i n f e r i o rt r o c h o i d . N o t e
that the radiusof the circle is equal to R2.A loop is formed when the
circle rolls for more than one revolution.
\a)
where a is the radius of rolling circle.
When the circle rolls along another circle inside it, the curve is
called a hypocycloid.lt can be representedby mathematicallyx = a cos30,
- a sin30.
Y
Probfem 6-22, To draw an epicycloid and a hypocycloid, given the
generating and directing circles of radii r and R respectively.
Epicycloidtfig. 6-2S(i)l; With centre O and radius R, draw the directing
circle (only a part of it may be drawn). Draw a radius OP and produce il
to C, so that CP : r.
Epicycloid
Frc.6-28(i)
*,*
point.
. as centre,drawthe ,"""ri:;"::::
;;:;:t;:"r",:;
l n o n e r e v o l u t i o no f t h e g e n e r a t i n gc i r c l e , t h e p o i n t p w i l l m o v e t o
a p o i n t A , s o t h a t t h e a r c p A i s e q u a l t o t h e c i r c u m f e r e n c eo f t h e
generating circle.
The position oI A may be located by calculatingthe angle subtended
,
by the arc PA at centre O, by the formula,
Z POA
360'
arc PC
_ 2nr. _ L
c i r c u m f e r e n c eo f d i r e c t i n gc i r c l e
R
2nR
'!
.
.'.
z POA : 360' x
,(
(i) Set-off this angle and obtain the position of A.
(ii) With centre O and radius equal to OC, draw an arc intersecting
OA-producedat B. This arc Cg is the locus of the centre C.
( i i i ) D i v i d e C B a n d t h e g e n e r a t i n gc i r c l e i n t o t w e l v e e q u a rp a r r s .
( i v ) W i t h c e n t r eO , d e s c r i b ea r c s t h r o u g h p o i n t s 1 ' , 2 ' , 3 , e t c .
(v) With centres Cl, C2 etc. and radius equal to r, draw arcs
cutrtng
the arcs through 1,, 2, etc. at points C1, p2 etc.
D r a w t h e r e q u i r e de p i c y c l o i dt h r o u g ht h e p o i n t sp , p 1 , p 2 . . . . . . . A .
H y p o c y c l o i dt f i g . 6 - 2 8 ( i i ) J :T h e m e r h o d f o r d r a w i n g t h e h y p o c y c l o i di s
'circle
u: for epicycloid. Note that the centre C of thJ generaiing
is
:uT9
i n s i d et h e d i r e c t i n gc i r c l e .
Hypocycloid
Frc.6-28(ii)
When the diameter of the ro ing circle is halt the diametet of
the
d,irecting circle, the hypocycloid is a itraight |ine and is a diameter
of the
o t r e c u n gc r r c l e I t i g . 6 - 2 8( i i i )] .
Normal and tangent to an epicycloid and a hypocycloid:
Problem 6-23. tfig. 6-2B(i) and {ig. 6-28(ii)l: To draw a normal
and a
tangent to an epicycloid and a hypocycloid at a point N in each
of them.
1 2 2 t n B i n e e r i n gD r a w i n g
Hypocycloid
Frc.6-28(iii)
(i)
With centre N and radius equal to r, draw an arc cutting the locus
of the centre C at a ooint D.
( i i ) D r a w a l i n e t h r o u g hO a n d D , c u t t i n gt h e d i r e c t i n gc i r c l e a t M .
( i i i ) D r a w a l i n e t h r o u g hN a n d M . T h i s l i n e i s t h e n o r m a l .D r a w a l i n e
5f through N and at right anglesto NM. Sf is the tangent.
Epitrochoids
Ftc. 6-29
S u p e r i o re p i t r o c h o i d
Frc.6-30
124 EngineerinBDrawing
T h e s e c u r v e s a r e d r a w n b y a p p l y i n gt h e m e t h o d s u s e d f o r t r o c h o i d s .
N o t e t h a t a r c s a r e d r a w n i n s t e a do f h o r i z o n t a l i n e s .
Epitrochaids:
Hypotrochoids:
M e t h o d l : S u p e r i o ra n d i n f e r i o r
- seelig. 6-29
M e t h o d l l : S u p e r i o -r s e e f i g . 6 - 3 0
I n f e r i o r - s e ef i g . 6 - 3 1
M e t h o d l l : S u p e r i o r - s e ef i g . 6 - 3 3
I n f e r i o r - s e ef i g . 6 - 3 1
N o t e : W h e n t h e d i a m e t e r o f t h e r o l l i n g c i r c l e i s h a l f t h e d i a m e t e ro f t h e
d i r e c t i n gc i r c l e ,t h e h y p o t r o c h o i dw i lI b e a n e l l i p s e .
Hypotrochoids
Frc.6-32
hypotrochoids
Superior
Frc.6-33
6-3. Involute:
The involute is a curve traced out by an end of a piece of thread
u n w o u n d f r o m a c i r c l e o r a p o l y g o n ,t h e t h r e a d b e i n g k e p t t i 8 h t . l t m a y
a l s o b e d e f i n e d a s a c u r v e t r a c e d o u t b y a p o i n t i n a s t r a i g h tl i n e w h i c h
r o l l s w i t h o u t s l i p p i n ga l o n g a c i r c l e o r a p o l y g o n . l n v o l u t e o f a c i r c l e i s
used as teeth profile of gear wheel. Mathematicallyit can be described by
x = r c o s O+ r 0 s i n e ,y = r s i n O- r O c o s Ow, h e r e " r ' i s t h e r a d i u so f a c i r c l e
lnvolute
Ftc.6-34
(i) Draw a line joiningC with N.
(ii) With CN as diameter describea semi-circlecutting the circle at M.
( i i i ) D r a w a l i n e t h r o u g hN a n d M . T h i s l i n e i s t h e n o r m a l .D r a w a l i n e
5I, perpendicularto NM and passingthrough N. Sf is the tangent
to the involute.
Problem 6-27. (Iig.6-35): 70 draw an involute of a given square.
Let ABCD be the given square.
(i) With centre,4 and radiusAD, draw an arc to cut the line BA-oroduced
at a point P1.
26
Engineering Drawing
(ii) With centre I and radius Bpr (i.e. BA + AD) draw an arc ro
c u t t h e l i n e C B - p r o d u c e da t a p o i n t p 2 . S i m i ! a r l y w i t h
centres C and D and radii Cp2 (i.e. CB + BA + AD) and Dp3
(i.e. DC + CB + BA + AD = perimeter) respectively,draw arcs
t o c u t D c - p r o d u c e da t a p o i n t p j a n d , 4 D - p r o d u c e da i a p o i n t p a .
T h e c u r v e t h u s o b t a i n e d i s t h e i n v o l u t eo f t h e s q u a r e .
Pl
Frc.6-35
Ftc.6-36
D r a w t h e s e m i - c i r c l ea n d d i v i d e i t i n t o s i x e q u a l p a r t s .
(ii) Draw the line 4P and mark points 1, 2 etc. such that Al : arc
A 1 ' , A 2 : a r c A 2 ' e t c . T h e l a s t d i v i s i o n5 p w i l l b e o f a s h o r t e r
l e n g t h . O n t h e s e m i - c i r c l em
, ark a point p, such that S,p, : Sp.
( i i i ) A t p o i n t s 1 ' , 2 ' e t c . d r a w t a n g e n t sa n d o n t h e m , m a r k p o i n t s
P1, P2 elc. such that 1'P1 : 1p, 2'P, : 2p...and S,Pu = 5'
Po = 5P. Similarly,mark points A1, 42 etc. such that A11, : A.1,
A r 2 ' - A 2 . . . . a n dA ' p ' : A P . D r a w t h e r e q u i r e d c u r v e s t h r o u g h
p o i n t s P , P 1 . . . . a n dP ' , a n d t h r o u g h p o i n t s A , 4 1 . . . . a n d A , .
l f , 4 P i s a n i n e l a s t i cs t r i n g w i t h t h e e n d A a t t a c h e dt o t h e s e m i - c i r c l e ,
the end P will trace out the same curve pp, when the string is wound
round the semi-circle.
F i g . 6 - 3 7 s h o w s t h e c u r v e t r a c e do u t b y t h e e n d o f a t h r e a d w h i c h i s
longer than the circumferenceof the circle on which it is wouno.
N o t e t h a t t h e t a n B e n t1 ' P r : 1 p , 2 ' P 2 : 2 p
2'P':Z'Ptt-14P.
Ftc.6-37
6-4. Evolutes:
APB is a given curve (fig. 6-38). O is the centre of a circle drawn
through three points C, P and D on this curve. lf the points C and D are
moved to converge towards P, until they are indefinitely close together,
then in the limit, the circle becomes the circle of curvature of the curve
APB at P. The centre O of the circle of curvature lies on the normal to
the curve at P. This centre is called the centre of curvatureat P. The locus
of the centre of curvature of a curve is called the eyolute of the curve.
A curve has only one evolute.
Ftc.6-38
Frc.6-39
1 2 8 E n g i n e e r i n gD r a w i n g
v\
= +
oF.,
Similarly, when P coincides with the other vertex y1, the ratio
v1F|
olF1
,
:
Decomes
vrr
*
Probfem 6.30. (fig. 6-40)t To determine the centre of curvature O,
when the point P is at the vertex V of a conic.
(il
D r a w a l i n e F 1 G i n c l i n e dt o t h e a x i s a n d e q u a l t o V F 1 .
(ii) ProduceF1G to H so that cH : VF.)oin H with F.
( i i i ) D r a w a l i n e C O p a r a l l e l t o H F a n d i n t e r s e c t i n gt h e a x i s a t O .
Then O is the required centre of curvature.
(.i)
(ii)
(rx)
(jv)
Ftc. 6-40
Method II: [fig. 6-a0(iii)l;
(i)
11
malot axrs ano LU :
t
minor axis.
( i i ) J o i nA w i t h C .
( i i i ) T h r o u g hE , d r a w a l i n e p e r p e n d i c u l atro A C a n d c u t t i n g t h e m a j o r
axis at 01 and the minor axis 02. Then 01 and 02 are the centres
of curvature when the poini P is at A and C respectively.
(iii) Hyperbola l{ig. 6-40(iv)l:
(i)
D r a w a l i n e F l G i n c l i n e dt o t h e a x i s a n d e q u a l t o F V 1 .
(ii) On F1C, mark a point H such that HG = VF.Join H with F.
( i i i ) D r a w a l i n e G O p a r a l l e lt o H F a n d c u t t i n gt h e a x i s a t O . T h e n O i s
the centre of curvature at the vertex y.
129
(i)
Frc.6-41
ftc.6-42
Problem 6-32. (fig. 6-42')zTo draw the evoluteof a parabola.
(i) Mark a number of points on the parabola
and determine the
centres ot curvature at these points (as shown at the point /,).
(ii) Draw the evolute through these centres.
Note that pF = FR.
Probfem 6-33, (fig. 6-43)2To draw the evoluteof a hyperbola.
(i) Mark a number of points on the hyperbola
and determine tht:
centres of curvature at these po;nts (as shown at the point p).
(ii) Draw the evolute through these centres.
To obtain ihe centre of
curvature at the vertex, the position of the other focus f1 rnust
be
fou nd.
Frc. 5_43
Flc. 6_44
I t i s d e t e r m i n e db y m a k i n gu s e o f t h e f o l l o w i n gr u l e :
The tangent at any point on. the curve bisects the angle
made by lines
. .
joining that point with the rwo foci, i.e. Z FleC =
Z Fat.
1 3 0 E n g i n e e r i n gD t a w i n B
FlG.6-46
Frc. 6-45
( i ) M a r k a p o i n t P o n t h e e p i c y c l o i da n d d r a w t h e n o r m a l P N t o i t
( P r o b l e m6 - 1 4 ) .
( i i ) D r a w t h e d i a m e t e rP Q o f t h e r o l l i n g c i r c l e . . l o i n Q w i t h O , t h e
c e n t r eo f t h e d i r e c t i n gc i r c l e .
(iii) Produce PN to cut QO at Oo, which is the centre of curvature at
the pointP.
( i v ) M a r k a n u m b e r o f p o i n t s o n t h e e p i c y c l o i da n d s i m i l a r l y ,o b t a i n
centres of curvature at these points. The curve drawn through
t h e s e c e n t r e s i s t h e e v o l u t eo f t h e e p i c y c l o i d .
the line
T h r o u g hO o , d r a w a l i n e p e r p e n d i c u l atro P Q o a n d i n t e r s e c t i n g
j o i n i n g C ( t h e t e n t r e o f t h e r o l l i n g c i r c l e )w i t h O a t a p o i n t R . T h e e v o l u t e
i s t h e e p i c y c l o i do f t h e c i r c l e o f d i a m e t e rN R , r o l l i n g a l o n g t h e c i r c l e o f
radius OR.
Problem 6-36. (fig. 6-46\t To draw the evolute of a hypocycloid.
(i) Mark a point P on the hypocycloid and draw the normal PN to it
( P r o b l e m6 - 23 ) .
(i i ) Draw the diameter PQ of the rolling circle. Join Q with O, the
c e n t r e o f t h e d i r e c t i n gc i r c l e .
(iii) Produce PN to cut OQ-produced at Oo, which is the centre of
curvature at the point P.
(iv) Mark a number of points on the hypocycloid and similarly, obtain
centres of curvature at these points. The curve drawn through
these centres is the evolute of the hypocycloid.
