Friction Stir Welding

By: William A. Ward (100887952)

Date of Submission: April 1st, 2015
Course: MAAE3700

Abstract
The following pages of this paper outline the key elements of the solid state joining
process known as friction stir welding. It will cover the main physical and mechanical processes
involved in the manufacturing process, material characteristics that determine what materials
are applicable with the friction stir welding process, the effects the manufacturing process has
on the material structure and the material properties and well as how the overall quality of the
material is controlled during the FSW process. Finally the paper will discuss a few common
applications for joining via friction stir welding and the benefits it carries.
As stated above, friction stir welding is a solid state joining process. This means that
during the physical process application none of the material that is being fused is melted
(metals, plastics, etc). Friction stir welding joins materials through the use of a shoulder and
pin assembly that is inserted into the materials. The tool spins and creates heat. Once a
sufficient amount of time has elapsed the tool assembly beings to move down the weld line to
plastically deform and mix the material, creating one perfect weld between them.

Table of Contents
1.0

Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 3

2.0

FSW Process Breakdown ................................................................................................................... 4

3.0

FSW Material Characteristics and Material Application ................................................................... 6

4.0

Physical Properties and Metallurgy with FSW .................................................................................. 8

5.0

FSW and Commercial Product Applications ................................................................................... 15

6.0

Concluding Remarks........................................................................................................................ 16

Glossary ....................................................................................................................................................... 18
References .................................................................................................................................................. 19

L IST OF T ABLES
Table 1: Physical processing zones and Microstructure Evolution in FSW ........................................ 9

L IST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: FSW Process Illustration................................................................................................................. 4
Figure 2.1: FSW Common Joint Configuration .............................................................................................. 5
Figure 3: Material Movement During FSW ................................................................................................... 7
Figure 4: Thermal Heat Distribution Around Nugget Edge ........................................................................... 9
Figure 4.1:Temp/Strain Graph v. Time for FSW Phases .............................................................................. 10
Figure 4.2:Microstructure Evolution and Grain Formation ........................................................................ 11
Figure 4.3: Trailing Edge and Leading Edge Material Grain Depiction in FSW............................................ 14

1.0 Introduction
The science of fabrication and manufacturing, especially in the 21 st century covers a vast
range of categories and applications in the manufacturing industry. If manufacturing can be
described as the production of goods or merchandise for sale from the use of machines, tools,
chemical processing, and various forms of labour then it can be easily seen that a wide
spectrum of specialized processes would be required to produce the desired outcome for a
product, specialized piece of equipment, or materials intended for use in other manufacturing
settings.
The following pages of this paper will focus on the process of welding and joining
materials, commonly metals such as aluminium, steel, and other alloys. This focus is a
specialized form of welding known as friction stir welding (or FSW). In any application of
materials where items will be joined together it is critical that these joining methods produce
joints that are of a high strength and a high quality with a high degree of reliability.
Friction stir welding is separated from other welding procedures in that it involves the use
of a non-consumable rotating tool with a specially designed pin and shoulder that is inserted
into the abutting edges of sheets or plates to be joined and subsequently traversed along the
joint line *1+. The welding of the pieces occurs when the two adjoining surfaces reach a desired
temperature from the friction of the work piece and the forging pressure fuses the pieces and is
illustrated below in Fig. 1. The process was originally developed at The Welding Institute (TWI)
out of the United Kingdom in 1991 as a solid-state joining technique. Originally designed for
aluminium alloys it quickly showed a large adaptability towards other alloys and thus gathered

the attention of many industries and groups, though the largest interest came from the
aerospace industry at first [1].

Fig. 1.0 FSW process Illustration [2]

FSW is separated from most other welding techniques in that it does not create a weld
through the use of molten material. No consumable materials or gas is used like in MIG
welding (Metal Inert Gas) or TIG welding (Tungsten Inert Gas). FSW is also very cost efficient,
with considerably less energy consumption and is also very eco friendly producing no harmful
emissions or by-products from the joining process.

