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ESO 213A
Fundamentals of Earth Sciences

Lecture:
Instructor:
MWF 10:00-11:00 (L4)

Debajyoti Paul, Ph.D.
Department of Earth Sciences
WLE (western Lab Extension): 303 E
Ph # 6169 (office); dpaul@iitk.ac.in
Rajiv Sinha, Ph.D.
Department of Earth Sciences
WLE (western Lab Extension): 303 B
Ph # 7317 (office); rsinha@iitk.ac.in
Tutor:
Esha Ray (esha@iitk.ac.in) Office hour: T & Th: 4-5 PM (Old

SAC)
TA:
Mahesh Halder maheshh@iitk.ac.in; Manab Mukherjee

manab@iitk.ac.in; Rimali Mitra rimali@iitk.ac.in
1
ESO 213A
Textbooks: Required:
(1) J. Grotzinger and T. Jordan, Understanding Earth, 2010 (7th Ed.),

W.H. Freeman & Company: ISBN-13: 978-1-4641-3874-4.
(2) Stephen Marshak, Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 2015 (5th Ed.), W. W.

Norton & Company: ISBN-13: 978-0393937503.
Recommended:
(1)
D. R. Prothero and R. H. Dott, Jr., Evolution of the Earth. 2010
(8th Ed.), McGraw Hill, 576 p.
2) E. J. Tarbuck, F. K. Lutgens and D. G. Tasa. Earth: An Introduction
to Physical Geology, 2013 (11th Ed.). Prentice Hall. 912 p.
ESO 213A
Basis of Grade:
Grades will be based on:
Attendance
Quiz (~ 4 assignments):
Mid Sem Exam:
Final Exam:
5%
15%
30%
50%
The final course grade will be calculated out of 100 points

(based on the above criteria), and will be based on relative
grading.
Number
Week of classes Month
1
July
August
Date
27(W)
29(F)
1(M)
3(W)
5(F)
8(M)
10(W)
12(F)
15(M)
Topic
Solar system & Earth
Overview of geologic time/ Dating rocks
Plate tectonics
Plate tectonics
Introduction to Minerals
Minerals
Independence Day
17(W)
Introduction to Igneous Rocks
19(F)
22(M)
NIL
Spetem
ber
24(W)
26(F)
29(M)
31(W)
2(F)
5(M)
7(W)
9(F)
12(M)
14(W)
16(F)
ESO 213A
(Tentative Lecture
Schedule)
Introduction to Sedimentary Rocks

Introduction to Metamorphic Rocks
Soils
Volcanism
Volcanism
Earthquake
Earthquake
Internal structure of Earth
Deformation
Deformation
Eid Ul Zuha (Bakrid)
Mid Sem Examination
Number
Week of classes
9
Month
3
Spetember
10
11
12
NIL
13
14
October
Date
19(M)
21(W)
23(F)
26(M)
28(W)
30(F)
3(M)
5(W)
7(F)
10(M)
12(W)
14(F)
16
Total
40
November
Ocean
Land
River
River
Cryosphere and Climate
Energy budget
Carbon Cycle
Hydrological Cycle
Weathering and erosion
Coupled processes in Earth System
19(W)
21(F)
24(M)
26(W)
Coupled processes in Earth System

climate change
climate change
Geological resource (minerals)
31(M)
2(W)
4(F)
7(M)
9(W)
11(F)
15-25
ESO 213A (Tentative

Lecture Schedule)
Mid Sem Recess
17(M)
28(F)
15
Topic
Geological resource (hydrocarbon)

Geological resource (water)
Sustainability
Sustainability
Anthropocene activities
Anthropocene activities
Review
End Sem Examination
Questions to ponder?
o How did the solar system become the well-ordered place it is today, with planets moving in stately orbits
around the Sun? How typical our Solar System is within the Milky Way galaxy?
o What happened during Earths dark age (the first 500 million years)?
o How did Earths rocky mass come together and how did planetary differentiation (internal layering) occur?
o Why does Earths surface, with its blue oceans and wandering continents, look so different from those of its
planetary neighbors? What geological processes operate in these planetary bodies?
o How and when did life begin?
o How does Earths interior work, and how does it affect the surface?
o Why does Earth have plate tectonics and continents?
o What causes climate to changeand how much can it change?
o How has life shaped Earthand how has Earth shaped life?
o Can earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and their consequences be predicted?
o How do fluid flow and transport affect the human environment?
6
Determining the Age and Size of the Universe

Milky Way galaxy: Earth and hundreds of billions of other stars; approximately 150,000 light years across;
1 light year = 9500 billion km
Universe: 3,000 other galaxies (catalogued by Hubble Space Telescope)
The most distant objects so far observed in the universe: 13 billion light years from Earth.
Big Bang theory: our universe began ~13.7 Ga ago with a cosmic explosion --from our understanding
of the relative motions of distant galaxies. The Big Bang created clumps of cosmic debris throughout the
universe that eventually formed galaxies. Within these galaxies, clouds of dust and gas coalesced to
produce giant hot balls of gas and dust
o Stars formed when dense regions in cosmic debris clouds collapsed inward due to force of gravity.
o Planets formed from the build up of debris in the gravitational fields of the stars.
Luminosity: measurements of the brightness of clusters of distant stars. Brightness value used to calculate
our distance from the star. Data confirms our universe extends far beyond the Milky Way galaxy and its
expanding.
o Doppler effect on light to estimate Earths distance from faraway stars
7
Doppler Effect & Redshift
The spectrum of H2 gas (656nm)

RED SHIFT: The wavelengths of light
from distant stars are typically longer
closer to the red end of the spectrumcompared to the light from nearby stars.
That is the wavelength of light appears
to increase (undergo red shift)
as stars in distant galaxies move away
from us in the expanding universe.
8
Galaxy KUG 1217 Galaxy UGC 12508 Galaxy UGC 12915
Orion Nebula
Evidences of Big Bang: Redshift

The Orion Nebula is a star forming region in our own galaxy. It is made of
mostly hydrogen, so the fingerprint lines of hydrogen (especially the strong
red line at 656 nm) is present. The nebula also has a lot of oxygen- the extra
green lines in the spectrum.
Spectrum for a fairly distant galaxy. It has a lot of hydrogen that glows as an
emission line in the spectrum too. However, the location of the 656 hydrogen
line is shifted.
The spectrum for a more distant galaxy. The location of the 656 hydrogen line
is shifted towards RED.
The hydrogen 656 line is redshifted all the way into the infrared region of the
spectrum. RED SHIFTED- receding from us.
Data: Emilio Falco, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics
9
Time ships- bringing past events into the present
The Hubble Space Telescope

(launched 1990; 569 km above
surface) has a mirror of only
2.5 m diameter, orbits the
Earth above the atmosphere
every 97 minutes & provides
sharp images. It has greatly
helped to determine galaxy
distances and hence to
determine the expansion age
of the Universe.
The Very Large Telescope of the European Southern

Observatory (ESO) in the Atacama Desert in Chile
where the observing conditions are optimal. With
four 8 m-telescopes it is the largest telescope in the
world. Goal is to study the most distant (i. e.
youngest) galaxies during the formation process.
10
Nebulae
Nebula: Rotating cloud of
gases (mostly H and He) and
fine dust. Sun and planets all
coalesced out of the same
nebular cloud.
November 2, 1995: Eagle Nebula captured by the Hubble

Space Telescope. The dark, pillar-like structures are
columns of cool H2 gas and dust that give birth to new stars.
Keplers supernova (Explosion of a star):

Modern images of this bubble-shaped cloud
of gas and dust, 14 light years across. This is
just one of six supernovae that have been
observed in the Milky Way galaxy over the
last millennium.
11
Structure formation has produced

galaxies like this beautiful spiral
(NGC 1232). The Milky Way seen
from outside would offer a similar
view. (Picture taken by the European
Southern Observatory, ESO).
A part of the large Lagoon