6-5. Spirals:
l f a l i n e r o t a t e si n a p l a n e a b o u t o n e o f i t s e n d s a n d i f a t t h e s a m e
t i m e , a p o i n t m o v e s a l o n g t h e l i n e c o n t i n u o u s l yi n o n e d i r e c t i o n ,t h e c u r v e
t r a c e d o u t b y t h e m o v i n g p o i n t i s c a l l e d a s p i r a l .T h e p o i n t a b o u t w h i c h
the Iine rotates is called a pole.
Iine joining any point on the curve with the pole is called the
..The
rcdius vector and the angle betweenthis line and the line in its initial
position is called the vectorialangle.
Each complete revoiution of the curve is termed the convolution.
A s p i r a l m a y m a k e a n y n u m b e r o f c o n v o l u t i o n sb e f o r er e a c h i n gt h e p o l e .
6-5-1. Archemedianspiral:
It is a curve traced out by a point moving in such a way that its
movementtowards or away from the pole is uniform with the increase
o [ l h e v e c t o r i a la n g l e f r o m t h e s t a r t i n gl i n e .
T h e u s e o f t h i s c u r v e i s m a d e i n t e e t h p r o f i l e so f h e l i c a lg e a r s ,p r o f i l e s
of cams etc.
Problem 6.38. (fig. 6-47); To constructan Archemedianspiral of 1l;
convolutions,given the greatestand the shortestradii.
L e t O b e t h e p o l e , O P t h e g r e a t e s tr a d i u sa n d O e t h e s h o r t e s tr a d i u s .
(i) With centre O and radius equal to Op, draw a circle. Op revolves
1
a r o u n dO f o r 1 1 r e v o l u t i o n sD
. u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d ,p m o v e st o w a r d s
O , t h e d i s t a n c ee q u a lt o ( O p _ O e ) i . e . e p .
( i i ) D i v i d e t h e a n g u l a rm o v e m e n t so l O p , v i z 1 l r e v o l u t i o n si . e . 5 4 0 " ,
a n d t h e l i n e Q P i n t o t h e s a m e n u m b e r o f e l u a l p a r t s ,s a y 1 8 ( o n e
r e v o l u t i o nd i v i d e d i n t o j 2 e q u a l p a r t s ) .
W h e n t h e l i n e O P m o v e s t h r o u g h o n e d i v i s i o n ,i . e . 3 0 . , t h e p o i n t
P will move towards O by a distance equal to one division
of QP to a point p1.
(iii) To obtain points systematicallydraw arcs with centre O and radii
0 1 , 0 2 , 0 3 e t c . i n t e r s e c t i n gl i n e s 0 1 , , 0 2 , , 0 3 , e t c . a t p o i n t s
P1,P2, P3 etc. respectively.
I n o n e r e v o l u t i o np, w i l l r e a c ht h e 1 2 t h d i v i s i o na l o n ge p a n d i n t h e
n e x t h a l f r e v o l u t i o ni t w i l l b e a t t h e p o i n t e q o n t h e l i n e 1 8 , _ O .
(iv) Draw a curve through points p, p1, p1, p6. This curve is the
r e q u i r e dA r c h e m e d i a ns p i r a l .
132 E n g i n e e l i n gD r a w i n B
A r c h e m e d i a ns p i r a l
Ftc.6-47
OP and OP3 (ig. 6-47) a r e t w o r a d i i m a k i n g9 0 ' a n g l e b e t w e e nt h e m .
= l . s z ' T h e r e f o r e ,t h e c o n s t a n t o f t h e
I n c i r c u l a r m e a s u r e ,9 0 ' = |
-_oPz
c u r v e c, :
9P
1.57
Problem 6-39. (fig. 6-47): To draw a normal to the Archemedianspiral
at a point N on it.
(i) Draw the radius vector NO.
(ii) Draw a line OM equal in length to the constant of the curve C
and perpendicularto NO.
( i i i ) D r a w t h e l i n e N M w h i c h i s t h e n o r m a lt o t h e s p i r a l (iv) Through N, draw a line 5r perpendicularto NM' Sf is the tangent
to the spiral.
Flc.6_48
(i)
D r a w a v e r t i c a li i n e O A , 2 2 5 m m l o n g .
6-5-2.Logarithmicor equiangularspiral:
ln a logarithmic spiral, the ratio of the lengths of consecutive radius
vectors enclosingequal anglesis always constant.In other words the values
of.vectorial angles are in arithmetical progression and the corresponding
values of radius vectors are in geometrical progression.
The logarithmic spiral is also known as equiangularspiral because of
.
its
that the angle which the tangent at any point on the curve
.property
makes with the radius vector at that point is constant.
1 3 4 E n g i n e e r i n BD r a w i n g
'
('
(t)
Frc.6-4g
Let the shortest radius be 1 cm long, 0 equal to 30' and the ratio
f;
The lengths of radius vectors are determined from the scale which is
constructedas shown below:
(i) Draw lines AB and AC [fig. 6-49(ii)] making an angle of 30'
between them.
(ii) On A8, mark AD, 1 cm long. On AC, mark a point E such that
AE=ry
xlcm=f;cm.
v
( i i i ) D r a w a l i n e j o i n i n gD w i t h E .
(iv) With centre ^ and radius AE, draw an arc cutting AB at a point .1.
T h r o u g h 1 , d r a w a l i n e 1 - 1 ' p a r a l l e lt o D E a n d c u t t i n g A C a t 1 ' .
Again, with centre A and radius A1' draw an arc cutting AB at 2.
Through 2, draw a line 2-2' parallel to DF and cutting AC at 2'.
R e p e a tt h e c o n s t r u c t i o na n d o b t a i n p o i n t s 3 , 4 . . . . . ' 1 2A
. 1, A2 etc.
are the lengths of consecutiveradius vectors.
(v) Draw a horizontalline OQ and on it, mark OP, 1 cm long [fig. 6-a9(i)J.
Through O, draw radial lines making 30' angles between two
c o n s e c u t i v el i n e s . T h e s e a r e t h e r a d i u s v e c t o r s .
( v i ) M a r k p o i n t s P 1 , P 2 . . . . . . . . . . P to2n c o n s e c u t i v er a d i u s v e c t o r s s u c h
= A'12.
that OP1 = A1, OPz : A2..........OP\2
( v i i ) D r a w a s m o o t h c u r v e t h r o u g h P 1 , P 2 . . . . . . O P 1T
2h
. is curve is the
r e q u i r e d l o g a r i t h m i cs p i r a l .
T h e e q u a t i o nt o t h e l o g a r i t h m i cs p i r a l i s r = a w h e r e r i s t h e r a d i u s
vector/ 0 is the vectorial angle and a is a constant.
Hence,
logr =0loga.
lf
0=0,
When
0 - 30":
r.e
toga:
logr=o
...r:1.
I radians, o
-6 ,rog 1 0
t^0
v
"
1=
1^0
1^0
= T lo*.,
..lon
"J
"
\i
:logu,
loga
e = 2.71a
Ian 0
where
1C,92.718
.
Ian C = =:_^
I .e .
9loe!
n'9
s=78"-38'.
6-6. Helix:
Helix is defined as a curve, generated by a point, moving around the
s u r f a c eo f a . r i g h t c i r c u l a rc y l i n d e ro r a r i g h t c i r c u l a rc o n e i n s u c h a w a y
t h a t , i t s a x i a l a d v a n c e ,i . e . i t s m o v e m e n ti n t h e d i r e c t i o no f t h e l e n e t h o f
t h e c y l i n d e ro r t h e c o n e i s u n i f o r m w i t h i t s m o v e m e n ta r o u n d t h e s - u r f a c e
o f t h e c y l i n d e ro r t h e c o n e .
T h e a x i a l a d v a n c eo f t h e p o i n t d u r i n g o n e c o m p l e t er e v o l u t i o ni s c a l l e d
the pitch of the helix. tf the pitch is say 20 mm and the point starts
upwards from the base of the cylinder, in one-fourth of a revolution, the
point will move up a distanceof 5 mm from the base. We shall now learn
i n t h e a r t i c l e st o f o l l o w :
1.
A m e t h o d o f d r a w i n ga h e l i c a lc u r v e
2.
H e l i c a ls p r i n g s
3.
S c r e wt hr e a d s
4.
D r a w t h e p r o j e c t i o n so f t h e c y l i n d e rt f i g . 6 - 5 0 ( i ) J D
. ividethe circle
(in the top view) into any number o{ equal parts, say .12.
(ii) Mark a length P-12' equal to rhe given pitch, along a vertical
side of the rectanglein the front view and divide it inio the same
n u m b e r o f e q u a l p a r t s ,v i z . 1 2 .
(i i i ) A s s u m e t h e p o i n t P t o m o v e u p w a r d s a n d i n a n t i - c l o c k w i s e
d i r e c t i o n .W h e n i t h a s m o v e dt h r o u g h3 0 ' a r o u n d t h e c i r c l e ,i t w i l l
have moved up by one division.To locatethis position,draw a vertical
l i n e t h r o u g ht h e p o i n t 1 a n d a h o r i z o n t a l i n e t h r o u g ht h e p o i n t l ' ,
b o t h i n t e r s e c t i n eg a c ho t h e ra t a p o i n t P 1 ,w h i c h w i l l b e o n t h e h e l i x .
( i v ) Obtain other points in the same manner and draw the helix through
them. The portion of the curve from P5,to P12will be on the back
s i d e o f t h e c y l i n d e ra n d h e n c ei t w i l l n o t b e v i s i b l e .
(t
Frc.6-50
(r)
Fig. 6-50(ii) shows the developmentof the surface of the cylinder. The
helix is seen as a straight line and is the hypotenuse of a right-angled
triangle having base equal to the circumference of the circle and the
vertical side equal to the pitch of the helix. The angle 0 which it makes
with the base, is called the hellx angle. The helix angle can be expressedas
tano:
pitch
circumference
of the circle
I n s t e a do f f u l l c i r c l e s ,s e m i - c i r c l e so f I l 0 m m a n d 7 0 m m d i a m t e r s
for the outside and the inside diameters of the spring may be drawn in
the too view.
12
( i ) D i v i d e e a c h s e m i - c i r c l ei n t o
, i . e . 6 e q u a lp a r t s .
f
( i i ) Project up the division-points-aslines in the {ront view. Let peSR
b e t h e s q u a r es e c L i o no I t h e w i r e .
(i i i ) In one revolution,the point P will move to p,.so that pp, = 60 mm.
S i m i l a r l yR
, R ' , Q Q ' a n d S S ,w i l l e a c h b e e q u a l t o 6 0 m m .
( i v ) D i v i d e t h e s e d i s t a n c e si n t o ' 1 2 e q u a l p a i t s a n d p l o t t h e h e l i c e s
traced out by P and R on the outer surfaceand by e and S on the
i n n e r s u r f a c e ,a s s h o w n . T h e o u t e r h e l i c e sw i l l b e p a r a l l e lt o e a c n
other. Note carefully the visible and the hidden parts of the curves.
(b) Helical spring of a wire of circular cross-section.
When the wire is of circular cross-section,a helical curve for the
centre of the cross-section is first traced out. A number of circles of
diameter equal to that of the cross-sectionare then drawn with a number
of points on this curve as centres. Curves/ tangent to these circles, will
give the front view of the spring.
Frc.6-5'l
atu. o-iz
Problem 6-a5. (fig. 6-52l: Draw two complete turns of a helical sp:ing
.
of circular cross-sectionof 20 mm diametei, Springindex and pitch ai
6 and 50 mm respectivelv.
1 3 8 E n B i n e e r i n gD r a w i n g
(c)Insidediameter
of a coil
: [il*"TT|.
(i)
- Diameterof wire
m m = 1 0 0m m .
D r a w t h e t h r e e c o n c e n t r i cc i r c l e so f d i a m e t e r s1 4 0 m m , 1 2 0 m m
a n d 1 0 0 m m r e p r e s e n t i n tgh e o u t s i d e ,m e a n a n d t h e i n s i d ec i r c l e s
o f c o i l o f t h e s p r i n g r e s p e c t i v e l iyn t h e t o p v i e w .
( i i ) D i v i d e t h e c i r c l e si n t o l 2 d i v i s i o n s M
. a r k t h e d i v i s i o n so n t h e
c i r c l e o f t h e m e a n d i a m e t e ra s 1 , 2 , 3 e t c .
( i i i ) D r a w t h e p r o j e c t o r sp a s s i n gt h r o u g h t h e s e d i v i s i o n si n t h e f r o n t
view. Mark the pitch length along one of the projectors which is
p a r a l l e lt o t h e a x i s o f t h e s p r i n g .
( i v ) D i v i d e t h e p i t c h l e n g t h i n t o 1 2 d i v i s i o n sa n d n a m e t h e s e d i v i s i o n
p o i n t sa s 1 ' , 2 ' , 3 ' e t c . D r a w t h e h o r i z o n t alli n e s i n t e r s e c t i nt gh e
previously drawn projectorsfrom 1, 2, 3 etc.
( v ) W i t h t h e i n t e r s e c t i o np o i n t a s c e n t r e a n d r a d i u s e q u a l t o 1 0 m m ,
draw circles. Draw the curve touching the top and bottom of
c i r c l e o f t h e w i r e a s s h o w n i n f i g . 6 - 5 2 . R e p e a t h e p r o c e s sf o r o n e
more pitch length.
6-6-3.Screwthreads:
T h e s ea r e a l s o c o n s t r u c t e do n t h e p r i n c i p l eo f t h e h e l i x .
In a screw thread, the pltch is defined as the distancefrom a point on
a thread to a correspondingpoint on the adjacentthread, measuredparallel
to the axis. The axial advance of a point on a thread, per revolution/ is
called the /ead of the screw.
l n t h e s i n g l e - t h r e a d e ds c r e w s , w h i c h a r e m o s t c o m m o n l y u s e d i n
practice/ the pitch is equal to lead. Therefore, the pitch of the screw is
equal to the pitch of the helix. Unless stated otherwise, suews arc always
assumedto be single-threaded.
