You are on page 1of 41

PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

I-20

TILLAGE EQUIPMENT

Tillage any physical soil manipulation which changes the structure of the soil,
kills weeds, and rearranges dead plant materials.

Objectives of tillage:
1.

To develop a desirable soil structure for a seedbed:


a.
b.
c.
d.

2.
3.

higher water infiltration rate.


decreased water surface runoff.
greater water holding capacity.
promote root penetration.

To control weeds, cut roots and bury green materials.


To incorporate manure and chemical fertilizer.

For wetland conditions:


4.
5.

To turn the soil into a soft puddle.


To form a hard layer which reduces water leaching.

Classification of tillage:
1. Primary tillage initial cutting, breaking and usually inversion of the soil.
Implements used are moldboard, disc and chisel plows and subsoilers
cutting the soil to a depth of 6 to 36. Often referred to as plowing.
2. Secondary tillage subsequent breaking, pulverization and leveling of the
soil making it ready for planting. Implements used are disc, spiketooth and spring-tooth harrows preparing the soil to a depth of 3 to
6. Often referred to as harrowing.
3. General-purpose tillage Combined primary and secondary tillage in one
operation. Implements used are the rotavators and floating tillers
cutting the soil to a depth of up to 6. Often referred to as rotavating.

Terms used in plowing (Figure 1):


1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Land unplowed soil.


Furrowslice soil cut, lifted, inverted and thrown to one side of the
plow bottom.
Furrow trench or canal left by the furrowslice.
Backfurrow raised ridged when two furrowslices overlap each other.
Deadfurrow trench left equal to two furrows when furrowslices are
thrown on opposite sides.
Furrow wall unbroken side of the furrow.

Agricultural Machinery and Mechanization

PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

I-21

Figure 1. Furrows made by different types of plows

Primary Tillage Equipment:


1. Moldboard plow one of the oldest and most important agricultural
equipment for land preparation. It cuts the soil to a depth of 6 to 18
.

Basic parts of moldboard plow bottom (Figure 2):


a.
b.
c.

Share provides the cutting edge of the plow bottom.


Moldboard receives the furrowslice from the share; lifts,
inverts and throws it to one side of the plow bottom.
Landside counteracts the side pressure exerted by the
furrowslice on the plow bottom.

Figure 2. Moldboard plow bottom


Clearances of the moldboard plow bottom:
a.

Vertical clearance bend downward of the point of the


share to make the plow penetrate the soil to the proper
depth.

b.

Horizontal clearance bend outward or sideward of the


point of the share towards the unplowed land to make
the plow cut the proper width.

Agricultural Machinery and Mechanization

PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

I-22

Size of the moldboard plow bottom perpendicular distance


between the wing and the point of the share.
This also
expresses the width of cut of the plow bottom.

2. Disc plow it was developed in an effort to reduce friction in the sliding


moldboard plow bottom by using a rotating disc plow bottom.

Basic parts of disc plow bottom (Figure 3):


a.
b.

c.

Disc round and concave disc of heat-hardened steel with


sharpened edges to cut the soil. It is rotated by the soil
during soil cutting.
Scraper curved plate placed on the concave side of the
disc to scrape off the soil and throw it on one side of the
plow bottom.
Rear furrow wheel rear wheel that presses against the
furrow wall to resist the side pressure exerted by the soil
against the plow.

Figure 3. Three-bottom Disc Plow (Deere & Co.)

Angles of the disc plow:


a.

Tilt angle angle the disc makes with the vertical to make
the disc penetrate the soil to the proper depth (15 25
degrees).

b.

Disc angle angle the disc makes with the direction of


travel to make the disc cut the proper width and allow
the disc to rotate (42 45 degrees).

Size of the disc plow bottom expressed in terms of diameter of


the disc. The width of cut, however, is influenced by disc
diameter, depth of cut and disc angle.

3. Draft of Plows determined by the resistance of the soil to tillage


operation, the speed of plowing, sharpness of the cutting edge and
over-all adjustment of the plow.
Agricultural Machinery and Mechanization

PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

Table 1.

I-23

Resistance of the soil is expressed as specific draft. This is the


force required to cut a unit cross-sectional area of soil as shown
in Table 1. The specific draft is multiplied by the width and
depth of cut to get the draft.

The increase in draft due to speed as shown in Table 2 is applied to


that part of the total required for turning and pulverizing the
furrow slice.

Specific draft of different soils


SOIL TYPE

SPECIFIC DRAFT, SD
Lbs/in2
Kg/cm2
3
0.21
3-6
0.21-0.42
5-7
0.35-0.49
6-8
0.42-0.56
10-11
0.70-0.77
12-15
0.85-1.06
16-18
1.13-1.27
18-20
1.27-1.41

Sandy soil
Sandy loam
Silty loam
Clay loam
Heavy clay
Virgin soil, clay
Gumbo, moist
Dry adobe
Table 2.