Nebula in our Galaxy . The bright
hot star in the lower right ionizes
and excites atoms of sulphur,
oxygen, and hydrogen which
radiate at different wavelengths
(here in false colors red, blue, and
green, respectively). The heated
gas is in tornado-like turbulence
and triggers star formation in the
surrounding cold, dark cloud of
molecular gas and dust. This is a
typical cradle of newly born stars.
(Space
Telescope
Science
Institute).
12
Origin of the Solar System

The formation of giant planets starts with
condensation and coalescence of rocky and icy
material to form objects several times as
massive as Earth. These solid bodies then
attract and accumulate gas from the
circumstellar disk.
Hubble Space Telescope images of 4 protoplanetary

disks around young stars in the Orion nebula,
located 1,500 light-years from the Sun. The red
glow in the center of each disk is a newly formed
star approximately 1 Ma old. Most disks are ~ 99%
gas and 1% dust.
13
The Nebular Hypothesis: Immanuel Kant (1755)

within 10 million years after the
condensation of the nebula
14
Giant stars burn brightly for just 10 to 20 Ma

before they die a dramatic death via supernova explosion
Eventually, in about 5 Ga, the sun will burn all of
its hydrogen, and begin to collapse. Then fusion
of helium into carbon would lead to expansion of
the star and produce red giant phase. After He is
exhausted, Sun turns into a White Dwarf star.
Billions of years later, all heat will be lost, and the white
dwarf star will become a black dwarf star.
Figure: Life cycle stages and types of stars (HertsprungRussell diagram). Stars have different degrees of
luminosity (brightness) and temperature at various
stages of their life cycle. L0 is the luminosity of our sun.
15
Star formation rate

in the Milky Way
Most stars were formed about 3 Ga after

the Big Bang. When the Solar System (4.6
Ga old), including the Earth, was formed, all
92 chemical elements had already been
formed in stars and expelled into the
interstellar gas. This explains why the Earth
is relatively rich in processed material.
16
Origin of Solar System, Earth and Moon

Interstellar Cloud (Nebula)
Gravitational Collapse
Protosun
Heating Fusion
Sun
Leftover Materials
Asteroids
Protoplanetary Disk
Condensation (gas to solid)
Metal, Rocks
Gases, Ice
Accretion
Nebular
Capture
Terrestrial
Planets
Jovian
Planets
Leftover Materials
Comets
17
Terrestrial Planets
Accreted 4.56 Ga ago, grown to

planetary size in 10 Ma
volatile materials swept from terrestrial planets form the giant outer planets
Terrestrial Planets
Did other terrestrial Planets experience a similar early history?
Small Bodies of the Solar System

o Asteroids
o 10,000 asteroids with diameters larger than 10 km, in a belt between Mars and Jupiter
o 300 larger than 100 km
o Ceres largest with diameter of 940 km. In 2006 upgraded to Dwarf Planet
When an asteroid comes toward Earth, it can miss

completely, burn brightly in the atmosphere (a meteor),
explode in the atmosphere (a bolide), or strike Earths
surface to become a meteorite.
Fig. 90,000 catalogued asteroids so far. Asteroids that do not

approach Earth are indicated by green squares, and those
that cross Earths orbit are indicated by red squares.
4
Asteroid Mining?- contain Ni, Fe, Ti

The asteroid 433 Eros, stony type
meteorite. The inset shows the shape
of the asteroid. The spacecrafts
landing site is indicated by a circle.The
Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous Shoemaker
(NEAR
Shoemaker)
launched in Feb 1996 entered into
orbit around Eros on Feb 2000. It made
last contact with Earth on Feb 28,
2001.
Small Bodies of the Solar System

o Comets
o
o
o
o
o
mostly ice (of H2O, CH4, CO2, NH3) and rock+dust (km-sized to few of 100 km sized)
represent the remnants of cosmic debris left over from formation of solar system
Mostly from Kuiper Belt which has > trillion comet nuclei
impact velocity of about 50 km/s if to strike Earth
New Horizons Mission to Pluto and Kuiper Belt On Jan. 19, 2006
1 AU = 149,597,871 km
Meteorites
Chunks of material from outer space that strike Earth, tiny pieces of asteroids
ejected from the asteroid belt
iron-nickel meteorite
stony meteorite
Chondrite Meteorite
40,000 tons of extraterrestrial material fall on Earth each year, mostly as dust and unnoticed
small objects.
Where would you look for such material?
A collision with a 10-km asteroid 65 Ma

ago caused the extinction of 75% of
Earths species, including all the
dinosaurs.
NASA Prediction: 1 chance in 300 that

an asteroid 1 km in diameter will
collide with Earth in March 2880.
What Do Meteorites Say About the Origin of Earth?

o Were not affected by the high-temperature processing that occurs in planetary interiors. Such early
material is rarely preserved on Earth.
o Preserve significant clues about the state of the Solar System when the planets were forming
o Reveal the age of the Solar System (4,567 Ma)
Chondrites- are stony bodies formed from the accretion
of dust and small grains that were present in the early
Solar System. The primitive of these objectsthose
least altered by heat and pressureare carbonaceous
chondrites, whose chemical compositions match that of
the Sun for most elements.
Fig. The Allende meteorite, a carbonaceous chondrite,
is a mixture of CAIs (calcium-, aluminum-rich inclusions; larger
irregularly shaped light-colored objects) and chondrules (round
light-colored objects) in a dark-colored matrix of minerals and
compounds. The CAIs and chondrules are a high-temperature
component that formed and were in some cases reprocessed
at temperatures above 1000C.
9
METEORITE CLASSIFICATION CHART
Source: NASA
10
Is chondritic model valid?

Chondritic meteorites, long thought to
be the best model for the original Earth,
are not like Earth with respect to oxygen
isotopes.
Representation of the range of values of oxygen

isotope ratios on Earth, the Moon, Mars, and
different classes of meteorites, including
carbonaceous chondrites (CI, CK, CM, CO, CR,
CV); ordinary chondrites (H, L, LL); other
chondrite groups (R); primitive achondrites.
11
Early Earth: Formation of a Layered Planet
Giant Impact hypothesis- 40 Ma after Earth

accretion. magma ocean- outer molten layer
hundreds of km thick.
FIGURE 9.4 Computer simulation of the impact of a Mars-sized body on Earth. [Solid-Earth Sciences and Society. Washington, D.C.:
National Research Council, 1993.]
12
Early Earth: Formation of a Layered Planet
13
Formation of a Layered Planet
By about 4.4 Ga ago, in less than 200 Ma since its

origin, Earth had become a fully differentiated planet
Small droplets of molten metal sink to the base of a magma

ocean, equilibrating as they go, and pond when they reach the
magmasolid rock interface. From there giant molten drops of
metal (diapirs) sink through the solid but plastically deforming
rocky lower mantle to reach the growing core.
14
Chemical Composition
of Earths Major Layers
Earth Av. = 5.5 g/cm3
15
Earths Ocean and

Atmosphere
Some of the air and water may also have come from
volatile-rich bodies from the outer solar system, such as
Comets.
Oxygen did not enter the atmosphere until oxygen
producing organisms evolved.
16
Earths Ocean and Atmosphere
A speculative history of temperature, water, and

CO2 during the Hadean. The Hadean begins with the
Moon-forming impact (at t = 0 in this figure). For
1,000 years Earth is enveloped in hot rock vapor.
After the silicate vapor rains out, the atmosphere
consists mostly of CO2. Water is gradually lost from
the magma ocean and added to the atmosphere.
The greenhouse effect and tidal heating maintain
the magma ocean for 2 million years. When the
magma surface freezes over, surface temperature
drops quickly and the steam atmosphere rains out
to leave a warm (~500 K) water ocean under ~100
bars of CO2. This warm, wet Earth lasts as long as
the CO2 stays in the atmosphere. This illustration
shows CO2 being removed on timescales of 20 Ma
(green solid curves) or 100 Ma (green dotted
curves). When the CO2 partial pressure drops below
about 1 bar, the oceans freeze over (blue region of
graph). After the late heavy bombardment, CO2 is
shown returning to an arbitrary level of ~1 bar,
which allows the surface to be clement as required
by geological data. SOURCE: Zahnle (2006).
17
Did other terrestrial Planets experience

a similar history as Earth?
Diversity of the Planets
85% lava flow
Moon
Surface Temperature: -233 to 123 C; no atmosphere

Light: lunar highlands (80% surface), Older age
Dark: Mare (plural Maria); sea of basalts, younger
Did our Earth also experience

similar bombardment early on?
3
Impact Craters on Earth
Rare on Earth compared with the other terrestrial planets. Why?