2.0 FSW Process Breakdown

Commonly joints can be found made of some sort of mechanical fasteners or by welding
processes. The joining method on work pieces carries a very large impact when it comes to the
reliability of the work piece. Improper joining can lead to all sorts of outcomes including total
part failure which is never desired.
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From the use of a rotating tool it could be thought that FSW is a very limited joining
method but that is a false assumption. The process is not limited to asymmetrical parts as in
traditional friction welding and various shapes and structures are able to be used with this
method; these can be fillet shapes, butt joints, lap joints, and so on. Joint configuration is not
really an issue with FSW and common joint configurations can be seen in Fig 2.1:

Fig 2.1 FSW Common Joint Configurations [1]

The quick pickup of friction stir welding can also be attributed to its ability to join what
were previously classified as nonweldable materials for common fusion welding. Two common
alloy examples that fall into this category are aluminium alloys in the 2XXX series and 7XXX
series. These metals are very high strength and would be useful if able to be properly welded.
[2].
In general, the main benefits of friction stir welding will fall under three categories:

1. Metallurgical benefits, such as low distortion, no loss of alloying elements, and

excellent mechanical properties in joint areas.
2. Environmental benefits, such as no consumable materials used, no harmful
emissions, and no shielding gas required.
3. Energy benefits, such as ability to weld different thickness, allowing reduction in
weights, lowering energy consumption and fuel costs.

3.0 FSW Material Characteristics and Material Application

The most ideal manufacturing processes are ones that work with a wide variety of
materials without having to undergo modification to the process. This allows for fast production
while saving cost from not having to have a specialized process for different materials. Friction
stir welding is accomplished from three distinct phases: plunge, traverse, and retract.
During the plunge phase the entire assembly is at a constant temperature (usually room
temperature) and then the rotating assembly is slowly lowered down into the surface of the
adjoining plates. As the assembly rotates and enters the piece the temperature rises from
friction. The tool remains in place gradually heating the material until it reaches the point of
plastic flow and the process can move to phase 2.
Phase 2 of FSW is the traverse stage. At this point in the process the material to be fused is
at the desired temperature for plastic flow and so the working tool is then traversed across the
assembly to physically stir and join the pieces.
The retraction phase occurs once the entire structure has undergone the joining process.
The tool is retracted from the work piece and the process is concluded.
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Between phases 1 and 2 it would be a good idea to understand how the material actually
flows while under the forces from the tool traverse. The frictional heat from the movement of
the assembly plasticizes the metal and draws it downward towards the pin. Metal is also
softened near the sides of the pin and is drawn slightly inwards. The movement of this metal is
then what mixes and causes the joining process [1]. Fig 3.0 illustrates this movement below:

Fig 3.0 Material Movement During FSW [1]

As far as the extent to which FSW can be used there are only two factors necessary to have
a material be compatible for this process; It must have the ability to generate heat, and the
material must have the ability to flow. The process is extremely configurable for different alloys
and materials so different plasticity temperatures are not an issue. Tool rotation speed can be
increased/decreased, tool traverse speed can be increased/decreased, tool shoulder diameter
can be changed, etc
The only real outstanding limitation with this process is metals with an extremely high
melting temperature, such as tungsten. Tungsten has a melting temperate of roughly 3400 C.

This presents a problem because the tool assembly would most likely fail while trying to
approach that temperature value as it would commonly be made out of a steel alloy.