Increase in draft due to speed


SPEED
MPH
1
2
3
4
5
6

DRAFT, %
KPH
1.6
3.2
4.8
6.4
8.0
9.6

Sample Problem 1:

100
114
128
142
156
170

Determine the hectares plowed per hour when a tractor


is operating at 6.4 kph and is pulling four 36-cm
moldboard bottoms at a depth of 20 cm. How many
hectares can be plowed in 10 hours if field efficiency is
78 percent? If the soil is clay loam, what is the draft
required to work the soil? Draft hp requirement? Tractor
hp requirement?

Solution:
a.

Hectares plowed in 10 hours:

SWEff
10

where:

C = Field Capacity, Ha/hr


S = Speed, Kph
W = Width of cut, m
Ef = Field Efficiency, decimal

(6.4 kph )(4 X 0.36 m)(0.78) (10 h)


7.2 ha
10

Agricultural Machinery and Mechanization

PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

I-24

b. Draft requirement based on soil type:

Ds SpecificDraftxWxd

where:
Ds = Draft, kg
Specific Draft = Kg/cm2 from Table
1

W = width of cut, cm
D = depth of cut, cm

Ds = (0.49 Kg/cm2)(4x36 cm)(20 cm) = 1,411 Kg


c. Adjusted draft requirement due to speed of plowing (from Table 2):
Da = 1,411 kgx1.42 = 2,004 Kg
d. Draft horsepower requirement:

Hp (draft )

Da xS
274

where:

Da = Adjusted Draft, Kg
S = Speed, Kph

Hp (draft )

( 2,004 Kg)(6.4 Kph)


274

46.8 hp

e. Tractor Horsepower:

Hp (tractor )
Sample Problem 2:

46.8 hp
58.5 hp
0.8

A four-wheel tractor with 3 36 cm moldboard plow is to


operate on silty loam soil at a depth of 25 cm. The
maximum drafts of the tractor at different working
speeds are given below.
Determine the tractor
horsepower.

GEAR SETTING
1L
2L
3L
4L
1H

SPEED (KPH)
2.4
4.0
5.6
7.2
9.6

MAX. DRAFT (KG)


4,000
3,100
2,200
1,300
1,000

Solution:
a.

Draft =- Sp.D xW x d = 0.42 kg/cm2 x (3 x 36 cm) x 25 cm


= 1,134 Kg

b.

From the table above:


From Table 2:
Therefore:
Not okay

at 1,300 Kg Max Draft 7.2 Kph


at 7.2 Kph 149 % Increase in Draft
Da = 1,134 Kg x 1.49 = 1,690 kg

From the table above:


Agricultural Machinery and Mechanization

at 2,200 Kg Max Draft 5.6 Kph

PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials


From Table 2:
Therefore:
Okay

I-25

at 5.6 Kph 135 % Increase in Draft


Da = 1,134 Kg x 1.35 = 1,531 Kg

Da xS 1,531 Kg x 5.6 Kph

31.3 hp
274
274

c.

Hp (draft )

d.

Hp (tractor )

31.3 hp
39 hp
0.8

Secondary Tillage Equipment:


1.

Disc harrow consists of two or more sets of disc gangs cutting the soil
to a depth of 3 to 6. A disc gang is made up of a number of discs
mounted on a common axle.

Basic parts of disc harrow:


a.
b.
c.
d.

Discs round and concave discs


Disc gang an assembly of discs all rotating together on
a common shaft (3 -13 discs/gang at 6 to 12 spacing
per disc).
Bumpers a washer on one of the common shaft to
absorb the end thrust of the gang.
Bearings two to three bearings per gang.

Types of disc harrows (Figure 4):


a. Single-action disc harrow consists of two gangs of discs
placed end-to-end which throws the soil in opposite
directions.
b. Double-action disc harrow consists of four gangs of discs.
Two gangs in front as in single action and two gangs at
the rear.
c. Offset disc harrow consists of two gangs of disc. One
gang located behind the other and operated in an offset
position in relation to the tractor.

Figure 4. Types of disc harrows

Agricultural Machinery and Mechanization

PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials


2.

I-26

Spike-tooth harrow consists of long rigid spikes clamped or welded to


cross bars on a staggered arrangement to attain maximum stirring and
raking of the soil. The cross bars can be rotated to change the angle of
the teeth (Figure 5).

Figure 5. Spike-tooth harrow with folding sections


3.

Spring-tooth harrow consists of long, flat and curved teeth made from
spring steel. The curved teeth are welded to cross bars on a staggered
arrangement. The spring characteristic allows the teeth to flex and
slide over obstructions (Figure 6).

Agricultural Machinery and Mechanization

PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials


Figure 6.

I-27

Tractor-mounted spring-tooth harrow

General-purpose tillage equipment:


1. Rotavators constructed with a set of cutting knives or tines mounted on a
horizontal power-driven shaft rotating at high speed. The knives slice
thin sections of the soil and pulverize them by centrifugal force
(Figure 7).

Rotavators are mounted on 2-wheel or 4-wheel tractors and driven


by the tractor PTO.
Rotavators are suited for both dry and wet land operations.

Figure 7.

4-Wheel tractor-mounted rotavator

2. Floating power tillers specially designed power tillers for wet land
operation fitted with front-mounted cutting blades on a cagewheel
(Figure 8).

Figure 8. Floating tiller

Agricultural Machinery and Mechanization

PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

I-28

PLANTING EQUIPMENT

A mechanical device used to place seeds or plants in the soil for crop production.