Probfem 6-46. lfig. 6-53\t Project two complete tums of a square thread
having outside diameter 120 mm and pitch 45 mm.
I n a s q u a r e t h r e a d , t h e t h i c k n e s so f t h e t h r e a d = t h e d e p t h o f t h e
t h r e a d = 0 . 5 x p i t c h . H e n c e ,t h e s e c t i o no f t h e t h r e a dw i l l b e a s q u a r eo f
2 2 . 5 m m s i d e a n d t h e d i a m e t e ra t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e t h r e a dw i l l b e 7 5 m m .
P r o j e c tt h e t h r e a d si n t h e s a m e m a n n e ra s t h e s p r i n g i n p r o b l e m6 - 4 4 .
T h e s c r e w d i f f e r s f r o m t h e s p r i n g i n h a v i n ga s o l i d c y l i n d e r i n s i d e ,w h i c h
c o m p l e t e l yh i d e s t h e b a c k p o r t i o n so f t h e c u r v e s .
Frc.6-53
Ftc.6-54
I n d o u b l e - t h r e a d e sdc r e w s ,t w o t h r e a d so f t h e s a m e s i z e r u n p a r a l l e l
to each other. The axial advance per revolution, viz. the lead, is made
twice the lead of the single-threadedscrew, the pitch of the thread being
kept the same in both cases.
H e n c e , i n d o u b l e - t h r e a d esdc r e w s ,
pitch of the helix = lead
= twice the pitch of the screw.
Fig. 6-54 shows a double-threadedscrew, having the same cross_section
a n d t h e s a m e p i t c h o f t h e s c r e w a s i n p r o b l e m6 - 4 6 .
6 - 6 - 4 .H e l i x u p o n a c o n e :
This curve is traced out by a point which, while moving around the
axis and on the surface of the cone, approachesthe apex. The movement
around the axis is uniform with its movement towards the apex, measured
p a r a l l e lt o t h e a x i s . T h e p i t c h o f t h e h e l i x i s m e a s u r e dp a r a l l e lt o t h e a x i s
of the cone.
A s t h e w h o l e s u r f a c eo f t h e c o n e i s v i s i b l e i n i t s t o p v i e w , t h e h e l i x
w i l l b e f u l l y s e e ni n i t .
Problem 6-47. (fig. 6-55): Draw a helix oi one convolution upon a
cone, diametet of base 75 mm, height 100 mm and pitch 75 mm. Also
develop the surface of the cone, showing the helix on ii.
(i) Draw the projections of the cone as shown. Divide the circle into
t w e l v e e q u a l p a r t s a n d j o i n p o i n t s 1 , 2 e i c . w i t h o . p r o i e c tt h e s e
p o i n t s t o t h e b a s e - l i n ei n t h e f r o n t v i e w a n d i o i n t h e m w i t h o , .
1 4 0 E n g i n e e r i n gD r a w i n g
( i i ) M a r k a p o i n t A o n t h e a x i s a t a d i s t a n c eo f 7 5 m m { r o m t h e b a s e .
Draw a horizontai line through A to cut the generatorso' P at A,.
D i v i d e P A ' i n t o t w e l v ee q u a l p a r t s .
(i i i ) Let P be the starting point. When it has moved around through
3 0 ' , i t w i l l h a v em o v e du p t h r o u g ho n e d i v i s i o nt o a p o i n tp j , o n t h e
g e n e r a t o ro ' 1 ' , o b t a i n e db y d r a w i n ga h o r i z o n t a l i n e t h r o u g h 1 , , .
p 1 ' w i l l b e a p o i n t o n t h e h e l i x i n t h e f r o n t v i e w . I t s p r o j e c t i o nt o
p 1 o n 0 1, w i l l b e t h e p o s i t i o no f t h e p o i n t i n t h e t o p v i e w .
(iv) Obtain all the points in this manner and draw smooth curves
t h r o u g ht h e m i n b o t h t h e v i e w s .
( v ) D r a w t h e d e v e l o p m e n to f t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e c o n e a n d l o c a t e
P o r n t sp 1 l p 2 e t c .
t-tL.
b-J5
Ftc.6-56
72 mm
40 mm
10 mm
60 mm.
6-7 Cam:
A cam is a machine-part
which, whilb rotatingat uniformvelocity
impartsreciprocating
linearmotionto anothermachine-part
calleda follower.
The motionimpartedmay be eitheruniformor variable,dependinguponthe
shapeof lhe cam profile.
Cam
Ftc. 6-57
(i)
( i i ) P r o d u c eO B t o C m a k i n g 8 C e q u a l t o 5 0 m m ( t h e r i s e o f t h e
p o i n t ) . T h e p o i n t i s t o b e u n i f o r m l yr a i s e dd u r i n g
I
the shaft.
r e v o l u t i o no f
( i i l ) T h e r e f o r e ,d i v i d e 8 C a n d a n g l e 1 8 0 ' i n t o t h e s a m e n u m b e r o f
equal parts,say 6.
O b t a i n p o i n t s P 1 , P 2 e t c . a s i n t h e A r c h e m e d i a ns p i r a l a n d d r a w t h e
curve through them.
T h e p o i n t i s t o f a l l t h e s a m e d i s t a n c ed u r i n g t h e s a m e p e r i o d . H e n c e ,
t h e c u r v e w i l l b e e x a c t l yo f t h e s a m e s h a p e a s f o r t h e r i s e .
The followers are generally provided with rollers to give smooth
w o r k i n g . I n s u c h c a s e s ,t h e p r o f i l e o f t h e c a m i s d e s i g n e di n i t i a l l y ,t o
transmitmotion to a point (the centreof the roller) and then, a parallel
c u r v e i s d r a w n i n s i d e i t a t a d i s t a n c ee q u a l t o t h e r a d i u so f t h e r o l l e r .T h i s
is done by first drawinga number of arcs with points on the curve as
centres and radius equal to radius of the roller, and then drawing a
s m o o t h c u r v e t o u c h i n gt h e s e a r c s , a s s h o w n i n f i g . 6 - 5 7 .
Vl
Exercises
1 . D r a w a s t r a i g h t l i n e A B o f a n y l e n g t h .M a r k a p o i n t t 6 5 m m f r o m
AB. Trace the paths of a point P moving in such a way, that the ratio
o f i t s d i s t a n c ef r o m t h e p o i n t F , t o i t s d i s t a n c ef r o m A B i s ( i ) 1 ;
(ii) 3:2; (iii) 2:3. Plot at least B points. Name each curve. Draw a
normal and a tangent to each curve at a point on it, 50 mm from F.
2 . A f i x e d p o i n t i s 7 5 m m f r o m a f i x e d s t r a i g h tl i n e . D r a w t h e l o c u s o f
a point P moving such a way that its distance from the fixed straight
I i n e i s ( i ) t w i c e i t s d i s t a n c ef r o m t h e f i x e d p o i n t ; ( i i ) e q u a l t o i t s
d i s t a n c ef r o m t h e f i x e d p o i n t . N a m e t h e c u r v e s .
3. The vertex of a hyperbola is 65 mm from its focus. Draw the curve
?
i f t h e e c c e n t r i c i t yi s
D r a w a n o r m a l a n d a t a n g e n la t a p o i n t o n
l.
the curve, 75 mm from the directrix.
4. The major axis of an ellipseis 150 mm long and the minor axis is
1 0 0 m m l o n g . F i n d t h e f o c i a n d d r a w t h e e l l i p s eb y ' a r c s o f c i r c l e s '
m e t h o d . D r a w a t a n g e n tt o t h e e l l i p s ea t a p o i n t o n i t 2 5 m m a b o v e
the major axis.
5 . T h e f o c i o f a n e l l i p s ea r e 9 0 m m a p a r t a n d t h e m i n o r a x i s i s 6 5 m m
l o n g . D e t e r m i n et h e l e n g t h o f t h e m a j o r a x i s a n d d r a w h a l f t h e e l l i p s e
s ethod and the other half by oblong method.
b y c o n c e n t r i c - c i r c l em
D r a w a c u r v e p a r a l l e lt o t h e e l l i p s e a n d 2 5 m m a w a y f r o m i t .
6. The major axis of an ellipseis 100 mm long and the foci are at a
d i s t a n c e o f 1 5 m m f r o m i t s e n d s . F i n d t h e m i n o r a x i s . P r e p a r ea
t r a m m e l a n d d r a w t h e e l l i p s eu s i n g t h e s a m e .
7 . Two fixed points A and B are 100 mm apart. Tracethe complete path
of a point P moving (in the sameplaneas that of A and B) in such
a w a y t h a t , t h e s u m o f i t s d i s t a n c e sf r o m A a n d I i s a l w a y st h e s a m e
a n d e q u a l t o 1 2 5 m m . N a m e t h e c u r v e . D r a w a n o t h e rc u r v e p a r a l l e l
to and 25 mm away from this curve.
B . I n s c r i b ea n e l l i p s ei n a p a r a l l e l o g r a h
ma v i n gs i d e s1 S 0 m m a n d 1 0 0 m m
l o n g a n d a n i n c l u d e da n g l e o f 1 2 0 " .
9 . T w o p o i n t s A a n d I a r e 1 0 0 m m a p a r t .A p o i n t C i s 2 5 m m f r o m A
a n d 6 0 m m f r o m 8 . D r a w a n e l l i p s e p a s s i n gt h r o u g h A , B a n d C .
1 0 . D r a w a r e c t a n g l eh a v i n gi t s s i d e s i 2 5 m m a n d 7 5 m m l o n g . I n s c r i b e
t w o p a r a b o l a si n i t w i t h t h e i r a x i s b i s e c t i n ge a c h o t h e r .
1 1 . A b a l l t h r o w n u p i n t h e a i r r e a c h e sa m a x i m u m h e i g h t o f 4 s m e t r e s
and travels a horizontal distance of 75 metres. TracJ the path of the
b a l l , a s s u m i n gi t t o b e p a r a b o l i c .
1 2 . A p o i n t P i s 3 0 m m a n d 5 0 m m r e s p e c t i v e l fyr o m t w o s t r a i g h tl i n e s
w h i c h a r e a t r i g h t a n g l e st o e a c h o t h e r D r a w a r e c t a n g u l ahr y p e r b o l a
f r o m P w i t h i n l 0 m m d i s t a n c ef r o m e a c h l i n e .
1 3 . Two straight lines OA and OB make an angle of ZS. between them.
P is a point 40 mm from OA and 50 mm from OB. Draw a hvperbola
through P, with OA and OB as asymptotes,marking at least ten points.
Two points ,4 and B are 50 mm apart. Draw the curve traced out by
a point P moving in such a way that the difference between its
d i s t a n c e sf r o m A a n d B i s a l w a y s c o n s t a n ta n d e q u a l t o 2 0 m m .
1 5 . A c i r c l e o f 5 0 m m d i a m e t e rr o l l s a l o n g a s t r a i g h tl i n e w i t h o u t s l i p p i n g .
Draw the curve traced out by a point p on the circumference,for
one complete revolution of the circle. Name the curve. Draw a tangent
to the curve at a point on it 40 mm from the line.
T w o p o i n t s Q a n d 5 l i e o n a s t r a i g h ll i n e t h r o u g h l h e c e n l r e C o [ a
c i r c l e o f 5 0 m m d i a m e t e r ,r o l l i n g a l o n g a f i x e d s t r a i g h t I i n e . D r a w
a n d n a m e t h e c u r v e st r a c e do u t b y t h e p o i n t s q a n d S d u r i n g o n e
r e v o l u t i o no f t h e c i r c l e . C Q = 2 0 m m ; C S : 3 5 m m .
1 7 . A c i r c l e o f 5 0 m m d i a m e t e r r o l l s o n t h e c i r c u m f e r e n c eo f a n o t h e r
c i r c l e o f 1 7 5 m m d i a m e t e ra n d o u t s i d e i t . T r a c et h e l o c u s o f a p o i n t
o n t h e c i r c u m f e r e n co
e f t h e r o l l i n g c i r c l e f o r o n e c o m p l e t er e v o l u t i o n .
Name the curve. Draw a tangent and a normal to the curve at a
p o i n t 1 2 5 m m f r o r n t h e c e n t r e o f t h e d i r e c t i n gc i r c l e .
1 8 . C o n s t r u c ta h y p o c y c l o i d r, o l l i n g c i r c l e 5 0 m m d i a m e t e ra n d d i r e c t i n g
-l
circle 75 mm diameter.Draw a tangent to it at a point 50 mm from
t h e c e n t r e o f t h e d i r e c t i n gc i r c l e .
1 9 . A circle of 115 mm diameterrolls on anothercircle of ZS mm diameter
with internal contact. Draw the locus of a point on the circumference
o f t h e r o l l i n g c i r c l e f o r i t s o n e c o m p l e t ei e v o l u t i o n .
20. A c i r c l e o f 5 0 m m d i a m e t e r r o l l s o n a n o t h e r c i r c l e o f 1 2 5 m m
diameter. Draw and name the curves traced out by two points e and
S l y i n g o n a s t r a i g h tl i n e t h r o u g h t h e c e n t r e C o f t h e r o l l i n g c i r c l e
a n d r e s p e c t i v e l2
y0 mm and 35 mm from it, when it rolls (i) outside
and (ii) inside the other circre.
2 1 . S h o w b y m e a n so f a d r a w i n gt h a t w h e n t h e d i a m e t e ro f t h e d i r e c t i n g
c i r c l ei s t w i c e t h a t o f t h e g e n e r a t i n g
c i r c l e ,t h e h y p o c y c l o i di s a s t r a i g h t
l i n c . l a k e t h e d i a m e t e ro f t h e g e n e r a t i n gc i r c l e e q u a l t o 5 0 m m .