4.0 Physical Properties and Metallurgy with FSW

With metalworking processes it is usually the temperature variation (along with
deformation) that is considered to be the key factor in changing the microstructure of the work
piece. With friction stir welding, the temperature and deformation are not seen applied to the
entire work piece and as such cause a microstructure change in a selected location only (along
the weld line). Consequently, material property is non-uniform, unlike in metalworking
processes where the property remains more or less similar throughout. [1]
The friction heat generated in FSW occurs in three primary places. These are the contact
points between the metals being joined, the contact between the pin and material, and
between the shoulder assembly and the material. A combination of heat of deformation and
heat transfer create a variation in material microstructure with these changes relying heavily on
the processing conditions of the material and are this subjected to change with different
variations in processing conditions. [1].The friction between metals is caused by the adhesion
between asperities on the contacting surfaces and the microscopic plastic deformation during
the relative motion of the two contacting surfaces. FSW process has these microscopic
deformations occurring almost solely at the work piece surface. These microscopic
deformations that occur have all their frictional energy converted completely into heat energy.
[1]. This results in an uneven heat distribution in the material around the weld section and can

be seen in the figure below:

Fig 4.0 Thermal Heat Distribution Around Nugget Edge [1]

So far it has been discussed that there are two main influences on materials undergoing
friction stir processing, the deformation of the material through the process steps and by the
thermal energy created. Normally with metal working processes these heat and strain inputs
affect material microstructure with recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth independently of
each other (hot working process or a cold working annealed process). Friction stir welding is
unique in this sense for the heat and strain inputs are done simultaneously. [1].

Table 1: Physical processing zones and Microstructure Evolution in FSW [1]

Fig 4.1 Temperature/Strain Graph v. Time for FSW phases [1]

Fig 4.1 and Table 1 above are excellent depictions of the different physical processes
that can occur during the friction stir process. As stated above, because FSW utilizes both strain
and thermal inputs simultaneously the types of recovery, recrystallization and grain growth that
occur are a combination of both cold and hot working. Based on the temperature/strain variations
with time, a friction stir process can be broadly classified into three zones (A to C). Where zones
A and C involve a temperature cycle while zone B involves a simultaneous combination of
temperate and stain [1]
From table there are 5 unique sections of microscopic change; Static recovery, static
recrystallization, dynamic recovery, and dynamic recrystallization, and grain growth. Each of
these physical processes cause various microstructure and material changes and are important
topics to cover.
The first is static recovery. In single phase metals that have undergone some form of
plastic deformation there is a change in microstructure property which is an increases in
dislocations in the material and in vacancy density. Once the metal is subjected to a high
temperature it will begin to undergo static recovery and later static recrystallization. The

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principal driving force for these microstructural changes is slip/climb type of dislocation
movements which causes dislocation to annihilate each other and create more complex three
dimensional dislocation structures [1]. Some of these dislocation structures and microstructure
changes are illustrated in figure XX below.

Figure 4.2 Microstructure Evolution and Grain Formation [1]