Classification of planting equipment:


1. Row-crop planters planters designed to plant seeds or plants in rows far
enough apart to permit the subsequent entry of machinery.
a. Row-crop drill planter designed to plant seeds continuously in
rows with row spacing greater than 36 cm.
b. Hill-drop planter designed to plant one or more seeds or plants in
rows and in hills.
2. Solid planters planters designed to plant seeds or plants in patterns
which do not allow subsequent entry of machinery.
a. Solid drill planter designed to plant seeds continuously in rows
with row spacing less than 36 cm.
b. Broadcaster designed to scatter the seeds uniformly over the
surface of the field without definite rows and hills. Seeds are
covered by harrowing.

Mechanical functions of a planter:


1.
2.
3.
4.

Make a furrow
Meter the seeds
Deposit the seeds
Cover the seeds

PART (Figure 1)
-

Figure 1. Typical Planter


Agricultural Machinery and Mechanization

Furrow opener
Metering device
Seed tube
Furrow closer

PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

Different types of furrow openers (Figure 2)

Figure 2. Furrow openers

Different types of metering devices (Figures 3 to 7)

Figure 3. Adjustable orifice with agitator

Agricultural Machinery and Mechanization

I-29

PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

Figure 4

Rotating orifice

Figure 5. Vertical roller

Agricultural Machinery and Mechanization

I-30

PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

Figure 6. Fluted roller

Figure 7. Horizontal seed plate

Different types of seed tubes (Figure 8)

Figure 8. Seed tubes

Different types of furrow closers and press wheels (Figures 9 and 10)

Agricultural Machinery and Mechanization

I-31

PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

I-32

Figure 9. Furrow closers

Figure 10.Press wheels

Calibration of planters a procedure of determining the performance of a planter


under the different seeding rates and row and hill spacings it is
designed to operate.

Planters are calibrated when newly acquired and at regular intervals.

Agricultural Machinery and Mechanization

PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

I-33

Sample Problem 1:
The fertility of a field is such that maximum corn yields are obtained with a
population of 54,000 plants per hectare. The rows are 0.75 m apart and an
average emergence of 85 percent is expected. How many seeds per hill
should be planted if the hills are 0.5 m apart?
Given:

Plant population = 54,000 plants/ha


Row spacing = 0.75 m
Ave. emergence = 85 %
Hill spacing = 0.5 m

Required:
No. of seeds per hill
Solution:
A = area per hill = RS X HS = 0.75 m X 0.5 m = 0.375 m 2/hill
10,000 m 2 /ha
= 26,667 hills/ha
0.375 m 2 /hill

NH = No. of hills/ha =

NS = No. of seeds/ha =

54,000 plants/ha
= 63,529 seeds/ha
0.85

NS/H = No. of seeds/hill =

63,529 seeds/ha
= 2.38 seeds/hill
26,667 hills/ha
= 2 to 3 seeds/hill

Sample Problem 2:
Using the results of the calibration test of the 9 X 7 grain drill, determine the
seeding rate adjustment to use if it is desired to plant at the rate of 100 kg per
hectare.
Given:

Required:

Ground wheel (GW) diameter = 1.22 m


Width = 9 rows X 7 inches per row
No. of GW revolutions = 10
Adjustment
Discharge/10 rev (gm)
0
0

140

460

740
Full
1100
a.
b.

Calibration curve
Adjustment at 100 kg/ha

Solution:
Agricultural Machinery and Mechanization

PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

I-34

W = Width = 9 rows X 7 inches/row X 0.0254 m/inch = 1.6 m


S10 = Distance = X D X 10 = 3.14 X 1.22 m X 10 = 38.31 m
A10 = Area = W X S10 = 1.6 m X 38.31 m = 61.32 m2
Discharge at (using ratio and proportion):
setting:

X1/4 = 0.14 kg X

10,000 m 2 /ha
= 23 kg/ha
61.32 m 2

setting:

X1/2 = 0.46 kg X

10,000 m 2 /ha
= 75 kg/ha
61.32 m 2

setting:

X3/4 = 0.74 kg X

10,000 m 2 /ha
= 120 kg/ha
61.32 m 2

Full setting:

XF = 1.1 kg X

10,000 m 2 /ha
= 179 kg/ha
61.32 m 2

Calibration Curve

Sample Problem 3:
Using the specifications of the transmission system of the metering device of
the two-row corn planter, determine the hill spacings. If the row spacing is
0.75 m, average seeds per hill is two and emergence is 90 percent, what are
the expected plant populations per hectare?
Given:

Row spacing = 0.75 m


Seeds per hill = 2

Agricultural Machinery and Mechanization

PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

I-35

Emergence = 90 percent
No. of rows = 2
No. of cells of seed plate (SP) = 20
Ground wheel diameter (GW) = 0.60 m
No. of teeth
Speed ratio (GW/SP)
T=6
6/1
T=8
5/1
T = 10
4/1
T = 12
3/1
Required:
a.
b.