2 2 . A c i r c l eo f 5 0 m m d i a m e t e r o l l s o n a h o r i z o n t alli n e f o r a h a l {r e v o l u t i o n
a n d t h e n o n a v e r t i c a ll i n e f o r a n o t h e rh a l f r e v o l u t i o n .D r a w t h e c u r v e
traced out by a point P on the circumferenceof the circle.
2 3 . D r a w a n i n v o l u t eo f a c i r c l e o f 4 0 m m d i a m e t e r A
. lso,draw a normal
a n d a t a n g e n tt o i t a t a p o i n t 1 0 0 m m f r o m t h e c e n t r eo f t h e c i r c l e .
2 4 . A n i n e l a s t i c s t r i n g 1 4 5 m m l o n g , h a s i t s o n e e n d a t t a c h e dt o t h e
c i r c u m f e r e n c eo f a c i r c u l a rd i s c o f 4 0 m m d i a m e t e r .D r a w t h e c u r v e
t r a c e do u t b y t h e o t h e r e n d o f t h e s t r i n g ,w h e n i t i s c o m p l e t e l yw o u n d
a r o u n d t h e d i s c , k e e p i n gt h e s t r i n ga l w a y st i g h t .
2 5 . D r a w a c i r c l ew i t h d i a m e t e A
r B e q u a lt o 6 5 m m . D r a w a l i n eA C 1 5 0 m m
long and tangent to the circle. Trace the path of A, when the line AC
r o l l s o n t h e c i r c l e ,w i t h o u r s l i p p i n g .
2 6 , .48 is a rope 'l .6 metres long, tied to
a pegat I (fig.6-58).Keepingit always
tight, the rope is wound round the
pole O. Draw the curve traced out
by the end A. Scale
full size.
*
Frc.6-58
2 7 . D ' a w a n A r c h e m e d i a ns p i r a lo f t w o
c o n v o l u t i o n st,h e g r e a t e sat n d t h e l e a s tr a d i i b e i n g1 1 5 m m a n d 1 5 m m
r e s p e c t i v e l yD
. r a w a t a n g e n t a n da n o r m a l t o t h e s p i r a l a t a p o i n t ,
65 mm from the pole.
2 8 . A p o i n t P m o v e st o w a r d sa n o t h e rp o i n t O , 7 5 m m f r o m i t a n d r e a c h e s
i t w h i l e m o v i n ga r o u n di t o n c e ,i t s m o v e m e n t o w a r d sO b e i n g u n i f o r m
with its movementaround it. Draw the curve traced out by the point p.
2 9 . A l i n k O A , 1 0 0 m m l o n g r o t a t e sa b o u t O i n a n t i - c l o c k w i s ed i r e c t i o n .
A point P on the link, 15 mm away from O, moves and reachesthe
e n d A , w h i l e t h e l i n k h a s r o t a t e dt h r o u g h o f a r e v o l u t i o nA
. ssuming
I
t h e m o v e m e n t so f t h e l i n k a n d t h e p o i n t t o b e u n i f o r m ,t r a c e t h e p a t h
of the DointP.
3 1 . A c i r c l e o f 4 0 m m d i a m e t e rr o l l s o n t h e i n s i d e o f a c i r c l e o f 9 0 m m
d i a m e t e rA
. p o i n t P l i e s w i t h i n t h e r o l l i n gc i r c l e a t a d i s t a n c eo f l 5 m m
from its centre. Trace the path of the point p {or one revolution of
the circle.
3 2 . T h e d i s t a n c eb e t w e e n t h e f o c i o f a n e l l i p s e i s i 0 0 m m a n d t h e
m i n o r a x i s i s 6 5 m m l o n g . D r a w t h e e v o l u t eo f t h e e l l i p s e .
3 3 . Draw the evolutesof the two curves,the data of which is given in Ex. 2.
3 4 . C o n s t r u c tt h e e v o l u t eo f t h e h y p e r b o l aw h o s e d a t a i s g i v e n i n E x . 3 .
C u r y e sU s e d i n E n g i n e e r i n gP r a c t i c e 1 4 5
3 5 . D r a w t h e e v o l u t eo f t h e c y c l o i d o b t a i n e di n E x . 1 5 .
3 6 . D r a w t h e e p i c y c l o i da n d h y p o c y c l o i dw
, h e n t h e g e n e r a t i n gc i r c l e a n d
the directing circle are of 50 mm and .1Z5 mm diameters respectively.
Construct the evolutes of the two curves.
3 7 . l n a l o g a r i t h m i cs p i r a l , t h e s h o r t e s tr a d i u s i s 4 0 m m . T h e l e n g t h o f
a d j a c e n rt a d i u s . v e c t o resn c l o s i n g3 0 . a r e i n t h e r a t i o 9 . 8 . C o n s t r u c o
t ne
revolution of the spiral. Draw a tangent to the spiral at any point on it.
38. Draw a triangleABC with ,48 : 30 mm, AC = 40 mm and / BAC = 45".
I a n d C a r e t h e p o i n t s o n a n A r c h e m e d i a ns p i r a l o f o n e c o n v o l u t i o n
of which ,4 is the pole. tind the initialline and draw the spiral.
39. ABC is an equilateraltriangle of side equal to Z0 mm. Tracethe loci of
t h e v e r t i c e s A , B a n d C w h e n t h e c i r c l e c i r c u m s c r i b i n eA B C r o j l s
w i t h o u t s l i p p i n ga l o n ga f i x e d s t r a i g h tl i n e f o r o n e c o m p l e t er e v o l u t i o n .
40. Draw the shape of the cam to give the same motions as in Ex. 30 to a
roller of 25 mm diameter.
4 1 . A p o i n t i s r a i s e d b y a c a m u n i f o r m l y2 5 m m i n I o f a r e v o l u t i o n ;
kept at the same height for j of the revolurion; then allowed to
d r o p t h r o u g h1 0 m m h e i g h ta n d r e m a i nt h e r e f o r
of the revolution;
I o w e r e du n i f o r m l yt o i t s o r i g i n a lp o s i t i o ni n j o f t h e r e v o l u t i o na n d
kept there for the rest of the revolution. Draw the shape of the cam.
Diameter of shaft : 40 mm. Least metal = 25 mm.
42. fwo pegs A and B are fixed on the ground 6 metres apart. A string,
I m e t r e s l o n g h a s i t s o n e e n d t i e d t o t h e p e g , 4 , w h i l e t h e o t l . t e re r l d
i s p a s s e dt h r o u g h a s m a l l r i n g C a n d t i e d t o t h e p e g t s . A l i n k C D
of 1 metre lengthis fixed to the ring C. The link with the ring slidcs
a l o n g t h e s t r i n g .D r a w t h e b o u n d a r yo f t h e a r e ao f t h e g r o u n d b e y o n d
w h i c h D c a n n o t r e a c h i a s C s l i d e sa l o n g t h e s t r i n g A B .
4 3 . F i l l i n t h e b l a n k s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g . w i r h a p p r o p r i a t ew o r d s s e l e c r e d
from the list givenbelow:
(a) When a cone is cut by planes at different angles, the curves of
intersectionare called
( b ) W h e n t h e p l a n e m a k e st h e s a m e a n g l e w i t h t h e a x i s a s d o t h e
g e n e r a t o r st,h e c u r v e i s a .
(c) When the planeis perpendicularto the axis,the curve is a
( d ) W h e n t h e p l a n e i s p a r a l l e lt o t h e a x i s , t h e c u r v e i s a
(e) When the plane makesan angle with the axis greaterthan what do
the generators,the curve is a
(f) A conic is a locus of a point moving in such a way that the ratio of
its distancefrom the
and its distancefrom the , _,
is alwaysconstant.This ratio is calledthe
. It is
in case of parabola,
in case of hyperbolaano - i n c a s eo f e l l i p s e .
( g ) I n a c o n i c t h e l i n e p a s s i n gt h r o u g h the fixed point and
p e r p e n d i c u l atro t h e f i x e d l i n e i s c a l l e dt h e
1 4 6 E n g i n e e r i n gD r a w i n g
lar
1 7 . H y p o t r o c h o i d25. Rectangu
'1
26. Smallerthan
18. Involute
r/. )upenor
19. Inferior
20. Logarithmic 28. Spiral
29. Trochoid
21. Minoraxis
22. Major axes
30. Conics
31. Curves
23. Parabola
24. Radiusvector
M i s c e l l a n e o u sp r o b l e m s :
44. ABC is an equilateraltriangle of side equal to Z0 mm. Trace the loci
of the vertices A, B and C, when the circle circumscribinqz4BCrolls
w i t h o u t s l i p p i n ga l o n g a f i x e d s t r a i g h tl i n e f o r o n e h a l f f u v o l u t i o n .
4 5 . T h e m a j o r - a x i sA B o f a n e l l i p s e i s 1 4 0 m m l o n g w i t h p a s i t s m i d _
point. The foci f1 and F2 of the ellipse are 4g mm away {rom the
m i d - p o i n t P . D r a w t h e e l l i p s ea n d f i n d t h e l e n g t h o f t h e m i n o r a x e s .
46. Draw an ellipse by 'concentric circles method, and find the lensth of
t h e m i n o r a x i s w i t h t h e h e l p o f t h e f o l l o w i n gd a t a : 1 i ) M a ; o r a x e s =
1 0 0 m m . ( i i ) D i s t a n c eb e t w e e nf o c i 8 0 m m .
4 7 . P Q i s a d i a m e t e ro f a c i r c l e a n d i s 7 5 m m l o n g . A p i e c e o f s t r i n g i s
tied tightly round the circumferenceof the semi-circle startine from
P a n d f i n i s h i n ga t Q . T h e e n d e i s t h e n u n t i e d a n d t h e s t r i n g ," a l w a y s
kept taut/ is gradually unwound from the circle, until it lies ilong the
tangent at P. Draw the curve traced by the moving extremity oi the
s r nn 8 ,
4 8 . A h a l f - c o n ei s s t a n d i n go n i t s h a l f b a s e o n t h e g r o u n d w i t h t h e
triangular face parallel to the Vp. An inextensibleitring is passed
round the half-conefrom a point on the periphery and biought back
to the same point. Find the shortest length of the string. Take the
base-circle diameter of the half-cone as 60 mm and height Zs mrn.
4 9 . O n e e n d o f a n i n e l a s t i ct h r e a d o f i 2 0 m m l e n g t h i s a t t a c h e dt o o n e
corner of a regular hexagonaldisc having a side of 25 mm. Draw the
curve traced out by the other end of the thread when it is completelv
wound along the peripheryof the disc, keepingthe thread always tighi.
50. A circus man rides a motor-bike inside a globe of 6 metres diameter.
The motor-bike has the wheel of -l metre diameter. Draw the locus
of the point on the circumferenceof the motor-bike wheel for one
complete revolution. Adopt suitable scale,
5 1 . A _f o u n t a i n j e t d i s c h a r g e sw a t e r f r o m g r o u n d l e v e l a t a n i n c l i n a t i o n
of 45' to the ground. The jet travels a horizontal distance of 2.5
metre from_ the point of discharge and falls on the ground. Trace
the path of the jet. Name the curve.
5 2 . A c o i n o f 3 5 m m d i a m e t e rr o l l s o v e r d i n n i n g t a b l e w i t h o u t s l i p p i n g .
A point on the circumferenceof the coin is in contact with the iable
surface in the beginning and after one complete revolution. Draw the
curve traced by the point. Draw a tangent and a normal at any point
on the curve.
53. Draw a rectangleof 130 mm x g5 mm. Draw two parabolasin it with
their axes bisecting each other.
54. Two concentric discs of 40 mm and 50 mm diameters roll on the
horizontal line ,,48 150 mm long. Both discs start at the same point
and roll in the same direction. plot the curves for the movement of
the points lying on their circumferences.
55. Draw a path of the end of string when it is wound on a circle o{
4 0 c m d i a m e t e rw i t h o u t s l i p p i n g .T h e l e n g t h o f t h e s t r i n g i s 1 5 0 c m
long. Name the curve and write practicaltpplications.
148
EngineerinB Dlawing
PROJECTIONS
OF POINTS
9-0. lntroduction:
A p o i n t m a y b e s i t u a t e d ,i n s p a c e ,i n a n y o n e o f t h e f o u r q u a d r a n t
,
formed by the two principal planes of projection or may lie in any one or
both of them. lts projections are obtained by extending projector
p e r p e n d i c u l atro t h e p l a n e s .
One of the planes is then rotated so that the first and third quadrant
are opened out. The projections are shown on a flat surface in their
respective positions either above or below or in xy.
T h e p i c t o r i a lv i e w [ f i g . 9 - 1( i ) ] s h o w s a p o i n t A s i t u a r e da b o v e t h e H . p
a n d i n f r o n t o f t h e V . P . ,i . e . i n t h e f i r s t q u i d r a n t . a , i s i t s f r o n t v i e w a n d
a the top view. After rotation of the plane, these projections will be seen
a s . s h o w n i n f i g . 9 - 1 ( i i ) .T h e f r o n t v i e w a , i s a b o v e i y a n d t h e t o p v i e w
a below it. The line joining a, and a (which also is called a projector
intersects xy at right angles at a point o. It is quite evident from the
pictorial view that ab : ,Aa, i.e. the distance o{ the front view from
!r' = the distance of A from the H.p. viz. h. Similarly,ao = Aa,, i.e. the
distance of the top view trom xy : the distanceof A from the Vp viz. d.