4
Venus: Magellan spacecraft (Aug 1990)
(3 km high and 500 km across)
FIGURE 9.14 This topographic map of Venus, 19901994

Magellan mission. The highlands (tan), the uplands (green),
and the lowlands (blue). Vast lava plains are found in the
lowlands. Less craters suggests many craters may have been
covered by lava -> recent tectonic activity.
Venus is a surprisingly diverse and tectonically active

planet with mountains, plains, volcanoes, and rift valleys.
Mars Rocks!
o
o
o
o
o
o
EARLY MISSIONS: MARINER (19651971) AND VIKING (19761980).

PATHFINDER (1997)
MARS GLOBAL SURVEYOR (19962006) AND MARS ODYSSEY (2001)
Mars Exploration RoversSpirit and Opportunity (2003-2004)
Mars Science Laboratory (MSL): Curiosity (2011)
Recent Missions: Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (2006) and Phoenix
(MayNovember 2008)
2011:
Mars
Science
Laboratory (right) Curiosity
rover is about the size of a
small car, took this SELFIE.
Landed in Gale crater on
Mars in Aug 2012. Powered
by decay of Plutonium.
Spirit (left), one of the Mars Exploration Rovers,
is about the size of a golf cart. Spirit is standing
next to a twin of Sojourner, a rover that was
sent to Mars in 1997.
Mars: Red Planet- Quest for extraterrestrial life

lava
scarp
Olympus Mons is the tallest volcano in the

solar system, with a summit almost 25 km
high. An outward-facing scarp 550 km in
diameter.
Vallis Marineris Canyon: the longest (4000 km)

and deepest (up to 10 km; 8km average) canyon
in the solar system. Five times deep than Grand
Canyon. Evidence of glaciation found recently. 8
channel
FIGURE 9.25: Mars Exploration Rover landing sites. (a) Spirit

explored Gusev Crater, ~160 km in diameter, which is thought to
have been filled with water, forming an ancient lake.
(b) Opportunity was sent to an area of Meridiani Planum where
hematite is abundant. The ellipse- permissible landing area.
Was there once water on Mars?
This image acquired by Mars Global Surveyor shows clear evidence of meandering
patterns within sediments deposited inside Eberswalde Crater. Liquid water appears
to have flowed across the Martian surface and entered the crater, where it deposited
sediments in meandering channels similar to those seen in the Mississippi River on
10
Earth today.
The first outcrop studied on another

planet (Mars). This outcrop is made of
sedimentary rocks formed partly from
sulfate minerals, including jarosite.
Jarosite (K-Fe sulfate) can form only in
waterand only in acid-rich water.
A sedimentary sequence exposed along the flank

of Endurance Crater, photographed by the rover
Opportunity. The vertical succession of layers in
the outcrop preserves an excellent record of early
Martian environments.
11
12
Indian Missions: ISRO

Chandrayaan-1 Launched (by PSLV- C11) in Oct 22, 2008, operated until Aug 2009. Orbited
around the Moon at a height of 100 km from the lunar surface for chemical, mineralogical and
photo-geologic mapping of the Moon. Satellite made more than 3400 orbits around the moon.
Provided evidence of water on moon. http://www.isro.gov.in/pslv-c11-chandrayaan-i/ch1gallery
Chandrayaan-2: Orbiter, Lander and Rover configuration to be launched by GSLV in 2017-2018;

cost ~ 430 crore. Lander and Rover are expected to perform mineralogical and elemental studies
of the lunar surface. Totally Indian Mission.
MARS ORBITER MISSION spacecraft aboard a PSLV C-25 rocket on Nov 5, 2013: explore and
observe Mars surface features, morphology, mineralogy and the Martian atmosphere.
PSLV-C25: the vehicle that launched the Indian Mars Orbiter. Nampoothiri et al., CURRENT
SCIENCE, VOL. 109, NO. 6, 25 SEPTEMBER 2015.
13
Origin of Life
o From what materials did life originate?
o When, where, and in what form did life first appear?
The Origin of Species, Charles Darwin (1859) hypothesized that new species arise by the
modification of existing onesthat the raw material of life is life.
Louis Pasteur: life springs always from life
Somehow and somewhere, the tree of life had to take root from nonliving precursors.
Top-down approaches (favored by biologists): look at complex molecular machinery of living

cells for clues about simpler antecedents on the early Earth.
Bottom-up approaches (chemists): investigate the pathways by which lifes chemical building
blocks could have formed from simple inorganic constituents of early environments.
14
Prebiotic Soup: The Original

Experiment on the Origin of Life
How did chemical reactions between water

and the early crust shaped the chemistry of
early environments.
chemical synthesis of organic molecules is
possible in interstellar clouds, and amino acids
have been found in meteorites (1969,
Murchison, Australia)
15
16
Stromatolites
Modern stromatolites
Ancient stromatolites
grow in the intertidal zone. form columns.
Sedimentary structures formed

by the interaction of microbial
communities and the physical
processes of sedimentation.
A cross section reveals
layering similar to that seen
in ancient stromatolites.
Microbes live on the

surface of the stromatolite.
Sediment is deposited
on the microbes,...
...which grow
upward through
the sediment,
forming a new
layer.
17
When did Life arise?
All living organisms are descended from a

common ancestor that lived nearly 4 Ga ago.
2.76 Ga old stromatolite in Pilbara, Australia
(Ohmoto et al. 2005).
18
When did Life arise?
19
Microbial mats are

layered microbial
communities.
20
Where did Life arise?
some scientists have speculated that terrestrial life was seeded from afar,
most likely from Mars (Weiss et al., 2000). But, was Mars ever a biological
planet?
21
22
demise of dinosaurs
23
An Overview of Geologic Time

Chapter 8
Understanding Earth
Seventh Edition
Relative Age vs. Absolute age
About the Clocks in Rocks

Geologists have uncovered deep time by
studying the clocks in rocks.
These clocks can be used to measure the
duration of geologic processes and cycles of

the Earth system.
Geologists refer to both relative age and

absolute age.
2
Uniformitarianism
- James Hutton
The principle of uniformitarianism

states that geological processes have
worked in the same way throughout
time.
Present is the key to the past
Reconstructing geologic history from

the stratigraphic record
Principles of stratigraphy
original horizontality
Principle of superposition
faunal succession
4
Original horizontality and superposition
Example: Marble Canyon, Arizona
Left undisturbed, the youngest layers always

remain above the oldest.
5
Original horizontality and superposition

Outcrop A
Outcrop B
II
II
III
Some of the fossils found in

outcrop A are the same as
fossils found in outcrop B,
some distance away.
Outcrop A
Outcrop B
I
II
II
Layers with the same
fossils are the same age.
III
Thought questions for this chapter

In 1793, William Smith, a surveyor working on the construction
of canals in southern England, recognized that fossils could help
geologists determine the relative ages of sedimentary rocks. His
work was the basis of the principle of faunal succession.
The theory of evolution suggests a principle of floral (plant)

succession to compliment Smiths principle of faunal succession.
Why do you think Smith relied primarily on faunal (animal)
fossils instead of floral fossils in his stratigraphic mapping?
Unconformities: Gaps in the Geologic

Record
Unconformities gaps in the depositional

record
disconformity
angular unconformity
Nonconformity- sedimentary
beds overlie igneous or
metamorphic rocks
10
Disconformity
11
12
Reconstructing Geologic History from the

Stratigraphic Record
Cross-cutting relationships
faults
intrusions
13
14
Geologic time scale: Relative Ages
Divisions of geologic time

eras
periods
epochs
The geologic time scale divides Earths history into
intervals marked by distinct sets of fossils, and it
places the boundaries of those intervals at times when
those sets of fossils changed abruptly
15
Some of the geological boundaries are related to mass extinctions of life.