Hill spacings
Expected plant populations

Solution:
C = Circumference of GW = X D = 3.14 X 0.6 m = 1.88 m
Hill spacing (HS) and expected plant population (EPP) for:
T1:

HS1 =

C X SR
1.88 m X 6
=
= 0.56 m
SP
20

A1 = Area/hill = RS X HS = 0.75 m X 0.56 m = 0.42 m2/hill


2
EPP1 = 10,000 m / ha X Seeds/hill X Emergence
Area/hill
=

T2:

HS2 =

10,000 m 2 /ha X 2 seeds/hill X 0.90


= 42,857 plts/ha
0.42 m 2 /hill

1.88 m X 5
= 0.47 m
20

A2 = 0.75 m X 0.47 m = 0.35 m2/hill


EPP2 =

T3:

HS3 =

10,000 m 2 /ha X 2 seeds/hill X 0.90


= 51,428 plts/ha
0.35 m 2 /hill

1.88 m X 4
= 0.38 m
20

A3 = 0.75 m X 0.38 m = 0.28 m2/hill


10,000 m 2 /ha X 2 seeds/hill X 0.90
EPP3 =
= 64,286 plts/ha
0.28 m 2 /hill
T4:

HS4 =

1.88 m X 3
= 0.28 m
20

A4 = 0.75 m X 0.28 m = 0.21 m2/hill

Agricultural Machinery and Mechanization

PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

EPP4 =

I-36

10,000 m 2 /ha X 2 seeds/hill X 0.90


= 85,714 plts/ha
0.21 m 2 /hill

CROP PROTECTION EQUIPMENT

Crop protection process of providing plants the conditions that will make them
free of weeds, pests and diseases.
the growing stage between planting and flowering constitutes the longest
stay in the field and the most vulnerable period of the crop.
weeds compete with
uncontrolled.

the

available

moisture

and

nutrients

if

left

pests and diseases multiply above the economic threshold levels if left
uncontrolled.

Methods of pest control:


1. Cultural control modification of cultural practices such as time of planting
and crop rotation.
2. Ecological control change in the environment of the crop and the pest
which favors the survival of the crop such as flooding to kill insects and
weeds.
3. Biological control introduction of certain insects which feed on pests,
application of chemosterilants to render the male sterile, or planting of
certain plants whose odor drive pests away.
4. Physiological control breeding and planting of pest resistant varieties.
5. Chemical control application of chemicals to control weeds, pests and
diseases.
6. Flame control use of flame for the selective burning of weeds in crops
whose stem is not injured by a short exposure to intense heat.

7. Mechanical control use of tools, implements and machines to reduce or


eliminate weeds and insects such as in land preparation, cultivation
and weeding.
MECHANICAL CONTROL:

Yield losses due to uncontrolled weeds alone are significantly high (Table 1).

Table 1.

Yield losses due to uncontrolled weeds


Crop

Lowland rice
Upland rice
Corn

Percent Yield Losses


Average
69
79
50

Agricultural Machinery and Mechanization

Range
37 97
41 100
18 80

PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

I-37

Soybean
69
55 100
Peanut
65
35 94
Labor for weeding is highest among the different operations for lowland rice
production (Table 2)
Table 2.

Manual labor use by operation for lowland rice

Operation
Seedling preparation
Irrigation
Land preparation (carabao)
Transplanting (hand transplanting)
Fertilizer application (broadcasting)
Weeding (push-type weeder)
Rodent control
Chemical application (spraying)
Harvesting
Threshing
Bagging and hauling
Drying
Milling
TOTAL:

Man-days/ha
7.33
6.24
27.98
15.52
2.76
75.0 (38%)
1.84
4.5
27.89
11.40
5.07
8.95
3.94
198.42

Classification of weeders:
A.
By design of soil working part:
1. Blade type rectangular, triangular and trapezoidal shapes with
cutting edges sharpened and hardened for soil cutting and
weed uprooting.
2. Tine type straight or curved, round or square cross-section steel
rods sharply pointed and hardened at the soil working end.
3. Rotary type curved spikes or paddles attached radially to a
common axle which rotate when pushed forward to uproot and
bury weeds.
B.

By power source:
1. Manual weeders hand-held or push-type weeders for upland or
lowland.
a) Hand-held weeders utilize the blade and tine type of soil
working parts with short (< 0.5 m), medium (< 1 m) and
long (> 1 m) handles.
b) Push-type weeders utilize any of the three types of soil
working parts for upland (wheel hoe) and lowland (rotary
weeder) weeding.
2. Animal-drawn weeders soil working parts are mounted on a frame
or tool bar pulled by an animal for upland weeding.
3. Tractor-drawn weeders soil working parts are mounted on a frame
or tool bar pulled by a two-wheel or four-wheel tractor for
upland weeding.

Agricultural Machinery and Mechanization

PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

I-38

4. Power weeders rotary type weeder driven by its own engine for
lowland weeding.

Capacity and performance of weeders (Table 3)

Table 3.