-! t'rr
t !tr.
L\
Frc.9-1
Ftc.9-2
ll
l----l-
Ftc.9-4
Frc.9-5
172
Engineering Dtawing
(i) The line joining the top view and the front view of a point is
always perpendicularto xy. lt is called a projector.
(ii) When a point is above the H.P, its front view is above xy; when
i t i s b e l o w t h e H . P , t h e f r o n t v i e w i s b e l o w x y . T h e d i s t a n c eo f
a point from the H.P. is shown by the length of the projector
from its front view to xy, e,g. a'o, b'o eic.
(iii) When a point is in front of the VP., its top view is below xy;
when it is behind the VP., the top view is above xy. The distance
of a point from the V.P. is shown by the length of the projector
from its top view to xy, e.g. ao, bo etc.
(iv) When a point is in a referenceplane, its projection on the other
reference plane is in xy.
Probfem 9-1. (fig. 9-1\t A point A is 2.5 cm above the H.P and 3 cm
in front of the V.P.Draw its projections.
( i ) D r a w t h e r e f e r e n c el i n e x y [ f i g . 9 - 1 ( i i ) ] .
(ii) Through any point o in it, draw a perpendicular.
A s t h e o o i n t i s a b o v e t h e H . P . a n d i n f r o n t o { t h e V .P . i t s
front view will be above xy and the top view below xy.
( i i i ) O n t h e p e r p e n d i c u l am
r , a r k a p o i n t a ' a b o v e x y , s u c ht h a t a ' o = 2 , 5
S
i
m
i
l
a
r
l
y
m
,
a
r
k
p
cm.
a o i n t a b e l o wx y , s o t h a t a o = 3 c m . a ' a n d a
are the required projections.
Problem 9-2. (lig. 9-6)t A point A is
2 cm below the H,P and 3 cm behind
the V.P Draw its projections.
A s t h e p o i n t i s b e l o w t h e H . P .a n d
behind the V.P, its front view will be
below xy and the top view above xy.
Draw the projectionsas explainedin
p r o b l e m9 - l a n d a s s h o w n i n f i g . 9 - 6 .
Frc.9-6
ExerciseslX
1 . D r a w t h e p r o j e c t i o n so f t h e f o l l o w i n g p o i n t s o n t h e s a m e g r o u n d
line, keeping the projectors 25 mm apart.
A , i n t h e H . P .a n d 2 0 m m b e h i n dt h e V . P .
B, 40 mm above the H.P. and 25 mm in front of the V.P
C, in the V.P.and 40 mm above the H.P.
D, 25 mm below the H.P.and 25 mm behind the V.P.
E , 1 5 m m a b o v et h e H . P .a n d 5 0 m m b e h i n dt h e V .P .
4 40 mm below the H.P.and 25 mm in front of the V.P.
C, in both the H.P and the V.P.
Protections
of Points 17
t rs
'hen
:of
ctor
xy;
ince
ctor
ther
cm
3 . S t a t e t h e q u a d r a n t si n w h i c h t h e f o l l o w i n g p o i n t s a r e s i t u a t e d :
(a) A point P; its top view is 40 mm above xy; the front view, 20 mn
below the top view.
(b) A point Q, its projections coincide with each other 40 mrr
.
oelow xy.
A
Projectionsof various points are given in fig. 9-2. State the position 01
each point with respect to the planes of projection, giving th
d i s t a n c e si n c e n t i m e t r e s .
its
2.5
rd a
Ftc.9-7
-9
6 . T w o p o i n t sA a n d B a r e i n t h e H . p T h e p o i n t A i s 3 0 m m i n f r o n t o l
the V.P.,while I is behind the V.p The distance between their
p r o j e c t o r si s 7 5 m m a n d t h e l i n e j o i n i n g t h e i r t o p v i e w s m a k e s a n
angle of 45' with xy. Find the distance of the point B from the V.p
7 . A p o i n t P i s 2 0 m m b e l o w H . p . a n d l i e s i n t h e t h i r d q u a d r a n t .l t s
shortest distance from xy is 40 mm. Draw its proiections.
und
PROJECTIONS
.f,@
OF
STRAIGHT
LINES
10-0. lntroduction:
A s t r a i g h t l i n e i s t h e s h o r l e s t d i s t a n c eb e t w e e n t w o p o i n t s . H e n c e ,
t h e p r o j e c t i o n so f a s t r a i g h tl i n e m a y b e d r a w n b y j o i n i n g t h e r e s p e c t i v
p r o j e c t i o n so f i t s e n d s w h i c h a r e p o i n t s .
T h e p o s i t i o n o f a s t r a i g h tl i n e m a y a l s o b e d e s c r i b e dw i t h r e s p e c tt o
the two reference planes. lt may be:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
P a r a l l e lt o o n e o r b o t h t h e p l a n e s .
C o n t a i n e db v o n e o r b o t h t h e o l a n e s .
P e r p e n d i c u l atro o n e o f t h e p l a n e s .
I n c l i n e dt o o n e p l a n e a n d p a r a l l e lt o t h e o t h e r .
I n c l i n e dt o b o t h t h e p l a n e s .
P r o j e c t i o n so f l i n e s i n c l i n e dt o b o t h t h e p l a n e s .
Line containedby a plane perpendicularto both the referenceplanes.
T r u e l e n g t ho f a s t r a i g h tl i n e a n d i t s i n c l i n a t i o n sw i t h t h e r e f e r e n c
Dl a n e s .
9 . T r a c e so f a l i n e .
1 0 . M e t h o d s o f d e t e r m i n i n gt r a c e s o f a l i n e .
1 1 . T r a c e so f a l i n e , t h e p r o j e c t i o n so f w h i c h a r e p e r p e n d i c u l atro x y .
'12.
P o s i t i o n so f t r a c e s o f a l i n e .
'.,
"';1. i
S
F
S
( a ) L i n eA B i s p a r a l l e tl o t h e H . P
a and b are the top views of the ends A and B respectively.
The line joining a and b is the top view of ,48. lt can be clearly
seen that the figure ABba is a rectangle.Hence, the top view ab
is equal to A8.
a' b' is the front view o! AB and is parallel to xy.
(b) Line CD is parallelto the V.P.
T h e l i n e c ' d ' i s t h e f r o n t v i e w a n d i s e q u a lt o C D ; t h e t o p
view cd is parallelto xy.
( c ) L i n e f F i s p a r a l l e lt o t h e H . P .a n d t h e V . P
ef is the top view and e' f is the front view; both are equal
t o E F a n d p a r a l l e lt o x r .
H e n c e ,w h e n a l i n e i s p a r a l l e tl o a p l a n e ,i t s p r o j e c t i o no n t h a t p l a n e i s
e q u a l t o i t s t r u e l e n g t h ;w h i l e i t s p r o j e c t i o no n t h e o t h e r p l a n e i s p a r a l l e l
t o t h e r e f e r e n c el i n e .
xy.
F r c .1 0 - 2
L i n e A B i s in the H.P. lts top view ab is equal to ,48; its front view
a' b' is in xy,
Line CD is in the VP lts front view c' d' is equal to CD; its top view
cd is in xy.
Line FF is in both the planes. lts front v i e w e ' f ' a n d
ef coincide with each other in xy.
'l76
EngineerinB Drawing
(Third-angleprojection)
Ftc.10-3
(a) Line AB is perpendicularto the H.P. The top views of its end
c o i n c i d ei n t h e p o i n t a . H e n c e ,t h e t o p v i e w o f t h e l i n e A B i s t h
point a. Its front view a' b' is equal to AB and perpendicularto xy
(b) Line CD is perpendicular to the VP. The point d' is its fron
view and the line cd is the top view. cd is equal to CD an
perpendicularto xy.
H e n c e , w h e n a l i n e i s p e r p e n d i c u l atro a p l a n e i t s p r o j e c t i o no n t h a
p l a n e i s a p o i n t ; w h i l e i t s p r o j e c t i o no n t h e o t h e r p l a n e i s a l i n e e q u a l t t
its true length and perpendicularto the reference line.
The inclination of a line to a plane is the angle which the line make
with its prcjection on that plane,
( a ) L i n e P Q 1 t f i g . 1 0 - 4 ( i ) l i s i n c l i n e da t a n a n g l e 0 t o t h e H . P a n
is parallel to the V.P. The inclination is shown by the angle {
which PQ1 makes with its own projection on the H.P., viz. thr
top view pgt .
arallel
:s enos
f is the
r to xY.
s front
lD and
on thal
r q u a lt o
rr mofe
mxyin
de, thal
W h e n t h e l i n e i s t u r n e d a b o u t t h e e n d P t o t h e p o s i t i o nP Q i s o t h a t
m a k e st h e a n g l e 0 w i t h t h e H . P w h i l e r e m a i n i n gp a r a l l e lt o t h e V P , i n t l
front view the point g'will move along an arc drawn with p'as cent
a n d p ' q ' a s r a d i u st o a p o i n t g 1 ' s o t h a t p ' q 1 ' m a k e st h e a n g l e0 w i
x y . I n t h e t o p v i e w q w i l l m o v e t o w a r d sp a l o n g p g t o a p o i n t g t o n t l
projectorthrough q1'. p' q1' and pgl are the front view and the t(
v i e w r e s p e c t i v e l yo f t h e l i n e P Q 1 .
(j)
Ql)
F t c .1 0 - 4
( b ) L i n e R S 1[ f i g . 1 0 - 5 ( i ) ] i s i n c l i n e da t a n a n g l e o t o r n e V P . a r , d
parallel to the H.P. The inclinationis shown by the angle
which R5.1makes with its projection on the VP., viz. the fro
v i e w r ' s 1 ' . A s s u m i n gt h e l i n e t o b e p a r a l l e lt o b o t h t h e H . P .a
t h e V . P , i t s p r o j e c t i o n sr ' s ' a n d r s a r e d r a w n p a r a l l e lt o x y a
equal to its true length lfig. 10-5(ii)1.
hen top
arative\
'It view!
' i s i bl e .
H . P .a n
Ftc. 10-5
, the li
and t
e lengt
W h e n t h e l i n e i s t u r n e d a b o u t i t s e n d R t o t h e o o s i t i o nR
so that it makes the angle o with the V.P. while remaining para
to the H.P, in the top view the point s will move along an z
drawn with r as centre and rs as radius to a point s, so that /
1 7 8 E n g i n e e r i n gD r a w i n g
makes the angle o with xy. ln the front view, the point s, will
move towards r' along the line r, s, to a point s1, on the projecto
t h r o u g hs 1 . r s 1 a n d r ' s 1 ' a r e t h e p r o j e c t i o n os f t h e l i n e R S 1 .
T h e r e f o r e ,w h e n t h e I i n e i s i n c l i n e d t o t h e H . p a n d p a r a l l e lt o t h e
V.P, its top view is shorter than its true length. but parallel to xy; its
front view is equal to its true length and is inclined to x}/ at its tru
i n c l i n a t i o nw i t h t h e H . P . A n d w h e n t h e l i n e i s i n c l i n e d t o t h e V . p a n d
parallel to the H.P., its front view is shorter than its true length but
parallel to xy; its top view is equal to its true length and is inclined
to xy at its true inclination with the Vp.
Hence, when a line is inclined to one plane and parallel to the other
its ptojection on the plane to which it is inclined, is a line shorter than
its true length but parallel to the reference line. lts projection on the plane
to which it is patallel, is a line equal to its true length and inclined to the
referenceline at its true inclination.
Frc.10-6
pq andp'q'are the requiredtop view andfront view respective
Ftc. 10-7
ivill
:tor
the
its
: r ue
and
DUI
ned
her,
han
iane
the
tin
and
the
---l-{r
tI
l
I
I
Il
\q
vely.
t;
,1.2
awa
;the
also
M a r k a , t h e t o p v i e w o f o n e e n d i n x y , a n da ' ,
i t s f r o n t v i e w 2 . 5 c m a b o v ex y .
Ftc. 10-B
( i i ) D r a w t h e f r o n t v i e w a ' b ' , 5 . 5 c m l o n g a n d p a r a l l e tl o x y . W i t h a a s
c e n t r ea n d r a d i u se q u a lt o 7 . 5 c m , d r a w a n a r c c u t t i n gt h e p r o j e c t o r
throughb' at b. Join a with b. ab is the top view of the line. lts
i n c l i n a t i o nw i t h x y , v i z . o i s t h e i n c l i n a t i o no f t h e l j n e w i t h t h e V . P
X(a)
Exercises
1 . D r a w t h e p r o j e c t i o n so f a 7 5 m m l o n g s t r a i g h tl i n e , i n t h e f o l l o w i n g
p o s i t i o ns :
( a ) ( i ) P a r a l l etlo b o t h t h e H . P .a n d t h e V .P .a n d 2 5 m m f r o m e a c h .
( i i ) P a r a l l etlo a n d 3 0 m m a b o v et h e H . P a n d i n t h e V . P
( i i i ) P a r a l l etl o a n d 4 0 m m i n f r o n t o f t h e V .p . a n d i n t h e H . p
( b ) ( i ) P e r p e n d i c u l a tro t h e H . P . , 2 0 m m i n f r o n t o f t h e V p a n d
i t s o n e e n d 1 5 m m a b o v et h e H . R
( i i ) P e r p e n d i c u l atro t h e V . P . ,2 5 m m a b o v e t h e H . P . a n d i t s
one end in the VP
( i i i ) P e r p e n d i c u l at or t h e H . P , i n t h e V .P .a n d i t s o n e e n d i n t h e H . p .
( c ) ( i ) I n c l i n e da t 4 5 ' t o t h e V . P ,i n t h e H . p .a n d i t s o n e e n d i n t h e V p .