16
Measuring absolute time with

Isotopic clocks
Isotopic dating theory
radioactive atoms
parent-daughter
half-life
17
dN
= lN
dt
D = Do + N(elt-1)
87Rb
37
87Sr38 + b-
18
Isotopic dating methods
19
4. Geologic time scale: absolute ages
Four Eons of geologic time

Hadean
Archean
Proterozoic
Phanerozoic
Younger in age
20
The complete geologic time scale
21
2.5
22
Key terms and concepts

Absolute age
Eon
Epoch
Era
Formation
Geologic time scale
Half-life
Isotopic dating
Period
Principle of faunal succession
Principle of original horizontality
Principle of superposition
Relative age
Stratigraphic succession
Stratigraphy
Unconformity
23
24
Chapter 2: PLATE
TECTONICS:
The Unifying Theory
Grotzinger Jordan
Understanding Earth
Seventh Edition
About Plate Tectonics
It is the movement of plates and the

forces acting between them.
It explains the distribution of volcanoes,
earthquakes, folded mountain chains, rock
assemblages, and seafloor structures.
The forces that drive plate motions arise
from the mantle convection system.
3
Plate Tectonics
What is Plate Tectonics?
The lithosphere is broken into large pieces
known as lithospheric plates that move
(cm/yr) relative to one another
The origin, movement, destruction are
collectively known as Plate Tectonics
These rigid plates float over the molten

asthenosphere which acts as a conveyor belt
4
Plate Tectonics
Plate tectonics is a scientific model that quantitatively
describes the kinematics and dynamics of the Earth on a
whole-Earth scale and on a regional scale.
It can be divided into plate kinematics and plate
dynamics.
Plate kinematics is concerned with
(i) Predicting as accurately as possible the current movement of a
plate or any point on the Earths surface.
(ii) Predicting the movements of plates or points on the Earth over
geological time.
6
Is there evidence of Plate Tectonics?

continental drift
Puzzle Fit of the continents
Fossil Evidence
Glacial Evidence
Coal in Antarctica- coal is formed in tropical swamps.
Coal was formed when Antarctica was closer to the
equator.
Mountain Chains appear where they should if
continents are colliding
sea-floor spreading
Magnetic Stripes on the ocean floor
global seismic network
7
Evolution of the
Theory
Continental
drift
jigsaw
puzzle fit of
continents
Around 1912, a German scientist named Alfred Wegener theorized that all of
the Earth's continents were once joined together in a single, large landmass.
Evolution of the Theory:

distribution of certain fossils
Glacial deposits. Arrows illustrate direction of ice movement.

India, which is north or the Equator, has glacial evidence
10
coming from the south.
Discovery of Plate Tectonics
Seafloor
spreading
new crust
formed there
11
Discovery of Plate Tectonics
Seafloor
spreading
geological
activity in
mid-ocean
ridges
12
Plate Boundaries
Plate boundaries are classified

according to the relative motion
across boundary; places where most
seismic/tectonic activities take place.
Types of boundaries/Active plate
Margins:
Divergent- plates move apart and

new
lithosphere is created (plate area
increases)
Convergent- plates come together

and one plate is recycled into the
mantle (plate area decreases)
Transform Fault- plates slide

horizontally past each other (plate
area does not change)
13
The Plates and Their Boundaries
mosaic of rigid plates,

three types of boundaries
14
Divergent Boundaries
plates diverge away from each other at Mid Ocean Ridges (MOR)
and new oceanic lithosphere is formed (sea-floor spreading)
Rifting, volcanoes and earthquakes
concentrate
(a) Oceanic Plate Separation
MidAtlantic
Ridge
15
Mid-ocean ridges
16
Divergent Boundaries
FIGURE 2.9 The Mid-Atlantic

Ridge, a divergent plate
boundary, rises above sea level
in Iceland. This cracklike rift
valley, filled with newly formed
volcanic rock, indicates that
plates are being pulled apart 17
Divergent Boundaries: East African Rift Valley
Parallel rift valleys; volcanoes

and earthquakes
East African
Rift Valley
(b) Continental Plate Separation
18
Divergent Boundaries- Continental Plate

Separation- East African Rift Valley
The Afar Triangle
Map of East Africa -- a so-called

triple junction (or triple point),
where three plates are pulling
away from one another: the
Arabian Plate, and the two
parts of the African Plate (the
Nubian on the left of the rift
system and the Somalian to the
right of the rift system) splitting
along the East African Rift Zone
(3000 km crack).
Young Oceanic rift: Red Sea

Continental rift: East African Rift Zone
19
Convergent/Subduction Boundaries
new crust created at divergent boundary are destroyed at
convergent boundary. location of violent tectonic activity.
Mariana Islands
Marianas Trench
(a) Ocean-Ocean Convergence

Island Arcs: e.g., Aleutian
20
Convergent Boundaries
(b) Ocean-continent convergence

e.g., volcanic arc: Andes and western North
America-Cascade range of volcanoes
21
Trenches
22
Convergent Boundaries
Himalaya
Mountain
crustal thickening, folded mountains,

and earthquakes
Tibetan
Plateau
Main
thrust
fault
Eurasian
Plate
(c) Continent-Continent Convergence
e.g., Himalayas Mountain
23
Convergent Boundary: Ring of Fire

Figure: Volcanic arcs and
oceanic trenches partly
encircling the Pacific
Basin form the so-called
Ring of Fire, a zone of
frequent earthquakes and
volcanic eruptions.
Trenches are shown in
blue. The volcanic island
arcs, are parallel to, and
always landward of, the
trenches.
24
Transform-Fault Boundaries
Features of transform boundaries. Transform plate boundaries off set

divergent or convergent boundaries. Plates move in opposite directions on
either side of the transform boundary, causing earthquakes. Plates move in
similar directions on either side of the fracture zone, resulting in fewer
25
earthquakes
(a) Mid-Ocean Ridge Transform Fault

e.g., Romanche transform (in S Atlantic)
(b) Continental Transform Fault
e.g., San Andreas fault system, Western USA
26
FIGURE 2.11 A view southeast along

the San Andreas fault in the Carrizo
Plain of central California
27
As plates
move past
each other...
creek beds
are offset
San
Francisco
Los Angeles
28
Chapter 2: PLATE
TECTONICS:
The Unifying Theory
Grotzinger Jordan
Understanding Earth
Seventh Edition
Active Plate Margins
Rates and history of plate motion

A sensitive magnetometer
records magnetic anomalies,
Magnetic anomalies
Vine and Matthews
(1963)
seafloor areas of high

and low magnetic
values
An oceanic survey over the Reykjanes Ridge, part of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge
southwest of Iceland, showed an oscillating pattern of magnetic field strength.
Sea floor as a magnetic tape recorder