Capacity and performance of some weeders tested in the Philippines


Name of weeder

Lowland weeders (rice):


Spin tiller
Single-row rotary
Single-row rotary and paddle
Double-row rotary
Power weeder
Upland weeders (corn):
Light blade hoe
Blade hoe
V-blade
Wheel hoe

Hours per Ha

Weeding Index
(%)

Plant Damage
(%)

63
70
80
45
99

93
91
88
88
78

3
5.4
5.5
5.6
4.3

120
114
180
110

86
86
81
94

6.2
6.0
12.3
11.5

Types of hand held weeders (Figure 1)

Figure 1. Hand held weeders


Types of push-type weeders (Figures 2 and 3)

Agricultural Machinery and Mechanization

PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

I-39

Figure 2. Wheel hoe (upland)

Figure 3. Rotary weeder (lowland)


CHEMICAL CONTROL:

Most popular way of applying chemicals in the Philippines is with the use of
knapsack sprayers.

Sprayers are used primarily for the application of herbicides, insecticides,


fungicides and plant nutrients.

Functions of a sprayer:
1. Break the liquid into droplets of effective size
2. Distribute the spray solution uniformly
3. Regulate the spraying rate

Basic components:
1. Chemical supply
2. Energy source
3. Atomizer
4. Control device
5. Conductors
lance

:
:
:
:

Agricultural Machinery and Mechanization

Tank
Pump and pressure chamber
Nozzles
Cut-off valve
:
Flexible hose and rigid

PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

I-40

Principles of creating hydraulic energy:


1. Pressure is created by adding liquid to a chamber with fixed volume of air
(Ex. Knapsack sprayer) (Figure 4)
2. Pressure is created by adding air to a container with a fixed volume of
liquid (Ex. Compression sprayer)(Figure 5)

Figure 4. Knapsack sprayer


Compression sprayer

Figure 5.

Operation of knapsack and compression sprayers (Figures 6 and 7)

Agricultural Machinery and Mechanization

PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

I-41

Figure 6. Operation of knapsack sprayer

Figure 7. Operation of compression sprayer

Nozzles:
Performance is dependent on hydraulic energy as follows:
1.
2.
3.

The higher the pressure, the smaller the droplets


The higher the pressure, the higher the flow rate
The higher the pressure, the wider the spray angle

Types of nozzles (Figures 8 and 9):


1. Cone type produces a cone shaped pattern of spray which could
be hollow or solid cone.
Agricultural Machinery and Mechanization

PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

I-42

Best suited for spraying crops because it produces a spray


in which droplets approach the leaves from several
angles.
The pressure is high and then orifice is small.

2. Fan type produces a flat pattern.

Best suited for spraying flat surfaces as in the application


of herbicides.
The pressure is low and the orifice is large.

Figure 8. Cone nozzle pattern

Figure 9. Fan nozzle pattern

Sprayer calibration:
For a given sprayer, the following factors should be measured:
1.
2.
3.

Nozzle discharge at different pumping rates (L/min)


Effective working width or swath (m)
Walking speed (m/min)

Compute for the application rate (L/ha)

Sample problem 1:

Agricultural Machinery and Mechanization

PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

I-43

Using the results of the calibration test of a knapsack sprayer, determine the
application rate in l/ha. Effective width or swath is 1.5 m, average walking
speed is 20 m/min, and discharge rate is 1.5 l/min.
Given:

Effective width or swath = W = 1.5 m


Walking speed = S = 20 m/min
Discharge rate = q = 1.5 l/min

Required:
Solution:

Application rate (l/ha)

A = area per minute = W X S = 1.5 m X 20 m/min = 30 m2/min


T = time per hectare =

10,000 m 2 / ha
= 333.33 min/ha
30 m 2 /min

Q = application rate = q X T = 1.5 l/min X 333.33 min/ha = 500 l/min

Sample problem 2:
The application rate of a certain insecticide is recommended at 4 l/ha. Using
the results of the calibration test of a 16-liter knapsack sprayer, determine the
amount of insecticide to mix with water per loading of the sprayer. Discharge
rate of the sprayer is 1.2 l/min, effective width or swath is 1.5 m, and average
walking speed is 20 m/min.
Given:

Insecticide application rate = 4 l/ha


Sprayer capacity = 16 liters
Discharge rate = 1.2 l/min
Swath = W = 1.5 m
Walking speed = S = 20 m/min

Required:
Solution:

Amount of insecticide to mix with water per sprayer loading


T1 = Time per load =

a.

16 l/load
1.2 l/min

= 13.33

min/load
b.

c.

proportion):
=

d.

A1 = Area per load = W X S X T1


= 1.5 m X 20 m/min X 13.33 min/load
= 400 m2/load
X1 = Amount of insecticide per load (ratio and

4 l/ha
X 400 m 2 /load = 0.16 l/load
2
10,000 m /ha
EXTRA:

NL = Number of loadings =

10,000 m 2 /ha
= 25 loads/ha
400 m 2 /load

VT = Total volume = 25 loads/ha X 16 l/load = 400 l/ha


Agricultural Machinery and Mechanization

PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

I-44

WATER PUMPING EQUIPMENT

Mechanical device used for transferring fluids from one place to another

The source of fluid is usually of lower elevation than the point of delivery

Source of water are usually wells, rivers, lakes, reservoirs and canals

Pumps are essential for good health and sustained agricultural production

Pumps are either hand-operated for domestic water supply or power-operated for
both domestic and irrigation purposes.