( i i ) I n c l i n e da t 3 0 ' t o t h e H . C a n d i t s o n e e n d 2 0 m m a b o v e
i t ; p a r a l l e lt o a n d 3 0 m m i n f r o n t o { t h e V . p
( i i i ) I n c l i n e da t 6 0 " t o t h e V P . a n d i t s o n e e n d 1 5 m m i n f r o n t o f
i t ; p a r a l l e lt o a n d 2 5 m m a b o v et h e H . p
2 . A 1 0 0 m m l o n g l i n e i s p a r a l l e lt o a n d 4 0 m m a b o v e t h e H . p . l t s
two ends are 25 mm and 50 mm in front of the V.p resoectivelv
D r a w i t s p r o j e c t i o n sa n d f i n d i t s i n c l i n a t i o nw i t h t h e V p
3 . A 9 0 m m l o n g l i n e i s p a r a l l e lt o a n d 2 5 m m i n f r o n t o f t h e V p .
Its one end is in the H.P while the other is 50 mm above the H.p.
D r a w i t s p r o j e c t i o n sa n d f i n d i t s i n c l i n a t i o nw i t h t h e H . p .
4 . T h e t o p v i e w o f a 7 5 m m l o n g l i n e m e a s u r e s5 5 m m . T h e l i n e i s i n
t h e V P . , i t s o n e e n d b e i n g 2 5 m m a b o v et h e H . p . D r a w i t s p r o j e c t i o n s
5 . T h e f r o n t v i e w o f a l i n e , i n c l i n e da t 3 0 " t o t h e V p i s 6 5 m m l o n e .
D r a w t h e p r o j e c t i o n so f t h e l i n e , w h e n i t i s p a r a l l e lt o a n d 4 0 m m
a b o v e t h e H . P . ,i t s o n e e n d b e i n g 3 0 m m i n f r o n t o f t h e V p
6 . A v e r t i c a ll i n e A 8 , 7 5 m m l o n g , h a s i t s e n d A i n t h e H . p a n d 2 5 m m
in front of the V.RA line AC, i00 mm long, is in the H.p and parallel
t o t h e V . P D r a w t h e p r o j e c t i o n so f t h e l i n e . i o i n i n gI a n c l C , a n d
d e t e r m i n ei t s i n c l i n a t i o nw i t h t h e H . p
1 8 0 E n g i n e e j i n gD t a w i n g
7. Two pegs fixed on a wall are 4.5 metres apart. The distance betwee
t h e p e g s m e a s u r e dp a r a l l e tl o t h e f l o o r i s 3 . 6 m e t r e s .l f o n e p e g i s 1 .
metres above the floor, find the height of the second peg and thr
inclination of the line joining the two pegs/ with the floor.
L
( a ) A l i n e A B ( f i g . 1 0 - 9 ) i s i n c l i n e da t 0 t o t h e H . R a n d i s p a r a l l e lt r
t h e V P . T h e e n d A i s i n t h e H . P .A B i s s h o w n a s t h e h y p o t e n u
o f a r i g h t - a n g l e dt r i a n g l e ,m a k i n g t h e a n g l e 0 w i t h t h e b a s e .
,[',)o
,lB;
.flt \,
K'r,,
Ftc.10-9
The top view ab is shorter than AB and parallel to xy. The fron
view a' b' is equal to AB and makes the angle 0 with xy
Keeping the end A fixed and the angle 0 with the H.P. constan
i f t h e e n d I i s m o v e d t o a n y p o s i t i o n ,s a y 8 1 , t h e l i n e b e c o m
i n c l i n e dt o t h e V P . a l s o .
ln the top view, b will move along an arc, drawn with a as centn
a n d a b a s r a d i u s ,t o a p o s i t i o nb 1 . T h e n e w t o p v i e w a 6 1 i s e q u
to ab but shorter than 248.
In the front view, b' will move to a point b1' keeping its distan(
f r o m x y c o n s t a n ta n d e q u a l t o b ' o ; i . e . i t w i l l m o v e a l o n g t h e l i r
p q , d r a w n t h r o u g h b ' a n d p a r a l l e lt o x y . T h i s l i n e p q i s t h e l o c {
or path of the end I in the front view.b1'will lie on the project
t h r o u g hb 1 . T h e n e w f r o n t v i e w a ' b f i s s h o r t e rt h a n a ' b ' ( i . e .A {
and makes an angle cc with xy. o< is greater than e.
(i)
(ii)
veen
i
t.J
the
( b ) T h e s a m e l i n e A B ( f i g . 1 0 - 1 0 ) i s i n c l i n e da t o t o t h e V P a n d i s
p a r a l l e l t o t h e H . P . l t s e n d A i s i n t h e V .P . A B i s s h o w r r a s
t h e h y p o t e n u s eo f a r i g h t - a n g l e dt r i a n g l e m a k i n g t h e a n g l e O
with the base.
:hem
elow
rf in
el to
rnuse
,,\tiu
T
-',
)*,'l'o-.''
/
,.1
.'
,.,:.-
o, //
t"/
.10-10
Frc.
The front view a' b2' is shorter than ,48 and parallel to xy. The
top view ab2 is equal to AB and makes an angle o with xy.
Keeping the end A fixed and the angle o with the Vp.
c o n s t a n t ,i f I i s m o v e d t o a n y p o s i t i o n , s a y 8 3 , t h e l i n e w i l l
b e c o m e i n c l i n e dt o t h e H . P a l s o .
fron'
stant
:omel
tenrr(
e qu a
;tanc{
e lint
locur
rJeCto
e. AB
rh tq
,tl
1 8 2 E n g i n e e r i n gD r a w i n g
F r o m A r t . 1 0 - 5 ( a )a b o v e ,w e f i n d t h a t a s l o n g a s t h e i n c l i n a t i o no f 4 1
w i t h t h e H . P . i s c o n s t a n t( i ) i t s l e n B t hi n t h e t o p v i e w , v i z . a b r e m a i n
c o n s t a n t /a n d ( i i ) i n t h e f r o n t v i e q t h e d i s t a n c eb e t w e e nt h e l o c i o f i t
e n d s ,v i z . b ' o r e m a i n sc o n s t a n l .
In other words if (i) its length in the top view is equal to ab, an
( i i ) t h e d i s t a n c eb e t w e e nt h e p a t h s o f i t s e n d s i n t h e f r o n t v i e w i s e q u a
t o b ' o , t h e i n c l i n a t i o no f A B w i t h t h e H . P . w i l l b e e q u a l t o o .
Similarly, from Art. 10-5(b) above, we find that as long as th
i n c l i n a t i o no f A B w i t h t h e V . P .i s c o n s t a n t( i ) i t s l e n g t h i n t h e f r o n t v i e w
viz. a' b2' remains constant, and (ii) in the top view, the distanc
b e t w e e n t h e l o c i o f i t s e n d s , v i z . b 2 o r e m a i n sc o n s t a n t .T h e r e v e r s eo
this is also true, viz. (i) if its lengthin the front view is equalLo a' b2
a n d ( i i ) t h e d i s t a n c eb e t w e e n t h e p a t h s o f i t s e n d s i n t h e t o p v i e w i
e q u a l t o b 2 o , t h e i n c l i n a t i o no i 4 8 w i t h t h e V . p w i l l b e e q u a l t o o .
C o m b i n i n gt h e a b o v et w o f i n d i n g s w
, e c o n c l u d et h a t w h e n A B i s i n c l i n e
at 0 to the H.P. and at o to the V.P. (i) its lengths in the top view an
t h e f r o n t v i e w w i l l b e e q u a l t o a b a n d a ' b 2 ' r e s p e c t i v e l ya, n d ( i i ) t h
distancesbetween the paths of its ends in the front view and the top viev
will be equal to b' o and b2 o respectively.The two lengthswhen arrange
with their ends in their respective paths and in projections with eac
o t h e r w i l l b e t h e p r o j e c t i o n so f t h e l i n e A 8 , a s i l l u s t r a t e di n p r o b l e m 1 0 - 4
Probfem 1O-4, Civen the line AB, its inclinationsg with the H.P an
g with the VP and the position of one end A. To draw its projections
Mark the front view a' and the top view a according to the give
position of A (fig. 10-12\.
L e t u s f i r s t d e t e r m i n et h e l e n g t h so f A B i n t h e t o p v i e w a n d t h e f r o n
view and the paths of its ends in the front view and the top view.
( i ) A s s u m e A B t o b e p a r a l l e lt o t h e V P . a n d i n c l i n e d a t 0 t o t h
H.P /48 is shown in the pictorial view as a side of the trapezo
A B b a l f i g . 1 0 - 1 1 ( i ) 1 .D r a w t h e f r o n t v i e w a ' b '
equal to AI
t f i g . 1 0 - 1 2 ( i ) l a n d i n c l i n e d a t 0 t o x y . P r o j e c tt h e t o p v i e w a l
parallelto xy. Througha' and b', draw lines cd and pq respective
parallel to xy. ab is the length of AB in the top view and, c{
and pg are the paths of A and I respectivelyin the front viev
( i i ) A g a i n , a s s u m eA B 1 ( e q u a l t o A B ) t o b e p a r a l l e lt o t h e H . p . a n
i n c l i n e da t 6 t o t h e V P . I n t h e p i c t o r i a lv i e w t f i g . i 0 - 1 1 ( i i ) J ,A B l i
s h o w n a s a s i d e o f t h e t r a p e z o i dA B 1b 1 , a , . D r a w t h e t o p v i e w a b
e q u a l t o A B t f i g . 1 0 - 1 2 ( i i ) Ja n d i n c l i n e da t s t o x y . P r o j e c t h e f r o r
v i e w a ' b 1 ' p a r a l l e lt o x y . T h r o u g ha a n d b 1 , d r a w l i n e s e f a n d r
respectivelyparallelto xy. a' bf is the lengih ofAB in the front vie{
and, ef and rs are the paths of A and I respectivelyin the top viev
We may now arrange (i) ab (the length in the top viev
b e t w e e ni t s p a t h s e f a n d r s , a n d ( i i ) a ' b 1 , ( t h e l e n g t h i n t h e f r o r
view) between the paths cd and pq, keeping theri in projectid
with each other, in one of the following fwo ways:
I
AB
rins
{5v
lts
183
*$'.i
l'-')i uo,
a n dI
ruali
the
iew,
Lnce
rof
oz':
:t:.7
v 15
lflO,
and
the
r'iew
rged
Sach
o-4.
and
rns.
( r)
F t c . 1 0 - 11
(a) I n c a s e ( i ) t f i g . 1 0 - 1 1 ( i ) 1i,f t h e s i d e B b i s t u r n e d a b o u t A a , s o t h a t
b c o m e s o n t h e p a t h r s , t h e l i n e A B w i l l b e c o m e i n c l i n e da r g r o
t h e V . P T h e r e f o r ew
, i t h a a s c e n t r e t f i g . 1 o - 1 2 ( i ) la n d r a d i u se q u a l
to ab, draw an arc cutting rs at a point b2. project b2 to b2, on
the. path pg. Draw lines joining a with b2, and a, with b2,. ab2
a n d a ' b 2 ' a r e t h e r e q u i r e dp r o j e c t i o n sC
. h e c kt h a t a , b 2 ' = a , b { .
;iven
tne
:zoid
A8
vab
:ivel)
,,iew.
and
8 'r, 1i {
I aljl
fronl
rd rs
view
Tro
cIr
b"
(i,
F t c . 10 - 1 2
( b ) S i m i l a r l y ,i n c a s e ( i i ) i f i g . 1 0 - 1 1 ( i i ) 1 i,f t h e s i d e 8 1 6 f i s t u r n e d
about Aa' till bf is on the path pq, the line A8.' will become
i n c l i n e da t e r o t h e H . p
H e n c e ,w i t h a ' a s c e n t r e [ f i g . 1 0 - 1 2 ( i i ) ]a nd r a d i u se q u a l t o a ' b 1 ' ,
d r a w a n a r c c u t t i n g p q a t a p o i n t b 2 , Project b2' to b2 in
the top view on the path rs.
D r a w l i n e s j o i n i n g a w i t h b 2 , a n d a , w i t h b2'. ab2 and a' b2' are
t h e r e q u i r e dp r o i e c l i o n sC
. h e c kt h a t a b , = a b .
| 84
t n g i n e e r i n g Dr a w i n g
F i g . 1 0 - ' 1 3s h o w s ( i n p i c t o r i a la n d o r t h o g r a p h i cv i e w s ) t h e p r o j e c t i o n
obtained with both the above steps combined in one figure and as
d e s c r i b e db e l o w .
F i r s t , d e t e r m i n e( i ) t h e l e n g t h a b i n the top view and the path pg in
t h e f r o n t v i e w a n d ( i i ) l h e l e n g t ha ' b l ' in the front view and the path rs
in the top view. Then, wlth a as centre a n d r a d i u s e q u a l t o a b , d r a w a n
a r c c u t t i n g r s a t a p o i n t b 2 . W i t h a ' a s c e n t r e a n d r a d i u se q u a l t o a ' b 1 '
d r a w a n a r c c u t t i n gp q a t a p o i n t b 2 ' .
F t c .1 0 - 13
j
o
i
n
i
n
g
Draw lines
a with b2 and a, with b2,. ab2 and a,b2,are the
r e q u i r e dp r o j e c t i o n sC
. h e c kt h a t b 2 a n d b 2 , l i e o n t h e s a m e p r o i e c t o r .
I t i s q u i t e e v i d e n tf r o m t h e f i g u r et h a t t h e a p p a r e n ta n g l e so f i n c l i n a t i o
a and b are greater than the true inclinations0 and o respectively.