The present orientation of the Earth's magnetic field is referred to as
Normal Polarity. i.e. Magnetic north points in the direction of geographic
north
A sensitive magnetometer
records magnetic anomalies,
Iceland
MidAtlantic
Ridge
Symmetrical bands
on both sides. Why?
4
Geodynamo System
Earths magnetic field is generated due to vigorous convection in
the Fe-rich fluid outer core.
Strength and orientation of the
magnetic field varies
weak and horizontal at
the equator
strong and vertical at the
poles
Figure: Earths magnetic field

and magnetic lines of force. The
magnetic north is inclined by 11
from the axis of rotation.
5
Inclination = 90
The magnetic field magnitude at

the surface of the Earth: 0.5 Gauss
The magnitude varies over the
surface of the Earth in the range
0.3 to 0.6 Gauss.
Inclination = 0
The magnetic equator is where the

dip or inclination (I) is zero
Inclination = -90
Magnetic inclination is the angle between the horizontal plane and the total
magnetic field vector, measured positive into Earth. In other words inclination
is the angle of pull down toward the earth that the magnetic field exerts on a
compass needle.
Magnetic Declination: is the angle between magnetic north and true north.
Declination is considered positive east of true north and negative when west.
6
Thermoremanent Magnetism:
Magnetic material when cooled below 580 C (curie
temperature for magnetite) become magnetized in the
direction of surrounding magnetic field-
magnetite common mineral in basalt
Records the direction and inclination (and also field

intensity) of the Earth's magnetic field at the time of
formation.
Magnetic time scale developed
Subchrons
5.0 Ma
4.0
Gilbert
reversed chron
3.0
Gauss
normal chron
2.0
1.0
Matuyama
reversed chron
Present
Brunhes
normal chron
black = normal polarity

blue = reverse polarity
Magnetic isochrons on the sea

floor- Dating Oceanic Crust
(note that there is no sea floor older than 200 myrs)
10
Estimating Rate of Plate motion-Global

Positioning System (GPS) Satellites
24 satellites are currently
in orbit 20,000 km above
the Earth as part of the
NavStar system of the U.S.
Department of Defense.
11
Calculating Spreading Rate
Distance of 7th normal

stripe is about 40 km
from the ridge crest.
The age is about 4
million years.
Spreading Rate = Distance (cm)/Age (years)

= (40 x 105)/(4 x 106) = 1 cm/yr
12
Example relative plate velocities
East Pacific Rise (Pacific and Nazca plates)

138 to 150 mm/yr
South Atlantic (Mid-Atlantic Ridge)
34 to 35 mm/yr
Southern Ocean, south of Australia
70 to 75 mm/yr
Southern Ocean, south of Africa
14 mm/yr
13
Reconstructing the history of plate

motions
1. Assembly and breakup of the

supercontinent Rodinia
2. Assembly and breakup of the

supercontinent Pangaea
14
Geologic Time-Scale
EONS
ERAS
PERIODS
Quaternary
-----------------
Cenozoic 65 my
Tertiary
Phanerozoic 540 my Mesozoic 245 my
Proterozoic 2.5 by
Archean 3.9 by
Hadean
4.65 by
Paleozoic 540 my
EPOCHS
Holocene
Pleistocene
----------------Pliocene
Miocene
Oligocene
Eocene
Paleocene
Cretaceous
Jurassic
Triassic
Permian
Pennsylvanian
Mississippian
Devonian
Silurian
Ordovician
Cambrian
PRECAMBRIAN
15
RODINIA: Late Proterozoic, 750 Ma

Evidence from:
rock types, fossils,
paleoclimate, and
paleomagnetism
The Earths geography 1 Ga ago. began to break up about

750 million years ago. Lets see continental motion!
16
The pre-Pangean
pattern of
continental drift
17
ASSEMBLY OF PANGAEA
PANGAEA (a) Early Triassic, 237 Ma
Pangaea is formed
18
BREAKUP OF PANGAEA
(b) Early Jurassic, 195 Ma
19
BREAKUP OF PANGAEA
(c) Late Jurassic, 152 Ma
20
BREAKUP OF PANGAEA
(d) Late Cretaceous, Early Tertiary, 66 Ma
much like today in some ways
21
The present-day & future world

The modern world has
been produced over the
past 65 Ma. India collided
with Asia, and is still
pushing northward.
50 MY in the future:
Africa will move N and close Mediterranean
Sea
E Africa will detach (Red Sea rift zone) and
move to India
Atlantic Ocean will grow and Pacific will
shrink as it is swallowed into trenches.
W California will travel NW with the Pacific
Plate (LA will be swallowed into the Aleutian
trench in 60 Ma).
What causes plate motion?

Mechanism known as mantle convection.
Source of heat driving mantle convection is radiogenic heat
(decay of heat producing elements (HPE) U, Th, K in mantle)
Convection Cell
Figure: Mantle convection. Source: USGS
23
Mantle convection: the engine of

plate tectonics
The underlying
fundamental driving force
for mantle convection is
gravity
Upper
mantle
700 km
Lower
mantle
Theory 1: whole
mantle convection
(Geophysical
Evidence)
2900 km
Outer core
24
Mantle convection: the engine of

plate tectonics
Theory 2:
stratified mantle
convection
(Geochemical
Evidence)
Boundary near
700 km separates
the two convection
systems.
25
Mantle Plumes
spreading
centers
and hot
spots
26
Mantle Plumes- Hawaii
27
28
The Wilson Cycle
29
Theory of Plate Tectonics and the

Scientific Method
Plate tectonics is not a dogma, but a confirmed theory
whose strength lies in its simplicity, its generality, and
its consistency with many types of observations.
This theory has survived so many attempts to prove it
wrong and has been so important in explaining and
predicting so many phenomena that geologists treat
the theory as fact.
Reasons why proof and acceptance took so long: very
cautious approach of many scientists studying this
issue; global scale of the problem; and specialized
technology required to gain data took time to develop.
30

1. What is the theory of plate tectonics?
2. What are some of the geologic characteristics of plate

boundaries?
3. How can the age of the seafloor be determined?
4. What is the engine that drives plate tectonics?

31

Continental drift
Convergent boundary
Divergent boundary
Geodesy
Island arc
Isochron
Magnetic anomaly
Magnetic time scale
Pangaea
Plate tectonics
Relative plate velocity
Rodinia
Seafloor spreading
Spreading center
Subduction
Transform fault
32
Chapter 3: EARTH MATERIALS

Minerals and Rocks
Importance of minerals?
- Essential in many engineering fields
- Use of proper minerals as construction materials
- Used as raw material for marketable products
- In electronic industry, minerals or the synthetic
equivalents are used to make computer chips,
diodes, capacitors, superconductors etc.
- Historically, minerals have been the foundation of
much, if not all, technology
2
Amoco Building, Chicago
What are minerals?

Minerals are the building blocks
of rocks.
What are minerals?

Naturally occurring = found in nature
Solid, crystalline substance = atoms are
arranged in orderly patterns
Generally inorganic = not a product of
living tissue
With a specific chemical formula = unique
chemical composition
5

Coal, a natural organic substance that forms from
decaying vegetation, is not considered to be a mineral.
However, when coal is heated to high temperatures and
buried under high pressures, it is transformed into the
mineral graphite. Why is it, then, that coal is not
considered a mineral, but graphite is? Explain your
reasoning.
Smallest
repeating unit of
a crystal
structure in 3D
Relationship between atoms, molecules, unit cells

made up of several molecules, a collection of unit
cells, and mineral crystal
The atomic structure of matter

The atom is the smallest unit of an
element that retains the physical and
chemical properties of that element.
Atoms are building blocks of minerals
Atomic nucleus: protons and neutrons.
Electrons: cloud of moving particles

surrounding the nucleus.
Example: the carbon atom (C)
The carbon atom

and a nucleus
of 6 protons
and 6 neutrons.
electron ()
proton (+)
Neutron (neutral)
Atomic Mass = # of Protons + # of neutrons
Notation:
12C
An atom is electrically
Neutral: The # of protons
(+ve charges) equals # of
electrons (-ve charges)
Atomic No. = # of electrons or # of protons
The atomic structure of matter

Isotopes atoms of the same element with
different numbers of neutrons.
Example:
12C : has 6 neutrons and 6 protons (most
6
abundant isotope)
13C
: 7 neutrons and 6 protons
14C
: 8 neutrons and 6 protons