The greatest effects these microstructure changes have are when the dislocation structures merge
themselves into stable arrays and form what is known as sub-grain boundaries. These sub-grain
boundaries differ from the normal grain boundaries in their (1) internal structure, (2) surface
energy, and (3) orientation. Commonly known as low-angle boundaries (as compared to regular
grain boundaries designated high-angle) their movement under a driving pressure or force such
as those seen in most metal working processes strongly influence the recrystallization stages of
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the material [3]. Overall there are three important changes found from the recovery phases: (1)
there is internal strain energy relief from dislocation movements, (2) dislocation density
decreases, (3) some material properties revert back to their pre-worked values.
From the resulting sub-grain structure from static recovery the dislocations in the
deformed microstructure reorganize themselves in static recrystallization to form new sets of
strain-free grains. These grains are approximately equal dimension wise, have low dislocation
densities and show characteristics of the precold-worked materials. New grains in this process
form first as very small nuclei and grow until they completely consume the parent material,
processes that involve short-range diffusion [4]. During recrystallization the material regains
some of its former mechanical properties from before working, yielding a softer and more
ductile material.
The extent of recrystallization depends on factors of both processing time and
temperature. The extent of recrystallization increases with time. With temperature the
recrystallization behaviour of a metal alloy change and it is possible for a material to have many
different grain structures at various stages of the process. As with friction stir welding some
operations are carried out where both plastic deformation and heat are present at the same
time. These operations are commonly known as hot working. The benefits to heating a material
as it is being worked are that much larger deformations are possible. With regular plastic
deformation material ahead of the deformation process has a tendency to increase in strength
from localized strain hardening [4]. This is not the case with processes involving hot
deformation as the material remains relatively soft and ductile. It is important to note that two
factors that influence the recrystallization and recrystallization temperature of a material are
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the cold worked percent and the impurity content of the metal. Recrystallization temperature
lessens with an increase in the cold worked percentage and it rises as more impurities are
found in the metal.
The dynamic recovery phenomena occurs during the deformation process itself in
friction stir welding and results in a sub-grain structure typical of what is observed in the static
recovery stage. However, unlike in static recovery not much is known about the intervening
steps which lead to the sub-grain microstructure [1]. What is known is that in all cases there is a
relationship between stress-strain for dynamically recovered metals. There is an initial increase
in stress with strain followed by a plateau region where the stress remains independent of the
strain. It is once the system has reached this point of steady state stress that dynamic recovery
begins and sub-grain sizes change and grow.
The dynamic recrystallization process is one that works very well in combination with
friction stir welding. Dynamic recrystallization makes use of the continued application of work
on a material, specifically the continued application of strain. The strain introduces new
dislocations into the recrystallized grains forming sub-grains inhibiting their further growth.
With additional straining these sub-grains furnish fresh nucleation sites for general
recrystallization [1]. This creates a set of recrystallization processes known as discontinuous
dynamic recrystallization.
The final physical process change seen in the microstructure of materials in FSW is grain
growth. Once the recrystallization process is complete, the strain-free grains will continue to
grow depending on the temperature the material is at. Grain growth occurs by the migration of

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grain boundaries. Boundary motion is the movement and diffusion of atoms from one side of
the boundary between grains to another. Large grains grow at the expense of smaller grains
and this action reduces the total boundary area, resulting in a reduction in the total energy
stored in the material.
The most difficult area of microstructure change to analyze during FSW is in the zone of
the material containing the nugget; the part of the material that is plastically deformed and
mixed for the weld itself. The nugget represents a highly dynamic and turbulent zone marked
by complex material flow, presence of different stages of stresses (and cyclic forces), varying
strain and strain rates around the rotating and traversing tool They get modified due to
combined action of thermal and deformation field first and at later stages due to thermal field
alone. [1]

Fig 4.3 Trailing Edge & Leading Edge Material Grain Depiction in FSW [1]

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The above figure is a good schematic illustration of the grain evolution seen in the nugget
during FSW with microstructure evolution during various points in the process. (A) shows the
microstructure from the shear effects on the material, specifically in the layer deposited on the
trailing side of the tool. While nucleation and grain growth occur here the microstructure is
often never retained due to (B) and (C) from the process. From stage (B) the material is
influenced from a combination of shear stress and a thermal cycle. The microstructure
undergoes a series of repeated grain growth, dynamic recovery, and dynamic recrystallization.
From this point stage (C) comes into effect where by the tool has passed and the only
remaining effects on the material are residual thermal effects from the process. This is where
static recovery, static recrystallization, and grain growth occur. [1]. Ultimately for material
modification, in the nugget, the grain size can be easily influenced by the thermal cycle alone,
either by changing the processing temperature or by changing the cooling rate once the process
is complete. Thermal cycle is changed by either increasing or decreasing the tool traverse
speed, spin rate, and tool size.