1 0 - 7 .L i n e c o n t a i n e d b y a p l a n e p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o b o t h t h e
reference planes:
As the two referenceplanes are at right angles
total of the inclinationo
s f a linewith the two planes
b e m o r e t h a n 9 0 ' . W h e n 0 + a = 9 O ' ,t h e l i n e w i l l
p l a n e c a l l e dt h e p r o f i l e p l a n e ,p e r p e n d i c u l at ro b o t h
.
*
,t-*i',,
,r"
cn or
)the r/ the sum
0 a nt od g can neve
I n r anr eno( b y a t h i r {
H . P .a n d
,f ,LX"\
F t c .1 0 - 1 4
AS
:n
.'s
an
1,
A l i n e f F ( f i g . 1 0 - 1 4 ) , i s i n c l i n e da t 0 t o t h e H . P . a n d a t o [ e q u a l t o
( 9 0 ' - 0 ) l t o t h e V P T h e l i n e i s t h u s c o n t a i n e db y t h e p r o f i l e p l a n e
marked P.P.
T h e f r o n t v i e w e ' f ' a n d t h e t o p v i e w e f a r e b o t h p e r p e n d i c u l a tr o
xy and shorter than fF.
Therefore, when a line is inclined to both the reference planes and
c o n t a i n e db y a p l a n e p e r p e n d i c u l a tro t h e m , i . e . w h e n t h e s u m o f i t s
i n c l i n a t i o n sw i t h t h e H . P a n d t h e V . P i s 9 0 ' , i t s p r o j e c t i o n sa r e
p e r p e n d i c u l atro x y a n d s h o r t e r t h a n t h e t r u e l e n g t h .
the
ron
he
ium
)ver
rrrd
P
When projections of a line are given, its true length and inclinations
w i t h t h e p l a n e sa r e d e t e r m i n e db y t h e a p p l i c a t i o no f t h e f o l l o w i n gr u l e :
When a line is parallel to a plane, its projection on that plane will
show its true length and the true inclination with the other plane.
T h e l i n e m a y b e m a d e p a r a l l e lt o a p l a n e ,a n d i t s t r u e l e n g t ho b t a i n e d
by any one of the following three methods:
Method I:
M a k i n g e a c h v i e w p a r a l l e l t o t h e r e f e r e n c el i n e a n d p r o j e c t i n g
the other view from it. This is the exact reversal of the processes
a d o p t e di n A r t s . 1 0 - 5 ( a )a n d 1 0 - 5 ( b )f o r o b t a i n i n gt h e p r o j e c t i o n s .
Method ll:
R o t a t i n gt h e l i n e a b o u t i t s p r o i e c t i o n st i l l i t l i e s i n t h e H . P o r i n
thc VP
Method lll:
Projectingthe views on auxiliary planes parallelto each view.
( T h i s m e t h o d w i l l b e d e a l tw i t h i n c h a p t e rX t ) .
The following problem shows the application of the first two methods
a n d p r o b l e m 1 0 - 2 9 a n d p r o b l e m1 0 - 3 1 s h o w a p p l i c a t i o no f t h i r d m e t h o d .
Problem 10.5. The top view ab and the front view a' b' of a line
AB are given. To determine its true length and the inclinations with the
H.P. and the V.P.
Method I:
F i g . 1 0 - 1 5 ( i )s h o w sA B t h e l i n e , a ' b ' i t s f r o n t v i e w a n d a b i t s t o p
view. lf the trapezoidz48bais turned about /4a as axis, so that AB becomes
p a r a l l e lt o t h e V . P , i n t h e t o p v i e q b w i l l m o v e a l o n g a n a r c d r a w n w i t h
c e n t r ea a n d r a d i u se q u a l t o a b , t o b 1 , s o t h a t a b 1 i s p a r a l l e lt o x y . I n t h e
f r o n t v i e w , b ' w i l l m o v e a l o n g i t s l o c u sp q , t o a p o i n t b l ' o n t h e p r o . i e c t o
throughb1.
( i ) T h e r e f o r e ,w i t h c e n t r e a a n d r a d i u s e q u a l t o a b t f i g . 1 0 - 1 5 ( i i ) 1
draw an arc to cut ef at b..
( i i ) D r a w a p r o j e c t o rt h r o u g hb l t o c u t p q ( t h e p a t h o f b , ) a t b 1 , .
(iii) Draw the line a' 61' which is the true length of 48. The angle
0 , w h i c h i t m a k e s w i t h x y i s t h e i n c l i n a t i o no f A B w i t h t h e H . p .
1 8 6 E n g i n e e r i n gD r a w i n g
5'.
*>.8,'
, l ' p li l
(j)
(ii)
F r c .1 o - 1 5
A g a i n , i n f i g . 1 0 - 1 6 ( i )A B i s s h o w n a s a s i d e o f a l r a p e z o i dA B b ' a ' .
lf the trapezoid is turned about Aa' as axis so that AB is parallel to
t h e H . P . ,t h e n e w t o p v i e w w i l l s h o w i t s t r u e l e n g t h a n d t r u e i n c l i n a t i o
with the V.P.
-t L t
ar u2
( i i ) D r a w a p r o j e c t o rt h r o u g hb 2 ' t o c u t / s ( t h e p a t h o l b ) a t b 2 .
(iii) Draw the line ab2, which is the true length of AB. The angle o
which it makes with xy is the inclination of AB with the V.P.
(i)
(t)
Frc.10-16
F i g . 1 0 - 17 ( i ) s h o w s t h e a b o v et w o s t e p sc o m b i n e di n o n e f i g u r e .
T h e s a m e r e s u l t s w i l l b e o b t a i n e d b y k e e p i n gt h e e n d I f i x e d a n d
t u r n i n g t h e e n d A [ f i g . 1 0 - 1 7 ( i ) ] , a s e x p l a i n e db e l o w .
(i)
,.1'
(ii) Project a1 to a1' on cd (the path of a,) a1' b, is the true length
a n d 0 i s t h e t r u e i n c l i n a t i o no f A B w i t h t h e H . p
(i i i ) S i m i l a r l yw
, i t h c e n t r eb ' a n d r a d i u se q u a l t o b , a ' , d r a w a n
true length
a n d o i s t h e t r u e i n c l i n a t i o no f A B w i t h t h e V p .
a.
to
ion
F l c . 1 0 -l 7
Method II:
Referringto the p i c t o r i a lv i e w i n f i g . 1 0 - 1 8 ( i )w e f i n d t h a t A B i s t h e
line, ab its top view and a' b' its front view.
F t c .1 0 - 1 8
f n t h e t r a p e z o i dA B b ' a ' ( i ) a ' A and b' B are both perpendicularto
a' b' and are respectivelyequal to ao1 and bo2 (the distancesof a and b
from xy in the top view), and (ii) the angle between AB and a' b' is the
angle of inclination O ol AB with the V.P
1 8 8 IngineerinBDrawing
A s s u m et h a t t h i s t r a p e z o i di s r o t a t e da b o u t a , b , , t i l l i t l i e s i n t h e V . p
I n t h e o r t h o g r a p h i cv i e w [ f i g . 1 0 - t S ( i i ) J ,t h i s t r a p e z o i d i s o b t a i n e d
by drawing perpendicularsto a' b', viz. a, A1 (equal to aot) and b, B.l
(equalto bo2) and then joining A1 with 81. The line 41 81 is the true
I e n g t h o f A B a n d i t s i n c l i n a t i o na w i t h a , b , i s t h e i n c l i n a t i o no f , 4 8
with the VP.
S i m i l a r l y ,i n t r a p e z o i dA B b a i n f i g . 1 0 - 1 9 ( i ) ,A B i s r h e l i n e a n d a b
its top view. Aa and Bb are both perpendicularto ab and are respectivel
e q u a l t o a ' o 1 a n d b ' o 2 ( t h e d i s t a n c e so f a , a n d b , f r o m x y i n t h e
f r o n t v i e w ) . T h e a n g l e 0 b e t w e e n A B a n d a b i s t h e i n c l i n a t i o no f A B
with the H.P.
(ri)
(.i)
F r c .1 0 - 1 9
This figure may now be assumed to be rotated about ab as axis,
so that it lies in the H.P.
I n t h e o r t h o g r a p h i cv i e w [ f i g . l O - 1 9 ( i i ) 1 ,t h i s t r a p e z o i d i s o b t a i n e d
b y e r e c t i n gp e r p e n d i c u l a rtso a b , v i z . a A 2 e q u a l t o a , o 1 a n d b B 2 e q u a l t o
b ' o 2 a n d . j o i n i n g4 2 w i t h 8 2 . T h e l i n e A 2 8 2 i s t h e t r u e l e n g t h o f A B
a n d i t s i n c l i n a t i o n0 w i t h a b i s t h e i n c l i n a t i o no f A B w i t h t h e H . p
Note.' The perpendiculars
on ab or a, b, can also be drawn on its other
side assumingthe trapezoidto be rotated in the oppositedirection.
W h e n a l i n e i s i n c l i n e dt o a p l a n e , i t w i l l m e e t t h a t p l a n e , p r o d u c e d
i f n e c e s s a i yT. h e p o i n t i n w h i c h t h e l i n e o r l i n e - p r o d u c e dm e e t s t h e p l a n e
is called its trace.
T h e p o i n t o f i n t e r s e c t i o no f t h e l i n e w i t h t h e H . p . i s c a l l e d t h e
horizontal trace, usually denoted as H.T. and that with the V.p. is
called the vertical trace or V.F.
\t'
( i ) A l i n e A B i s p a r a l l e lt o t h e H . P a n d t h e V . p l t h a s n o t r a c e .
( i i ) A l i n e C D i s i n c l i n e d t o t h e H . p a n d p a r a l l e lt o t h e V .p . I t h a s
o n l y t h e H . T .b u t n o V T .
( i i i ) A l i n e E F i s i n c l i n e d t o t h e V . p a n d p a r a l l e lt o t h e H . p t t
has only the V.T.but no H.T.
T h u s ,w h e n a l i n e i s p a r a l l e tl o a p l a n e i t h a s n o t r a c e u p o n t h a t p l a n e .
1ir,5
::,
;;;";s
z
(t
(.it)
Frc.10-20
7z ."
(rrl)
F t c . 10 - 2 1
ed
to
4B
( i ) A I i n e P Q i s p e r p e n d i c u l atro t h e H . p . t t s H . T . c o i n c i d e sw i t h its
top view which is a point. lt has no V.T.
( i i ) A l i n e R S i s p e r p e n d i c u l a tro t h e V .p . l t s V . T . c o i n c i d e sw i t h i t s
front view which is a point. lt has no H.T.
H e n c e , w h e n a l i n e i s p e r p e n d i c u l a rt o a p l a n e , i t s t r a c e o n t h a t
.
plane coincides with its projection on that plane. lt has no trace on the
other olane.
Refer to fie. 10-22.
:eo
Ine
J^'1.
the
t5
Ftc.1O-22
1 9 0 E n g i n e e r i n gD r a w i n g
( i ) A l i n e A B h a s i t s e n d A i n t h e H . P a n d t h e e n d B i n t h e V . P .l
H . T . c o i n c i d e sw i t h a t h e t o p v i e w o f A a n d t h e V T . c o i n c i d
with 6'the front view of 8.
(ii) A line CD has its end C in both the H.P and the VP. Its H.
and V.T. coincide with c and c' (the projections ol C) in xy.
Hence, when a line has an end in a plane, its trace upon that plar
coincides with the projection of that end on that plane.
T h e H . T . o f t h e l i n e i s o n t h e p r o j e c t o rt h r o u g h a ' a n d c o i n c i d
with a. The V.T. is on the projector through b and coincides with b'.
(rl)
(j)
Ftc. 10-23
(iv) Through 4 draw a projector to meet the front view c' d'-produce
at the V.T. of the line.
;1,/
1e
(1)
(ri;
Ftc. 10-24
:ly
Method ll:
T h e a b o v ei s q u i t e e v i d e n tf r o m t h e p i c t o r i a vl i e w s h o w n i n f i g . 1 O - 2 5 ( i ) .
"-lda
\\'cft,.4oiF+.
\ r/
its
he
,/.
=- ,,F?-4,1
(r)
aY
F r c .1 0 - 2 5
to xy:
..1
1 9 2 E n g i n e e r i n BD r a w i n g
,|, I
I
I
I
Fic.10-26
10-12.Positionsof tracesof a l i n e :
Although the line may be situated in the third quadrant, its both traces
may be above or below xy, as shown in problem 10-6 and in fig. 10-27
a n d { i g . 1 0 - 2 8 .W h e n a l i n e i n t e r s e c t sa p l a n e ,i t s t r a c e so n t h a t p l a n ew i l l
b e c o n t a i n e db y i t s p r o j e c t i o no n t h a t p l a n ea s s h o w n i n p r o b l e m l 0 - 7 .
1r"rr1l*
t'.ii
F t c . 10 - 2 8
193
P r o b l e m 1 0 - 6 . P r c j e c t i o n so f a l i n e p e a r e g i v e n . D e t e r m i n e t h e
positions of its traces.
L e t p g a n d p ' q ' b e t h e p r o j e c t i o n so f p e ( f i g . 1 O - 2 7a n d f i g . . 1 0 - 2 8 ) .
(i) Produce the top view pq to meet xy at v. Draw a pro.;ector
through v to meet the front view p, q'-producedat the V.T.
( i i ) T h r o u g hh , t h e p o i n t o f i n t e r s e c t i o nb e t w e e np , q , - p r o d u c e da n d
xy, d.aw a projector to meet the top view pq-produced at the H.T.
Note that in fig. 10-27, the tracesare below xy while in fig. 10-28
they are above it.