10
Chemical Reactions
Chemical reactions interactions of the

atoms of two or more elements in
certain fixed proportions.
Example: H + H + O = H2O
Example: Na + Cl = NaCl
11
Chemical Reactions
Chemical compounds that are minerals form
by:
Electron sharing (Covalent bond)- Stronger bonds
or
Electron transfer (ionic bond)
Or
Metallic bonds (found in metals, many atoms
share the same electrons)
OCTET RULE- A stable structure has
8 electrons in its outer shell
12
Electron transfer:
Sodium (Na) + chlorine (Cl) =
NaCl (halite)
Each sodium ion (circled in red)

is surrounded by 6 chloride ions
(circled in yellow), and vice versa.
13
Electron Sharing:
Carbon atoms in a diamond & graphite
14
Most minerals have a combination of ionic, covalent, or

metallic bond types
15
The atomic structure of minerals

Electrical charges of atomic ions
Cation positively charged (Na+)
Anion negatively charged (Cl-)
Atomic ions arrange themselves
according to charge and size.
16
The atomic structure of minerals
Ionic Radii given in 10-10 m = 1 (angstrom)

17
When do minerals form?
During cooling of molten rock

During evaporation of water
Upon changes in temperature and
pressure on existing minerals
18
How do minerals form?

Crystallization
As magma cools atoms slow down and
come together in the proper chemical
proportion and proper crystalline
arrangement
High Temperature atoms are quite
mobile and nucleate, simpler structure
Time Cooling over a long period of time,
big crystals
19
Chemical classes of minerals
20
Rock-forming minerals :
silicate minerals
Silicate ion (SiO44)
Oxygen ions
(O2)
Silicon ion
(Si4+)
Tetrahedra are
the basic building
blocks of all
silicate minerals.
About 95% of
Earths minerals
are silicates.
21
Quartz
structure
Silicate ion
(SiO44)
The silicate
ion forms
tetrahedra.
Quartz is
a silicate
polymorph.
Oxygen ions
(O2)
Silicon ion
(Si4+)
22
Rock-forming minerals-Silicates
Types of silicate minerals
Isolated tetrahedra (Nesosilicates)
Single-chain linkages (Inosilicates)
Double-chain linkages (Inosilicates)
Sheet linkages (Phyllosilicates)
Frameworks (Tectosilicates)
Tetrahedra arranged in different ways are
characteristic of different silicate minerals and
determine their cleavage directions
23
Mineral
Chemical formula
Cleavage planes
and number of
cleavage directions
1 plane
Olivine
Silicate
structure
Specimen
Isolated
tetrahedra
(Mg, Fe)2SiO4
Forsterite: Mg2SiO4
Fayalite: Fe2SiO4
Fracture
24
Mineral
Chemical formula
Cleavage planes
and number of
cleavage directions
1 plane
Olivine
Specimen
Isolated
tetrahedra
(Mg, Fe)2SiO4
2 planes at 90
Pyroxene
Silicate
structure
Single chains
(Mg, Fe)SiO3
25
Mineral
Chemical formula
Cleavage planes
and number of
cleavage directions
1 plane
Olivine
Specimen
Isolated
tetrahedra
(Mg, Fe)2SiO4
2 planes at 90
Pyroxene
Silicate
structure
Single chains
(Mg, Fe)SiO3
2 planes at 60
and 120
Double chains
Amphibole Ca2(Mg, Fe)5Si8O22(OH)2
26
Mineral
Chemical formula
Cleavage planes
and number of
cleavage directions
1 plane
Olivine
Specimen
Isolated
tetrahedra
(Mg, Fe)2SiO4
2 planes at 90
Pyroxene
Silicate
structure
Single chains
(Mg, Fe)SiO3
2 planes at 60
and 120
Double chains
1 plane
Sheets
Micas
Muscovite:
KAl2(AlSi3O10)(OH)2
Biotite:
K(Mg, Fe)3AlSi3O10(OH)2
27
Mineral
Chemical formula
Cleavage planes
and number of
cleavage directions
1 plane
Olivine
Specimen
Isolated
tetrahedra
(Mg, Fe)2SiO4
2 planes at 90
Pyroxene
Silicate
structure
Single chains
(Mg, Fe)SiO3
2 planes at 60
and 120
Double chains
1 plane
Sheets
2 planes at 90
Three-dimensional
framework
Micas
Muscovite:
KAl2(AlSi3O10)(OH)2
Biotite:
Feldspars
Orthoclase feldspar:
KAlSi3O8
Plagioclase feldspar:
(Ca, Na) AlSi3O8
28
Plagioclase:
Albite: Na AlSi3O8
Anorthite: CaAl2Si2O8
29
Estimated Volume Percentages for common

minerals in the Earths crust
30
There are three important groups of silicates:

ferromagnesian silicates, e.g., olivine and
pyroxene common in the mantle
feldspar and quartz common in the crust
clay mineral K, Al, Mg, Fe silicates

commonly produced by chemical
weathering
Kaolinite: Al2Si2O5(OH)4
31
Minerals as valuable resources
Types of ore minerals

Vein deposits
Disseminated deposits
Igneous deposits
Sedimentary deposits
32

Origin of vein deposits
Deformed
country rock
Groundwater dissolves metal oxides

and sulfides. Heated by the magma, it
rises, precipitating metal ores in joints.
Geysers and
hot springs
Vein deposit
Groundwater
Magma
Plutonic
intrusion
33

Typical sulfide minerals from vein deposits
PbS
HgS
FeS2
ZnS
34
Igneous deposits
Chromite
(Fe, Mg)Cr2O4
layers (dark)
in layered
igneous rock
35
Sedimentary deposits
Copper, iron, other metals
Gold, diamonds, other heavy

minerals (placers)
36
Chapter 3: EARTH MATERIALS

Minerals and Rocks
Identification of minerals
-Physical properties- study of hand
specimen
-Optical Properties- study of thin sections
using a polarizing microscope, also called a
petrographic microscope
Physical properties of minerals
Crystal habit/Shape
Luster
Color
Streak
Cleavage
Fracture
Hardness
Density/Specific Gravity
Other-Magnetism, reaction with acid
3
Crystal Habit/Form
For well developed crystals, FORM and HABIT are excellent diagnostic property. Form
refers to a group of crystal faces, related by their crystal symmetry.
A crystal form is a set of crystal faces that are related to each other by symmetry.
Luster
-the way mineral surface reflects light
-Three types: Metallic - reflects light well
non metallic
submetallic luster
Metallic Luster of Pyrite
Vitreous Luster of Gypsum
Non Metallic Luster

of Ba-Silicate
7
Color
-In some cases it is diagnostic property, but in others it is ambiguous
or even misleading
-color results from absorption, or lack of absorption, of various
wavelengths of light. When all wavelengths of visible light is
reflected back, the mineral appears white. When all are absorbed
mineral appears black.
Trace elements (0.1 wt% concentration) that produce typical color

(called Chromophores)
Co: violet-red color
Cr: orange-red color
Cu: azure blue color
Fe: red color
Mn: pink color
Ni: green color
V: red-orange color
Most transition elements impart color in minerals.
8
Color in Quartz
Streak
- Streak is actually the color of the
powder of a mineral, in many ways is
the true color of the mineral
- Useful for distinguishing oxide and
sulfides
- to test for streak, rub a mineral across

a tile of white unglazed porcelain and
examine the color of the streak left
behind
10
Streak
(cherry) Red
streak of
Hematite
dark gray
streak of
Galena
Pyrite (known as Fool's Gold) is

always brassy yellow, but has
black streak
11
What is the streak of minerals harder

than the streak plate?
A streak plate is only about 6.5 in hardness
and a mineral harder than 6.5 will not leave
a streak on a streak plate but might scratch
the plate leaving a white powder of
porcelain, not the mineral
12
Cleavage
When a mineral breaks it does so either by fracturing or
by cleaving.
Crystal cleavage produces flat crystal face. Cleavage
represents planes of weak bonding in a crystal structure
reproducible- a crystal can be broken along the same
parallel plane over and over again
all cleavage must parallel a possible crystal face
the same mineral will always, always have the same
cleavage
the angle between cleavages is also important to note
and maybe diagnostic
Mineralogists 1st hand Classification:
perfect, imperfect, good, distinct, indistinct, and poor
13
Fracture
The way a mineral tends to break.
Any broken surface that is not a cleavage
14
Cleavage & Fracture
15
Cleavage
Types
16
Cleavage plane in Mica