5.0 FSW and Commercial Product Applications

As one of the more effective joining techniques in the manufacturing and fabrication
industry there are many commercial applications where the joining of parts is done through
friction stir welding.
Examples of commercialization of FSW include joining of front and back sections of the iMac
monitors, central tunnel assembly of Ford GT, long panels for body sections in Chinese high
speed trains, and even for NASAs Orion spacecraft. [1]
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A large area of use where friction stir welding can be seen is the automotive industry.
The use of different materials in a given engineering system is a norm not an exception. Thus,
to improve the fuel efficiency, the automobile industry is encouraged the use of a combination
of light metals like Al and Mg alloys. The increased use of light metal parts necessitates joining
methods with existing metal parts and structural members and often with dissimilar metals. [1].
Common automotive applications of friction stir welding include the galvanized steel
brackets for the trunk lid of the Mazda MX-5, friction stir spot welding for the hood and rear
doors of the Mazda RX-8, and the trunk lid of the Toyota Prius. [5]
The benefits of using friction stir welding for these operations were mentioned above
but are that they produce little to no waste, harmful emission (shielding gas), they remain
energy efficient and most of all are cost effective. Another benefit of this process, especially in
the automotive industry is the ability to fuse dissimilar metals to create one part with alloy
properties in different areas. I.E.: An impeller shaft could be made of carbon steel (because of
good machinability, toughness, and hardenability) which can be joined to the impeller made of
Iconel (due to its good high temperature properties and corrosion resistance). [1].

6.0 Concluding Remarks

Overall the friction stir welding process should be seen as a widely applicable process that
can produce quality products and welds while keeping the manufacturing cost low. It has the
ability to produce defect free welds while keeping most metallurgical properties in tact.

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It can be used for the joining of similar and dissimilar metals and is also very good for
bonding high strength aluminium alloys that prior to this method were deemed unweldable.
The friction stir welding process is easy to control with the main factors of the process that
effect the materials being the traverse speed, rotational speed, and process load. With proper
selection of operating parameters and good understanding of the thermal cycles involved in
friction stir welding one can achieve very high quality welds in a very short amount of
processing time.
FSW is a very viable process for many applications in the commercial industry and the
privatized sectors as well. Ranging from simple fabrication of joints and supports, to
applications in the automotive industry and the aerospace industry.

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Glossary
Solid State: Sate of matter in which materials are not fluid but retain their boundaries without support
Nugget: Zone of material moved by the rotation of the shoulder-pin assembly in FSW
Microstructure: The fine structure in metal alloys that must be examined at a microscopic level
Asperities: Uneven characteristics of a surface or surface edges. Ruggedness
Plastic Deformation: Permanent change in shape of a rigid body from the application of a force.
Dislocations: Change in the lattice structure of a crystalline structure from stress/strain applications
Mechanical Properties: Refers to properties that a material may hold; Brittleness, toughness, ductility,
etc
Grain Structures: Arrangement of grain boundaries and dislocation walls that help determine the
mechanical and material properties of alloys and plastics.
Steady State: The point where a physically process becomes unchanging, unvarying, or otherwise
remains constant.
Nucleation: The formation of a new thermodynamic phase or a new grain structure in a material.
Shielding Gas: Inert or semi-inert gases that are used in welding processes. (MIG or TIG welding) to
protect the weld area from oxygen and water vapour

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References
[1] Mishra, Rajiv S., and De, Partha Sarathi,Kumar, Nilesh,. Friction Stir Welding and Processing :
Science and Engineering /. Ed. Rajiv Sharan Mishra, Partha Sarathi De,Nilesh Kumar. Cham :
Springer, 2014, 2014. Book
[2] Yilbas, B. S., and Ahmet Z. Sahin . Friction Welding : Thermal and Metallurgical Characteristics /. Ed.
Ahmet Z. Sahin Bekir Sami Yilbas. Heidelberg : Springer, 2014, 2014. Book

[3] FJ Humphreys, M Hatherly (2004). Recrystallization and related annealing phenomena.

Elsevier Book
[4] Pires, J. Norberto, and Altino Bolmsj Loureiro Gunnar. Welding Robots Technology, System
Issues and Applications /. Ed. J. Norberto Pires,Altino Loureiro and Gunnar Bolmsj. London :
Springer, c2006, 2006. Book
[5] Thatcham. Automotive insight for Members /. Colthrop Way, Thatcham 2013, 2013. PDF

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