Pump classification (Figure 1):


A. Positive Displacement Pump discharges the same volume of water
regardless of the head against which they operate.
1.

Reciprocating Pump having to-and-fro motion

Basic parts:

Piston or plunger
Inlet or admission valve
Outlet or discharge valve

Types of reciprocating pumps:


a. Lift Pump single-acting pump consisting of an open
cylinder, piston with built-in bucket valve. It lifts
the water to flow out from a spout (Figure 2).
b. Force Pump single-acting or double-acting pump
consisting of a plunger, inlet valve, and outlet
valve. It forces the water above atmospheric
pressure as distinguished from the lift pump
(Figure 3).

B. Variable Displacement Pump inverse relationship between discharge rate


and pressure head. High pressure head will result in low discharge rate
and vice versa.
1.
Centrifugal pump most commonly used type for domestic and
irrigation purposes. Depends on centrifugal force for their
operation. Consists of an impeller inside an involute casing
(Figure 4).
2.

Propeller Pump used for low pressure head and high


discharge. Extensively used for drainage pumping and the
transfer of water from canals and rivers to adjacent fields
(Figure 5).

Agricultural Machinery and Mechanization

PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

Agricultural Machinery and Mechanization

I-45

PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

Figure 2. Lift pump

Figure 4.

I-46

Figure 3. Force pump

Centrifugal pump

Figure 5. Propeller pump

Sizing of Pumps and Prime Movers:


A criterion that is well accepted in computing the pump capacity is to base
it on the highest daily water requirement of the crop.
According to the National Irrigation Administration (NIA), the water
requirement for rice production is 10 mm/day.
Table 1 shows the combination of pump capacity, area to be irrigated and
time of irrigation that can supply the daily water requirement for rice
production.

Table 1.
Operating
Hrs/day
8
12
16
20
24

Area (ha) that can be irrigated at different capacities (gpm) and


pumping time (hrs/day)
Hectare for different gpm
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0.33
0.50
0.67
0.83
1.00

0.50
0.75
1.00
1.25
1.50

0.67
1.00
1.33
1.67
2.00

0.85
1.25
1.67
2.08
2.50

Agricultural Machinery and Mechanization

1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00

1.17
1.75
2.33
2.91
3.50

1.33
2.00
2.67
3.33
4.00

1.50
2.25
3.00
3.75
4.50

1.67
2.50
3.33
4.17
5.00

PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

Table 2.

I-47

The size of the pump can be determined by the pump output using
Table 2.
Sizes and outputs of centrifugal pumps

Pump Size, inches


(inlet and outlet diameter)
1.25
1.50
2
2.50
3
4

Pump output
(gpm)
20 30
30 50
50 70
70 100
100 200
200 - 300

The horsepower needed to drive the pump is computed as follows:


Hp =

QXH
3960 X Eff s

Where:
Q = pump output, gpm
H = total head, ft.
Effs = system efficiency = Effp X Efft X Effpm
Effp = pump efficiency
Efft = transmission efficiency
Effpm = prime mover efficiency
The total head H may be estimated by adding the friction and velocity head
losses to the total static lift.
Pump efficiency varies with the size of the pump with bigger ones being
more efficient (Table 3).
Table 3. Normal efficiencies of centrifugal pumps
Pump Output (gpm)
Efficiency (%)
20
32
30
37
40
40
60
45
100
50
150
55
Table 4 gives the transmission efficiencies of four types of transmission
systems
Table 4.

Normal efficiencies of transmission systems


Type of Transmission
Direct
Gear
V-belt
Flatbelt

Efficiency (%)
100
98
95
90

For continuous operation, electric motors and engines are expected to


deliver only a certain percentage of their rated power as shown in
Table 5.
Agricultural Machinery and Mechanization

PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials


Table 5.

I-48

Continuous delivery rating of power units


Type of Power Unit
Electric Motor
< 1 hp
> 1 hp
Internal Combustion Engine
Air-cooled gasoline
Air-cooled diesel
Water-cooled diesel

Delivery Rating
65 72
72 90
60
70
80

The power unit for driving pumps may be electric motors or engines.
Electric motors provide an economical installation when an adequate and
reliable source of electric power is available at reasonable cost.
Engine should be used when the source of electric power is not reliable or
too costly.
When an engine is considered, the decision is to use either a gasoline
engine or a diesel engine.

Where the annual use is more then 800 hours, the high cost of the diesel
engine may be overcomed.
Specific Yield of well the discharge rate of a well per foot drawdown.
Example:
Specific yield = 3 gpm/ft drawdown)
Discharge rate of pump = 30 gpm
Total drawdown = 10 ft
Total drawdown is added to the total head for the computation of power to
drive the pump.

Sample Problem:
Determine the size of the centrifugal pump and air-cooled diesel engine to use
for a 1.5-ha field planted to lowland rice. The field is to be irrigated for 12
hours every 2 days. Source of water is a well with the following data:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

Static water level = 8 ft


Specific yield = 12 gpm/ft DD
Discharge head = 0 ft
Friction and velocity head = 2 ft
Power transmission uses v-belt

Given:
Area = 1.5 ha
Operating time = 12 hr/2 days
Static suction lift = 8 ft
Specific yield = 12 gpm/ft DD
Friction/velocity head = 2 ft
Discharge head = 0 ft
Type of transmission = v-belt
Agricultural Machinery and Mechanization

PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

I-49

Required:
a.
b.