Silicate layer
Aluminum
hydroxide layer
Sandwich
Aluminum atom
Silicate layer
Potassium ions
Cleavage
occurs
between
layers.
Sandwich
Muscovite:
KAl2(AlSi3O10)(OH)2
Biotite:
17
Mica and its cleavage
18
Rhombic cleavage
Calcite
Gypsum
19
The Geologist Can Find An Ordinary

Quartz, (that) Tourists Call Diamond
The hardness of a mineral is its ability to
resist abrasion or scratching
20
Specific Gravity
Specific gravity is a measure of the density of a mineral
Ex: Gold can easily be distinguished from "fool's gold" by specific
gravity alone
SG = rMineral/rwater
At 4 C density of water is 1 gm/cm3

So at 4 C SG = rMineral
At room T also, the density of water is ~1 gm/cm3, so we ignore the
minor differences in density and specific gravity
If a mineral has a SG of 2, then it is twice as dense as water.
The SG of most minerals that on the earths crust have a specific
gravity of approximately 2.75. Non-metallic minerals tend to be
of a low density.
Berman Balance Technique
SG = weightair/(weightair weightwater)
21
Other Characteristic Properties

Magnetism: ex: magnetite
Acid Reaction: Calcite reaction with HCl

Odor: sulfur smell, clay minerals have
Earthy smell, Arsenic minerals have garlic
smell etc.
Taste: Halite
22
What are rocks?

Rocks are naturally occurring solid
aggregates of minerals, or in some cases,
non-mineral solid matter.
Identity is determined by:
texture and
composition
23
Types of rocks
24
25
Igneous rocks
26
27
Sedimentary rocks
Lithification:
Compaction and
cementation
28
Metamorphic rocks
29
The rock cycle
30
The rock cycle
31

1. Draw a simple diagram to show how silicon and oxygen
in silicate minerals share electrons.
2. Diopside, a pyroxene, has the formula (Ca, Mg)2Si2O6.
What does that tell you about its crystal structure and
cation substitution?
3. What physical properties of sheet silicates are related to

their crystal structure?
4. There are at least eight physical properties one can use
to identify unknown minerals. Which ones are most
useful in discriminating between minerals that look
32
alike?
5. What geologic processes transform a sedimentary rock

into an igneous rock?
6. Which igneous intrusion would you expect to have a
wider contact metamorphic zone: one intruded by a
very hot magma or one intruded by a cooler magma?
33

Anion and cation
Atom
Atomic mass and number
Bedding
Chemical and biochemical sediments
Cleavage and color
Contact metamorphism
Covalent bond
Crystal and crystal habit
Density
Electron
Electron sharing and electron transfer
Erosion
Extrusive and intrusive igneous rock
Foliation
34

Fracture
Hardness
Igneous rock
Ionic bond
Isotope
Lithification
Luster
Metallic bond
Metamorphic rock
Mineral and mineralogy
Mohs scale of hardness
Neutron
Nucleus
Ore
Polymorph
35

Precipitate
Proton
Regional metamorphism
Rock and rock cycle
Sediment and sedimentary rock
Siliclastic sediments
Specific gravity
Streak
Texture
Vein deposit
Weathering
36
Understanding Earth
Seventh Edition
Chapter 4:
IGNEOUS ROCKS
Solids from Melts
About Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks form from liquid rock

(magma) in several different ways.
Igneous processes within the Earth

produce intrusive igneous rocks.
Igneous processes on or near Earths
surface produce extrusive igneous
rocks.
2
Lecture Outline
1. How do igneous rocks differ from one
another?
2. How do magmas form?
3. Magmatic differentiation
4. Forms of igneous intrusions

5. Igneous processes and plate tectonics
1. How do igneous rocks differ
from one another?

Texture size of crystals
Coarse-grained rocks
Fine-grained rocks
Mixed texture rocks
mineral and chemical composition
4
1. How do igneous rocks differ

from one another?
Coarse-grained
rocks
Fine-grained
rocks
1. How do igneous rocks differ from one

another?
Texture is related to rate of cooling.

cooling rate
crystal size
Slow cooling
larger crystals
Fast cooling
small crystals
Extremely Rapid cooling
Intrusive
igneous rocks
Extrusive
no crystals/glass
igneous
rocks
6
Pyroclasts
Volcanic ash
Bomb
Pumice
Extrusive pyroclasts
form in violent
eruptions from lava
in the air.
Extrusive rocks
Porphyry
Intrusive rocks
Pumice- lava froth, molten rock

frozen as its dissolved gases are lost
Tuff- lithified pyroclasts
Obsidian: volcanic glass
Tuff- lithified pyroclasts
Pyroclasts
Volcanic ash
Extrusive rocks
Porphyry
Bomb
Mafic
Basalt
Pumice
Felsic
Rhyolite
form in violent
eruptions from lava
in the air.
Extrusive igneous
rocks cool rapidly
and are finegrained.
Intrusive rocks
Pyroclasts
Volcanic ash
Extrusive rocks
Bomb
Pumice
Mafic
Basalt
Felsic
Rhyolite
Gabbro
Granite
Porphyry
form in violent
eruptions from lava
in the air.
Extrusive igneous
rocks cool rapidly
Intrusive igneous
rocks cool slowly,
allowing large,
coarse crystals to
form.
Intrusive rocks
10
Pyroclasts
Volcanic ash
Extrusive rocks
Bomb
Pumice
Mafic
Basalt
Felsic
Rhyolite
Gabbro
Granite
Porphyry
Intrusive rocks
form in violent
eruptions from lava
in the air.
Extrusive igneous
rocks cool rapidly
Intrusive igneous
rocks cool slowly,
allowing large,
coarse crystals to
form.
Phenocrysts
Some phenocrysts
grow large, but the
remaining melt cools
faster, forming smaller
crystals.
Porphyritic Texture
11
Porphyritic Texture
Opx
Andesite porphyry with

amphibole phenocrysts
plagioclase
View under microscope
The larger crystals are called PHENOCRYSTS and are

surrounded by fine-grained matrix called GROUNDMASS
What kind of cooling results porphyritic texture?

12
Chemical and mineral composition

of igneous rocks
Four compositional groups: Based on
SiO2 content of rock
- Felsic igneous rocks
- Intermediate igneous rocks
- Mafic igneous rocks

- Ultramafic igneous rocks
13
Light
colored
Feldspar + silica
Dark
colored
Magnesium + Ferric
(Fe3+)
14
Peridotite
Viscosity: measure of liquids resistance to flow: Ropy lava

(low ) vs. Blocky lava (high )
15
Lava Flow in Hawaii (Ropy Lava)
16
2. How do magmas form?
Why do rocks melt?- Changing T, P, and

chemical composition
17
Stability diagram for aluminous Lherzolite:
1 GPa = 10,000 bar
Plagioclase
shallow (< 50 km; up
to 10 Kb)
Spinel
50-80 km; > 10 Kb
Garnet
80-400 km; > 25 Kb
Si VI-fold
coordination
(octahedral) > 400 km
Note: the mantle will not melt

under normal oceanic geotherm!
What is liquidus and solidus?
18
3. Where do magmas form?

