EXPERIMENT B6

AIM: To draw the characteristic curve of a Zener Diode and to determine its reverse
breakdown voltage.
APPARATUS: p-n junction diode/ Zener diode apparatus, leads.
THEORY:
On application of reverse bias to a diode, depletion layer widens and the bias increases the
barrier potential. As a result of this, there is no flow of current in the diode. As the reverse bias
increases to a certain value, the applied electric field pulls electrons directly out of their bonds
and an increased current flow occurs. The effect is called Zener effect and the reverse voltage
applied is called Zener voltage or breakdown voltage. The reverse current at the Zener voltage
is called Zener current. At breakdown voltage, the current suddenly increases to a high value
(maintaining the voltage constant). That is why Zener diodes are used in voltage regulators.
Zener diodes with breakdown voltage 2.7 V to a few hundred volts are available.
DIAGRAM:

OBSERVATIONS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Range of voltmeter
Range of ammeter
Least count of ammeter
Least count of voltmeter
Zero error of ammeter
Zero error of voltmeter

=. Volt
= . mA
= mA
= . Volt
= .. mA
= .. volt

Table for breakdown voltage of Zener diode

Sr. No.
1
2
3

Voltmeter Reading (volt)

Ammeter Reading (mA)

.
.
.
.
(keep space in the table for large observation, say about 12)

GRAPH:
Plot a graph (in third quadrant) with voltage in the x-axis and current in the y-axis after
choosing a suitable scale. From the graph find the value of breakdown voltage, by extending
the portion of the curve which becomes vertical. The point where the extended line intersects xaxis is the breakdown voltage.
RESULT:
The breakdown voltage for the given diode is . Volt.
PRECAUTION:
1. Voltmeter and milliammeter of appropriate least counts and range should be selected.
2. The pointer should either be adjusted to real zero when no current is passing or zero
error of the instrument should be taken into account.
3. Potential difference across the diode must be increased gradually keeping an eye on the
ammeter so that current does not exceed specified limit.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The control for voltage selector may be loose, thereby giving inaccurate values.
2. The connections of the leads may have become loose during the experiment.
3. The selection of the voltage for the observation may not be done properly.

EXPERIMENT NO. B7
AIM: To draw I-V characteristic curve of a p-n junction in forward bias and reverse bias.
APPARATUS:
p-n junction diode characteristics apparatus, connecting wires
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
Characteristics of diode:
Behavior or nature of a diode when connected in an electrical circuit as depicted by studying
the variation of current when potential across it is varied. Graph plotted with current as
ordinate and potential applied across it ends as abscissa shows the characteristics of the
diode.
Forward biasing:
A p-n junction diode gets forward biased when its p side is connected to the positive terminal
of the supply voltage and n to the negative terminal. The forward characteristic of a typical
silicon diode is shown as the variation of
in the figure. Initially for voltages up to 0.4 V,
there is not much rise in current due to the opposition by barrier potential. Beyond this, the
current starts rising in a p-n junction.
Knee Voltage:
The forward voltage when the current starts rising, i.e., is termed as the knee voltage. It is
represented as . It is about 0.7 V for silicon. The resistance offered by a p-n diode in forward
biasing is much less than that in case of reverse biasing.
Reverse biasing of p-n junction:
A p-n junction is reverse biased when the p side of the junction is connected to the negative
terminal of supply voltage and n side terminal is connected to positive terminal of battery.
Reverse battery adds to the Barrier Potential and further opposes the flow of charge carriers.
There is hardly any flow of current. As the potential is further increases to high value, the
kinetic energy of electrons becomes large enough to break the covalent bonds to give more
3

electrons. The process continues and there is an avalanche of electron and high reverse
current.
OBSERVATIONS:
1. Maximum current or current rating = .. mA
2. Maximum potential or break down voltage = .. V
3. Range of the milliammeter= .. Ma
4. Least count of the milliammeter = .. mA
Zero error, if any, in the voltmeter and milliammeter should be adjusted to nil by using a screw
driver.
5. Range of microammeter = .. mA
6. Least count of mA scale = .. mA
In case the adjustment by screw driver is not possible, then record the zero errors also.
7. Range of the voltmeter= .. V
8. Least count of voltmeter= .. V
9. Zero error of miliammeter= .. mA
10. Zero error of the voltmeter= .. V
S.no.

1.
2.
3.
.
.
.
.
11.
12.

Variation of I with V
p-n forward biased
p-n reverse biased
Voltmeter
Ammeter Reading
Voltmeter
Ammeter Reading
Reading
If(mA)
Reading
If(A)
Vf(volt)
Vf(volt)
0.08
4
0.16
8
0.24
12
0.32
16
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0.72
.

GRAPH:
Using the above data for each set, plot the graph of the values of forward current (I f) against
the corresponding values of the forward bias (V f) and values of If vs Vf. it would be of the types
4

shown in the figure. The knee voltage in forward biasing and reverse breakdown voltage in
reverse biasing are easily conceivable.
RESULT:
1. The characteristic of p-n junction in forward biasing and reverse biasing are shown in
the graph.
2. The knee voltage Vk and reverse breakdown voltage and reverse current are V and
. mA
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Voltmeter and milliammeter of appropriate least counts and ranges should be selected.
2. The pointer should neither be adjusted to real zero when no current is passing or zero
error of the instrument should be taken into account.
3. The battery connections of p-n junction diode should be checked and in forward biasing
it should be ensured that p is connected to positive and n to the negative of the battery.
4. Never cross the limits specified by the manufacturer or the diode will get damaged.
5. The polarities of microammeter and voltmeter should be reversed such that their
positive terminals are connected to positive terminal of battery.
6. Once the reverse breakdown shown by sudden rise of reverse current is reached, the
reverse potential should not be increased further.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The graduation in voltmeter and ammeter may not be accurate.