Size of centrifugal pump


Size of diesel engine

Solution:
a. Size of centrifugal pump:
From Table 1, at 12 hr/day and 1.5 ha, the required pump capacity is 60
gpm.
Since pumping operation is to be carried out every two days, then the
pump capacity should be doubled to 120 gpm.
From Table 2, at 120 gpm, the required pump size is 3X3 centrifugal
pump.
b. Size of diesel engine:

QXH
Hp = 3960 X Eff X Eff X Eff
p
pm
t
Q = pump discharge = 120 gpm
H = Total head = static head + drawdown + friction/velocity head +
discharge head
= 8 ft +

120 gpm
+ 2 ft + 0 ft = 20 ft
12 gpm/ft

From Table 3 and interpolating, Effp = 0.52


From Table 4, Efft = 0.95
From Table 5, Effpm = 0.70
Therefore:
Hp = =

120 gpm X 20 ft
1.75 hp
3690 X 0.52 X 0.95 X 0.70

Since power units are available in standard sizes only, select the next
higher standard size of air cooled diesel engine.

HARVESTING AND THRESHING


EQUIPMENT

Harvesting process of gathering the useful portion of the crop from the field
Threshing process of separating the grains from the straw. Additionally, it
may include cleaning the grains.
Systems of harvesting and threshing of rice:

1.

Manual harvesting

Agricultural Machinery and Mechanization

Manual threshing

PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials


Use of hand tools:
scythe, yatab
80 160 man-hrs/ha
Figure 1

2.

3.

4.

5.

I-50

Use of flails or sticks

Hampasan

Foot threshing

Animal treading

140 220 man-hrs/ha

Figure 1

Field losses = 5 16%


Manual harvesting
Mechanized threshing
Same as above

Use of pedal thresher at 100


man-hrs/ha

Power thresher at 12 manhrs/ha

Field losses = 3 10 %
Mechanical harvesting
Mechanical threshing
Use
of
manually-operated

Same as above
harvester at 50 manhrs/ha
Power harvester at 5 manhrs/ha

Field losses = 3 6 %
Combine harvesting both operations done by a single machine
combine

3 21 man-hrs/ha

Field losses 1.5 6 %


Stripping harvesting removal of grains from panicle without
cutting the straw - stripper

3 21 man-hrs/ha

Field losses = 2 6 %
sickle,

Operations done by a combine and stripper:


COMBINE
1. Separating the rows
2. Cutting the standing crop
3. Conveying the cut materials into the
threshing section
4. Threshing
5. Shaking the straw to separate loose
grains from the straw
6. Cleaning the grains of chaff
7. Conveying the grains to the tank or
sack

1.
2.
3.
4.

Agricultural Machinery and Mechanization

STRIPPER
Separating the rows
Stripping
Cleaning the grains
Conveying the grains to the tank
or sacks

PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

I-51

Figure 1. Traditional harvesting, threshing and cleaning

Factors affecting choice of system:


1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Kind of crop
Timeliness of operation
Topography
Farm size
Type of culture (row or broadcasted, upland or lowland)
Availability and cost of labor
Availability of capital

A major factor affecting choice of system is timeliness of operation because


it affects field losses, time available for the next crop and grain quality

Time of harvesting
One week before maturity
At maturity
One week after maturity
Two weeks after maturity
Three weeks after maturity
Four weeks after maturity

Field losses (%)


0.77
3.35
5.63
8.64
40.70
60.46

If the crop is harvested too early, it will have a large percentage of


imperfectly formed kernels.

The field should be drained 1 1.5 weeks before harvesting to harden the
soil
HARVESTINBG EQUIPMENT:

Groupings of harvesters:
1. Hand tools include the sickle, scythe, yatab, lingkao and cradle (Figure
2)
2. Reapers-windrower a machine that cuts the standing crop, conveys the
cut crop to one side, and lays them down in an orderly manner.

Agricultural Machinery and Mechanization

PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

I-52

3. Reaper-binder a machine that cuts the standing crop, binds the cut crop,
and lays down the bound crop to one side (Figure 3).

Cutting mechanisms:
1.

Slicing/tearing action employed in hand tools (Figure 4)

2.

High velocity, single-element, impact action use of sharp or dulledged blades moving at high velocity of 2,000 fpm to 9,000 fpm
(Figure 5)

3.

Two-element, scissor type action shearing action between the


moving and stationary blades (Figure 6).

Figure 2. Harvesting hand tools

Agricultural Machinery and Mechanization

PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

Figure 3. Reaper-binder

Slicing action
(Sharp smooth edge)

Tearing action
(Serrated edge)

Figure 4. Slicing and tearing action

Figure 5. High velocity, single-element, impact action


Agricultural Machinery and Mechanization

I-53

PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

I-54

Figure 6. Double-element Scissor type action


THRESHING EQUIPMENT:

Methods of threshing:
1. Rubbing action grains are detached from their panicles because of a
rubbing action as in treading by man, animal and vehicle.