A temperature of about 1000C
is required for partial melting process
by which a part of the rock melts).
A depth of at least 40 km is
required for temperatures of
1000C to occur.
19
4. Magmatic differentiation-
Diversification of Magma
A process by which rocks of
varying composition can arise
from a uniform parent magma. Occurs
because different minerals crystallize
at different temperatures.
The first minerals to crystallize from a

cooling magma are the ones that are
the last to melt.
20
Fractional crystallization is
the process by which the
crystals are formed in a cooling
magma and are segregated
from the remaining liquid.
Example: basaltic intrusion like
Palisades, New Jersey
21
BOWENS REACTION SERIES
22
5. Forms of magmatic intrusion

Plutons- large igneous bodies formed at
depth
Discordant intrusions cut across country layer
- Batholiths largest plutons covering at
least 100 km2.
- Stocks- smallest pluton
- Dikes
Concordant intrusions- parallel to bedding
planes
- Sills
- Veins
23
Lava flow
Country
rock
Ash falls and pyroclasts
Volcano
Volcanic neck with

radiating dikes
Stock
Sill
Sill
Sill
Dikes cut
across layers
of country
rock
but sills run
parallel to them.
Batholiths are the largest
forms of plutons, covering
at least 100 km2.
24
25
How can you distinguish a Sill

from a lava flow?
Lavas flows have vesicles (degassing) and
ropy or blocky structures (depending on how
easily they can flow), but sills dont.
Sills are coarse-grained because they cool
slowly.
Rocks above and below sills show effect of

heating (contact metamorphism).
26
6. Igneous activity and plate tectonics
27
6. Igneous activity and plate tectonics
Origin of magma in magmatic

geosystems:
- Decompression melting in
spreading centers
- Fluid-induced melting in
subduction zones
28
The Ophiolite Suite of Rocks
29
Decompression melting: spreading

centers
Pillow lava
Newer, thinner
sediments
Older, thicker
sediments
Sheeted dikes
in basalt
Oceanic
crust
Gabbro
Moho
Peridotite layer
Mantle
Spreading
center
30
Dikes
A thin dike erupts,

spilling lava in
pillows.
Dikes intruding dikes
Hot mantle rises,

decompresses,
and melts.
Pillow lava
Newer, thinner
sediments
Older, thicker
sediments
Sheeted dikes
in basalt
Oceanic
crust
Gabbro
Cold
seawater
Sheeted
dikes
Sediments are
deposited on
the spreading
seafloor.
The gabbro layer
metamorphoses
by contact with
the magma.
Moho
Peridotite layer
Mantle
Dikes intrude
dikes to form
sheeted dikes.
Spreading
center
Heated
seawater
carrying
dissolved
minerals
Magma chamber
Peridotite layer
Mantle
Seawater filters
through the
basalt layer,
where it is heated.
The heated seawater

then rises. Dissolved
minerals precipitate in
the ocean.
Crystals settle out

of the magma,
forming the
peridotite layer.
31
Fluid-induced melting subduction

zones
Trench
Oceanic sediments
Magma chamber
Oceanic crust basalt

Oceanic mantle
lithosphere
Asthenosphere
Subducting oceanic crust

carries sediments with it.
32
Magma of intermediate
composition is erupted
to form arc volcanoes.
Molten sediments
combine with
lithospheric magma.
Trench
Oceanic sediments
Magma chamber
Oceanic crust basalt

Oceanic mantle
lithosphere
The water
and molten
sediments melt
parts of the
overlying plate.
Asthenosphere
Subducting oceanic crust

carries sediments with it.
H2O
H2O
H2O
Water remains trapped

as the pressure and
temperature increase.
Sediment
grains
Water
The trapped water is

released as the
temperature increases,
causing the
sedimentary
rocks to melt
at lower
temperatures.
33

1. How would you classify a coarse-grained igneous
rock that contains about 50 percent pyroxene and 50
percent olivine?
2. What kind of rock would contain some plagioclase
feldspar crystals about 5 mm long floating in a dark
gray matrix of crystals less than 1 mm?
3. If you were to drill a hole through the crust of a midocean ridge, what intrusive or extrusive igneous
rocks might you expect to encounter at or near the
surface?
4. What observations would show that a pluton
solidified during fractional crystallization?
34

5. Why are plutons more likely than dikes to show the
effects of fractional crystallization?
6. What might be the origin of a rock composed almost
entirely of olivine?
7. What processes create the unequal sizes of crystals
in porphyries?
8. Water is abundant in the sedimentary rocks and
oceanic crust of subduction zones. How would the
water affect melting in these zones?
9. Why are granitic and andesitic rocks so plentiful?
35

Andesite
Basalt
Batholith
Concordant intrusion
Country rock
Dacite
Decompression melting
Dike
Discordant intrusion
Extrusive igneous rock
Felsic rock
Fluid-induced melting
Fractional crystallization
Gabbro
Granodiorite
Hydrothermal vein
Intermediate igneous rock
Intrusive igneous rock
Mafic rock
Magma chamber
Magmatic differentiation
Obsidian
Ophiolite suite
Partial melting
Pegmatite
Peridotite
Pluton
Porphyry
Pumice
36
Pyroclast

Rhyolite
Sill
Stock
Tuff
Ultramafic rock
Vein
Viscosity
Volcanic ash
37

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ESO 213A

Fundamentals of Earth Sciences

MWF 10:00-11:00 (L4)

Esha Ray (esha@iitk.ac.in) Office hour: T & Th: 4-5 PM (Old

Mahesh Halder maheshh@iitk.ac.in; Manab Mukherjee

(1) J. Grotzinger and T. Jordan, Understanding Earth, 2010 (7th Ed.),

(2) Stephen Marshak, Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 2015 (5th Ed.), W. W.

Grades will be based on:

The final course grade will be calculated out of 100 points

Introduction to Igneous Rocks

Introduction to Sedimentary Rocks

Coupled processes in Earth System

Coupled processes in Earth System

ESO 213A (Tentative

Mid Sem Recess

Geological resource (hydrocarbon)

End Sem Examination

Determining the Age and Size of the Universe

Doppler Effect & Redshift

The spectrum of H2 gas (656nm)

Galaxy KUG 1217 Galaxy UGC 12508 Galaxy UGC 12915

Evidences of Big Bang: Redshift

Time ships- bringing past events into the present

The Hubble Space Telescope

The Very Large Telescope of the European Southern

November 2, 1995: Eagle Nebula captured by the Hubble

Keplers supernova (Explosion of a star):

Structure formation has produced

A part of the large Lagoon

Origin of the Solar System

Hubble Space Telescope images of 4 protoplanetary

The Nebular Hypothesis: Immanuel Kant (1755)

Giant stars burn brightly for just 10 to 20 Ma

Star formation rate

Most stars were formed about 3 Ga after

Origin of Solar System, Earth and Moon

Accreted 4.56 Ga ago, grown to

Did other terrestrial Planets experience a similar early history?

Small Bodies of the Solar System

When an asteroid comes toward Earth, it can miss

Fig. 90,000 catalogued asteroids so far. Asteroids that do not

Asteroid Mining?- contain Ni, Fe, Ti

Small Bodies of the Solar System

Where would you look for such material?

A collision with a 10-km asteroid 65 Ma

NASA Prediction: 1 chance in 300 that

What Do Meteorites Say About the Origin of Earth?

METEORITE CLASSIFICATION CHART

Is chondritic model valid?

Representation of the range of values of oxygen

Early Earth: Formation of a Layered Planet

Giant Impact hypothesis- 40 Ma after Earth

Early Earth: Formation of a Layered Planet

Formation of a Layered Planet

By about 4.4 Ga ago, in less than 200 Ma since its

Small droplets of molten metal sink to the base of a magma

Earths Ocean and

Earths Ocean and Atmosphere

A speculative history of temperature, water, and

Did other terrestrial Planets experience

Diversity of the Planets

85% lava flow

Surface Temperature: -233 to 123 C; no atmosphere

Did our Earth also experience