EXPERIMENT NO. B8
AIM: To study the characteristics of a common emitter p-n-p transistor and to find the values
of current and voltage gains.
APPARATUS:
npn/pnp transistor circuit board containing micro-ammeter, mili-ammeter and voltmeter,
connecting wires.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
In most of the transistor circuits, out of the Common Base, Common Collector and Common
Emitter, the configuration generally used is common emitter. In such connections, the emitter
is common to both the input and the output. For ascertaining the common emitter
characteristics, the variables studied are:
(a)
(input characteristics)
(b)
.
(output characteristics)
(c)
.
(transfer characteristics)
Transistor is said to be a current device.
Input Characteristics:
Input characteristics show interdependence of the base current on the base potential for
fixed values of as shown in the figure.
The a.c. input resistance (ri) of the transistor in common emitter circuit is
ri =(
)vc=constant
ri is only a few 100 ohms.
6

Output Characteristics:
These characteristics show the the dependence of I c on VCE when IB value is fixed as shown in
figure and is generally operated beyond the sharp change of slope. The a.c. output resistance
(ro) of transistor in common emitter circuit is
ro=

IB = constant

The value of ro varies from a 1000 ohms to a few 10 kohms.

Transfer Characteristics:
These characteristics show the variation of Ic with IB keeping Vc value constant as shown in fig
and is almost a linear graph.
Direct Current Amplification -The ratio of collector current to the base current corresponding to a point P on the
transfer characteristics is termed as direct current gain .
Therefore,
Current gain-=
or,

Alternating Current Amplification -In transfer characteristics, a small change in base current
a large change
in collector current, then,
A.C. Current gain, =

at a given value of Vc produces

as shown in fig = ..

Voltage Gain -Corresponding to a small voltage change

in the emitter base (i.e., input),
if the change in the output voltage at the collector is
, then the ratio of
to
termed as voltage gain, i.e.,
Av =

(2)

is

But
=
Where ri is input resistance and ro is the output resistance of the transistor and
gain,
=

is the current

OBSERVATIONS:
Least count of the used:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Microammeter = .. A
Milliammeter = .. mA
Voltmeter VCE = .. V
Voltmeter VBE = .. V

Input Characteristics (IB vs. VB keeping VCE constant)

VCE = 4V
Sr. no

VB (V)

VCE = 6V
IB (A)

VB (V)

IB (A)

1
2
3
:
10
OutputCharacteristics (IC vs. VCE keeping IBE constant)
IBE = 40 A
Sr. No

VC (V)

IC (mA)

IBE = 60 A
VC (V)

IC (mA)

IBE = 80 A
VC (V)

IC (mA)

1
2
3
:
8
Transfer Characteristics (IC vs. IB keeping VCE constant)
VCE = 4V

VCE = 8V

IBE = 100 A
VC (V)

IC (mA)

Sr. no

IB (A)

IC (mA)

IB (A)

IC (mA)

1
2
:
10
GRAPH:
1. Plot the graphs of the values of IB as ordinates against the corresponding values of V B as
abscissa and label with the constant collector voltage V CE. On the same graph sheet, plot
another curve for a different VC value. These are input characteristics.
2. Similarly on other graph paper, plot the values of I C vs. VCE for different values keeping I B,
constant and label each curve with the constant I B value. These are Output
Characteristics.
3. Similarly on other graph paper, curves showing the variation of I C vs. IB-IC as ordinates
and IB as abscissa, and label each curve with VC value kept constant. These curves show
transfer characteristics.
CALCULATIONS:
1. From input characteristics (input resistance ri)
From the midpoint P on the straight (linear) portion of the graph, calculate the value of
(VB/IB) which gives the value of input resistance,
ri =

= ..

...(1)

2. From output characteristics (output resistance ro)

Take a point P on the output characteristic graph beyond the knee point. Calculate the
value of VC/IC by reading the values of V CE corresponding to B and A, and those of I C
corresponding to A and P. VC/IC gives the output resistance, ro of the transistor. Thus,
ro =

= ..

(2)

Take care that IC is in mA, convert it to A.

3. From transfer characteristics (current gain )
From a point A on approximately linear region on the graph, calculate ( IC/ IB) = (QR/PR)
for VC constant at -4 V. IC/ IB gives the value of current gain .
Thus current gain, =

= .. at IC = mA
9

(3)

Do the similar calculations, viz., (1), (2) and (3) for the second curve also in each of the
three characteristic graphs and record their values.
For voltage gain, AV =

Subsitute the value of , ro and ri from (3), (2) and (1) and compute the value of voltage gain
(AV).
RESULT:
1. Characteristics of the given transistor (p-n-p) are shown in the graphs.
2. Value of the current gain = . And
3. Value of the voltage gain AV is found to be = .
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Measuring instruments for the measurement of currents and voltages must be of
appropriate least counts and ranges.
2. Do not exceed the ratings for the currents provided in the manual for the transistor
used.
3. Connections should be done carefully keeping in mind the p-n-p or n-p-n transistor and
biasing should be done according to the transistor used.
4. Before switching the current on in the base or collector circuit, ensure that the resistors
R1 and R2 provide zero biasing.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The control for voltage selector may be loose, thereby giving inaccurate values.
2. The connections of the leads may have become loose during the experiment.
3. The selection of the voltage for the observation may not be done properly.

10