Output of man treading is 14 kg/hr

2. Impact action grains are accelerated faster than their panicles and are
detached as in hampasan and mechanical threshers.

Output of hampasan is 34 kg/hr

Output of mechanical threshers vary with size of machine and


power source.

3. Stripping action grains are detached from their panicles when the straw
is pulled through a V configuration or a comb-like device is passed
through the panicles.

Mechanical threshers:
Mechanical threshers employ the impact method
Variability of threshers come from:
1. Power source manual as in pedal thresher or power thresher as in
engine-driven thresher (Figures 7 and 8).
2. Type of feeding:
a.

Hold-on feeding Straws do not pass through the


threshing section (Figure 9).

Low power requirement


Lightweight construction
Examples:
Pedal
thresher
combine

Agricultural Machinery and Mechanization

and

Japanese

PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials


b.

I-55

Throw-in feeding Straws pass through the threshing


section (Figure 10).

High power requirement


Heavyweight construction
Examples:
Axial-flow thresher and US combine

3. Direction of threshing materials (Figure 11):


a.

Tangential-flow Materials are feed between the revolving


cylinder and stationary concave and go straight out of
the thresher tangentially.

b.

About 60% of the grains pass through the


concave and the rest are separated in
subsequent operations.

Axial-flow Materials are fed between the revolving


cylinder and stationary concave on one end, go around
the cylinder several times axially and discharge at the
other end.

About 90% of the grains are separated from the


straw at the cylinder.

4. Type of cylinder teeth (Figure 12):


a. Wire-loop
b. Peg-tooth
c. Rasp-bar

Cleaning systems:
Separation of the bulky straw, chaff, empty kernels and very light
impurities from the grains.
Light materials can be separated from the grains by winnowing using
natural wind or blower.
For hold-on threshers, straws do not pass through the thresher and only the
removal of the chaff and light materials are needed using blowers and
screens
For throw-in threshers, straws pass through the thresher and cleaning is
done using a straw walker, blower and screens.

Agricultural Machinery and Mechanization

PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

Figure 7. Pedal thresher

Figure 8. Axial-flow thresher

Agricultural Machinery and Mechanization

I-56

PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

Figure 9. Hold-on feeding type of thresher

Figure 10.Throw-in feeding type of thresher

Agricultural Machinery and Mechanization

I-57

PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

I-58

Figure 11.Flow of materials

Figure 12.Types of threshing teeth

Sample problem 1:
A 5-m self-propelled combine makes an average stop of 4 minutes everytime
its 2-ton grain tank is to be unloaded. The yield of the 20-ha field is 40 tons.
The operating speed is 4.8 kph. The time for turning on the headland at the
ends of the 500-m field is 15 seconds.
Find:

a.
b.
c.

theoretical field capacity


actual field capacity
Field efficiency

Solution:
a.

Theoretical field capacity = CT =

Agricultural Machinery and Mechanization

SWEff
10

where Eff = 1.0

PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials

=
b) Actual field capacity = CA =

I-59

(4.8 kph)(5 m)(1.0)


= 2.4 Ha/hr
10

A
T

where A = 20 ha

T = t1 + t2 + t3 where
t1 = actual working time in the rows at 100% efficiency
t2 = time for turning at headland
t3 = time for unloading of tank
No. of rows = NR =

400 m
= 80 rows
5m/row

t1 = 80 rows X 500 m/row X 1km/1,000m X 1/4.8 kph = 8.333 hr


t2 = 80 rows X 1 turn/row X 15 sec/turn X 1 hr/3600 sec = 0.333 hr
t3 = 40 tons X

1
X 4 min/tank X 1 hr/60 min = 1.333 hr
2 tons/tank

T = t1 + t2 + t3 = 8.333 hr + 0.333 hr + 1.333 hr = 10 hr


CA =

b.

A
20 ha
=
= 2 ha/hr
T
10 hr

Field efficiency =

CA
CT

X 100 =

2 ha/hr
= 83.33 %
2.4 ha/hr

Sample problem 2:
A 4-m combine travelling at 5 kph can empty its 1.64-ton grain tank in 60
seconds. When unloading on-the-go, it has an 82 % field efficiency. Field yield
is 3 tons/ha.
Find: What would be the field efficiency if the combine stopped to load?
Solution:
1.

Unloading on-the-go:
Actual field capacity (on-the-go) =

(5 kph)(4 m)(0.82)
SWEff
=
10
10
= 1.64 ha/hr

2.

No. of unloadings/hr = 3 tons/hr X 1.64 ha/hr X

1
1.64 tons/load

= 3 unloadings/hr
3.

Time for unloading = t2 = 3 unloadings/hr X 60 sec/unloading


= 180 sec

4.

Eff =

t1
T

t1 = operating time = Eff X T

Agricultural Machinery and Mechanization

PSAE Region IV - Agricultural Engineering Board Review Materials


= 0.82 X 3600 sec = 2952 sec
5.

New Eff =

t1
2952 sec
X 100 =
X 100 = 78.10 %
T t2
3600 sec 180 sec

Agricultural Machinery and Mechanization

I-60

You might also like