Problem 1O-7.A point A is S0 mm below the H.p. and 12 mm behind
the V.P A paint B is '10 mm above the H.p. and 25 mm in front of the
V.P.The distance between the proiectors of A and B is 40 mm. Detetmine
lhe Lraceso{ the line joining A and B.
Draw the projectionsab and a,b, of the line AB.
M e t h o d I : ( f i g .1 0 - 2 9 ) :
( i ) T h r o u g h v , t h e p o i n t o f i n t e r s e c t i o nb e t w e e na b a n d x y , d r a w a
projector to meet a'b' at the VT. of the line.
( i i ) S i m i l a r l y ,t h r o u g h h , t h e p o i n t o f i n t e r s e c t i o n b e t w e e n a ' b '
and xy, draw a projector to cut ab at the H.T. of the l i ne .
:S
t.7
\4;
/'|-''t
)X
t.'/"
Frc.10-29
F t c .1 0 - 3 0
1 9 4 E n g i n e e l i n gD r a w i n g
ADDITIONATILLUSTRATIVE
PROBLEMS:
I n t h e f o l l o w i n g p r o b l e m s ,t h e e n d s o f t h e l i n e s s h o u l d b e a s s u m e
t o b e i n i h e f i r s t q u a d r a n t ,u n l e s so t h e r w i s es t a t e d .
Problem 10-8. (fig. 10-31): A line AB, 50 mm long, has its end A in
both the H.P and the V.P lt is inclined at 30' to the H.p. and at 45" to
the V.P.Draw its ptojections.
(,
lii)
(iii)
F t c .1 0 - 3 1
As the end A is in both the planes, its top view and the front view
w i l l c o i n c i d ei n x y .
(i) AssumingAB to be parallelto the V.P and inclinedat 0 (equalto 30")
to the H.P., draw its front view ab' (equal to AB) and proiect the
top view ab.
( i i ) A g a i n a s s u m i n gA B t o b e p a r a l l e lt o t h e H . P . a n d i n c l i n e d a t s
(equal to 45') to the VP, draw its top view abi (equal to AB)
Project the front view ab1'.
ab and ab1' are the lengths of AB in the top view and the front
view respectively,and pq and rs are the loci of the end I in the
front view and the top view respectively.
(iii) With a as centre and radius equal to ab1', dtaw an arc cutting
pq in b2'. With the same centre and radius equal to ab, draw an
arc cutting rs in b2.
Draw lines joining a with b2' and br. ab2, and ab2 arc the required
projections.
Frc.10-32
3ed
lin
'lo
(t
30')
the'
al 6
(.t,
(ih)
F t c .1 0 - 3 3
The top view of P and the front view of e will be in xy. As shown
i n t h e p r e v i o u sp r o b l e m , d e t e r m r n e
AB).
(i)
iront
the
(ii) the
p1 qf in the front view and the path cd of the end
e
.length
in the top view.
t nS
\'an
rired
the. length of PQ in the top view, viz. q, p and rhe path ab of the
end P in the front view;
The front view and the top view of p will be below and above xy
respectively,while those of e will be above and below xy respectively.
(i) Mark m, the top view of the mid-point in xy
and project its front
view m', 20 mm above x/.
(ii) Through m', draw a line making an angle 0 (equal to 30") with xy
a n d w i t h t h e s a m e p o i n t a s c e n t r ea n d r a d i u se q u a l t o
PQ, cut
1
it at P1 below xy and at Q1 above xy. Project P1 Q1 to p1 91 on
xy. pt gt is the length of PQ in the top view. ab and cd are the
paths of P and Q respectivelyin the front view.
F r c .1 0 - 3 4
( i i i ) S i m i l a r l y ,t h r o u g h m , d r a w a l i n e m a k i n g a n g l e s ( e q u a l t o 4 5 ' )
with xy and cut it with the same radius at P2 above xy and at
Q2 below it.
(iv) Project P2 Q2 to p2' q2' on the horizontal line through m', pz' gz'
is the length of PQ in the front view and ef and gh are the
paths of P and Q respectivelyin the top view'
(v) With m as centre and radius equal to mp1 or me1, draw arcs
cutting ef at p3 and gh at 93. With m' as ceatre and radius equal
Io m' p2' or m' q2', draw arcs cutting ab at p3' and cd at q3'.
p3 q3 and p3' q3' are the required proiections.
Probfem 10-11. (fig. 10-35): Ihe top view of a 75 mm long line AB
measures 65 mm, while the length of its front view is 50 mm. lts one end
A is in the H.P and 12 mm in front of the V.P.Draw the prcjections of
AB and determine its inclinations with the H.P. and the V.P.
(i)
Mark the {ront view a' and the top view a of the given end A.
( i i ) A s s u m i n gA B t o b e p a r a l l e lt o t h e V . P , d r a w a l i n e a b e q u a l t o
6 5 m m a n d p a r a l l e lt o x y . W i t h a ' a s c e n t r e a n d r a d i u s e q u a l t o
75 mm, draw an arc cutting the projector through b at b'. The
line cd through b' and parallelto xy, is the locus of I in the front
v i e w a n d 0 i s t h e i n c l i n a t i o no f A B w i t h t h e H . P .
( i i i ) S i m i l a r l yd
, raw a line a' bf in xy and equalto 50 mm, With a as
centre and radius equal to 48, draw an arc cutting the projector
throughb1' aI 4. ef is the locus of B in the top view and o is
the inclination of /48 with the V.P.
( i v ) W i t h a ' a s c e n t r e a n d r a d i u se q u a l t o a ' b 1 ' , d r a w a n a r c c u t t i n g
cd in b2'. With a as centre and radius equal to ab, draw an arc
cutting e/ in b2. a' b2' and ab2 are the required projections.
P r o j e c t i o n so f S t r a i g h tL i n e s 1 9 7
1
Frc.10-35
F t c . 10 - 3 6
Probfem 10-12. (fig. j 0-36): A tine AB, 65 mm long,
has its end A
^^
20 mm above the H.p. and 2s mm in frlont of the vii
rne end B is
40 mm above the H.p and 65 mm in front
of the V.p Draw the
ptojections of AB and show its inclinationswith
the H.p and the V.p
(i) As per given positions,draw the locj
cd and gh of the end A, and ef
and lk of the end I in the front view and thi top view
respectively.
(ii) Mark any point a (the top view of
A ) i n g h a n d p r o i e c ri t t o a , I
o n c d . W i t h a , a s c e n t r ea n d r a d i u se q u a l i o 6 S r n . ,
iru* un-ur. j
c u t t i n g e f i n b , . J o i n a ' w i t h b , . 0 , t h e i n c l i n a t i o n. i
,, f , *iif, ,". I
theHP'Project
b't"'b o;'t ;D-fl
iiJT#,.J
Ti il :l'ifl"-,,;|
( i i i ) W i t h a a s c e n t r e a n d r a d i u se q u a l
to 65 mm, draw an arc cutting J
jk in b1. Join a with b1. o, the inclination
of ab1 with xy, is th!.
i n c l i n a t i o no f A B w i t h , t h e V . p p r o j e c tb . , t o b 1 ; ' o n
cd.'a, b1, is
rhe lengrhof AB in the front view.
b e t w e e nt h e i r r e s p e c t i v ep a t h s a s s h o w n . a , b 2 ,
- -nr o
Y "aqD: ^2ra, 0
, uired
a
r e" : t"h! :e' , trre, q
p r o j e c t i o n so f A g .
P T g b f " _ T1 0 - 1 3 . { f i g . 1 0 - 3 7 a n d f i g . t 0 _ 3 S ) : T h e p r o i e c r o r s
of the ends
.
ot a ltne AB
5
.are cm aparl. the end A is 2 cm above the H.p. and 3 cm
tn tront ot the U.P The end B is 1 cm below
the H.p and 4 cm behind
the VP. Determine the true length and t/aces
of AB, and ,t, irrtiiitioi
with the two planes.
D.rawtwo projectors 5 cm apart. On one projector,
mark the top view
a and the front view a,of the end A. On the
6ther,'rnuit tn" top view
b and the front view b, of the end B, as per given
Jii"".",
ab anda, b,
a r e t h e p r o j e c t i o n so f 4 9 .
D e t e r m i n et h e t r u e l e n g t h , t r a c e sa n d i n c l i n a t i o n s
. ..
by any one of the
following two methods:
198
DBr a w i n g
Engineerin
Method I:
B y m a k i n g t h e l i n e p a r a l l e lt o a p l a n e ( { i g . 1 0 - 3 7 ) :
( i ) K e e p i n ga f i x e d , t u r n a b t o a p o s i t i o na b 1 , t h u s m a k i n g i t p a r a l l e l
to xy. Project b1 to b1' on the locus ol b'. a' bf is the true
l e n g t h o f A B a n d 0 i s i t s t r u e i n c l i n a t i o nw i t h t h e H . P
(ii) Through h the point of intersectionof the front view a' b' with xy,
draw a projector to cut ab at the H.T. of the line.
Frc.10-37
Flc, 10-38
Method II:
By rotating the line about its projections till it lies in H.P. or V.P.
(fig.10-38):
(i)
(i i ) Similarly, at the ends a' and b' of the front view a' b', draw
p e r p e n d i c u l a rtso a ' b ' , v i z . a ' 4 2 e q u a lt o a o 1 a n d b ' 8 2 e q u a l t o
bo2, on opposite sides of it. A2B2 is the true length of A8, o
( i t s i n c l i n a t i o nw i t h a ' b ' ) i s t h e i n c l i n a t i o no f A B w i t h t h e V P .
and the point at which 4282 intersectsa' b' is the V.T. of A8.
P r o b f e m 1 0 - l a , ( f i g . 1 0 - 3 9 ) :A l i n e A 8 , 9 0 m m l o n g , i s i n c l i n e da t 4 5 "
to the H.P and its top view makes an angle of 60' with the V.P.The end
A is in the H.P and 12 mm in front of the V.P Draw its front view and
find its true inclination with the V.P.
( i ) M a r k a a n d a ' , t h e p r o j e c t i o n so f t h e e n d A .
( i i ) A s s u m i n gA B t o b e p a r a l l e lt o t h e V . R a n d i n c l i n e da t 4 5 " t o t h e
H.P, draw its front view a' b' equal to AB and makingan angle
of 45' with xy. Project b' to b so that ab the top view is parallel
to x/. Keepingthe end a fixed, turn the top view ab to a position
a b l s o t h a t i t m a k e sa n a n g l e o f 6 0 ' w i t h x y . P r o j e c tb 1 t o b l ' o n
the locus of b'. Join a' with b1'. a' bf is the front view of A8.
( i i i ) T o f i n d t h e t r u e i n c l i n a t i o nw i t h t h e V . P . ,d r a w a n a r c w i t h a a s
c e n t r e a n d r a d i u se q u a l t o A 8 , c u t t i n g t h e l o c u s o f b 1 i n b 2 . J o i n
a with b2. s is the true inclination of ,48 with the V.P.
F r c .1 0 - 3 9
Frc.10-40
2 0 0 E n g i n e e r i n gD r a w i n g
Draw the top view ab and mark the H.T. on it, 20 mm aDovexf.
W e h a v e s e e n t h a t t h e l i n e r e p r e s e n t i n gt h e t r u e l e n g t h o b t a i n e d
by
t h e . t r a p e z o i dm e t h o d , i n t e r s e c t st h
. e top viEw or the top"view-produced
a t t h e H . T .a t a n a n g l ee q u a lt o t h e t r u e i n c l i n a t i o no f t h e l i n e w i t h
the V.p
( i ) Hence, at the ends a and b, draw perpendiculars
to ab on its
o p p o s i t es i d e s ( a s o n e e n d i s b e l o w t h e H . p . a n d t h e o t h e r e n o
above it). Throughthe H.T.,draw a line makingangle 0 (equalto 40")
w i t h a b a n d c u t t i n g t h e p e r p e n d i c u l a ras t ; 1 ; d 8 1 , a s s h o w n .
Ar81 is. the true length of AB. aAl and bB1 are the distancesof
t h e e n d s A a n d B r e s p e c t i v e l yf r o m t h e H . p
(i i ) Project a and b to a, and b', making a, o1 equal
to aA.1 and b, o2
e q u a l t o b \ . a ' b ' i s t h e f r o n t v i e w o f A B . T h r o u g hv , t h e p o i n i
of intersection between ab and xy, draw a prolectJr cutting a,b,
at the VT. of the line.
b:
b,
Flc. 10-41
Ftc.'tQ-42
Problem 10.17. (fig. 10-42):A tine A8,90 mm long, is inctined
at 30. to
.
the H.P lts end A is't2 mm above the H.p and Z0 im in tront
of the V.p.
Its front view measures65 mm. Draw the top view of AB and
determine
its inclination with the V.p.
( i ) M a r k a a n d a ' t h e p r o j e c t i o n so f t h e
e n d , 4 . T h r o u g ha , , d r a w a l i n e
a ' b ' 9 0 m m l o n g a n d m a k i n ga n a n g l eo f 3 0 . w i t h -x y .
(ii) With a'as centre and radius equal
to 65 mm, oraw an arc
c u t t i n gt h e p a t h o f b , a t b 1 , .a , 6 1 , i s t h e f r o n t v i e w o f A g .
(iii) Project b' to b, so that a6 is parallel to xy.
ab is the length of
A8 in the top view.
(iv) With a as centre and radius equal to
ab, draw an arc cuttrng
the
. p r o j e c t o r. t h r o u g h b l a t b 1 . J o i n a w i t h b . , . a b 1 i s t h !
required top view.
D e t e r m i n eg a s d e s c r i b e di n p r o b l e m1 0 _ 1 4 .