INTRODUCTION

The kidney is the main organ of the urinary system. Its primary function is to remove harmful
toxins from the blood and expel them from the body, via the urine. important functions such
as 'regulating blood pressure', 'producing some vital hormones' and regulating certain other
biological functions and plays a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis. . . A damaged kidney
cannot function efficiently to remove urea, ions, water, etc., from the blood. This malfunctioning
results in the accumulation of toxic wastes like urea (uremia), which can lead to death A
damaged kidney cannot function efficiently to remove urea, ions, water, etc., from the blood.
This malfunctioning results in the accumulation of toxic wastes like urea (uremia), which can
lead to death
Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a metabolic disorder characterized by either insufficient amounts of
insulin being produced by the pancreas or the ineffective use of insulin by the body's cells. It can
be classified as either type 1 or type 2. After eating a meal, blood sugar levels tend to rise. In a
healthy person, this is a signal for the beta cells to secrete insulin, which transports the glucose
from the bloodstream into cells, thereby keeping the blood sugar level within normal range.
Diabetes mellitus causes glucose levels to build up in the blood and urine, which causes
excessive urination, thirst, hunger, and problems with fat and protein metabolism
Insulin is a hormone that helps the body's cells to absorb glucose (sugar. Insulin is manufactured
by cells in the pancreas, called beta cells, where it plays a crucial role in converting glucose into
useable energy. With most diabetic patients, this system of regulating blood sugar levels does not
function efficiently. Due to low levels of insulin produced by the pancreas, or the inefficient use
of insulin by the body, the cells are prevented from absorbing glucose. This causes the glucose
levels in the blood to rise above normal levels.
Type 1 DM
Type 1 DM tends to first occur in young adults and children. It is sometimes referred to as
insulin-dependent or juvenile-diabetes With type 1 DM, the body stops producing insulin, or
does not produce enough. Patients must, therefore, take daily insulin injections or use an insulin
pump.
Type 2 DM
Type 2 DM first occurs more often in people over the age of 40 It is sometimes known as noninsulin dependent or adult-onset-diabetes. This is much more common Many people with type 2
do not respond properly to their own insulin or to injected insulin. This is sometimes referred to
as an insulin-resistance condition
Symptoms of Diabetes and Kidney Disease

Due to low levels of insulin or the poor response to insulin, the cells are prevented from
absorbing glucose. Consequently, there is a buildup of glucose in the blood. When this blood
(with excessive glucose) passes through the kidneys, these organs cannot absorb all of the excess
glucose. This excess glucose accompanied by water, goes into the urine and causes frequent
urination, in order to get rid of the additional water drawn into the urine.
This, in turn, triggers excessive thirst and hunger, to replace the water and the glucose lost in
urination. Additional symptoms may include:

hypertension,
blurred vision,
unexplained weight loss,
irritability,
weakness,
fatigue, and
nausea and vomiting.

Dialysis is the process of artificially removing wastes from the blood. This becomes necessary
when the kidneys fail
When there is complete and irreversible kidney failure, known as end stage renal disease
(ESRD), dialysis helps to clean the blood and avoid the accumulation of toxins in the body.
Someone who is suspected of having kidney failure will undergo extensive blood tests to assess
the levels of creatinine, blood urea nitrogen, uric acid, phosphate, sodium, and potassium in the
blood. Dialysis involves circulating the blood outside of the body through an extra corporeal
circuit (ECC) or dialysis-circuit. This circuit is made up of plastic tubing, a filter known as a
dialyzer (or artificial kidney), and a dialysis machine. Dialysate (dialysis fluid) is a sterile
chemical solution that is used to draw waste products out of the blood. Fluid removal takes place
after the blood leaves the body and passes through
the extra corporeal circuit (ECC) and the dialyzer (filter). . The dialysis tubing is made up
of cellulose fibers. This is shaped in a flat tube
Blood is pumped from the radial artery (in the arm) through the machine, where it is filtered.
Harmful wastes and extra salt and fluids are removed. The clean blood is then returned to the
body by way of a vein in the arm.The duration of one course of dialysis (called a "run") may last
for three to four hours. ). The dialysis fluid has the same concentration as normal tissue fluid, but
nitrogenous wastes and excess salts are absent.
During dialysis, the blood of the patient is withdrawn from an artery and cooled at 0C. It is
maintained in a liquid state by adding an anticoagulant and by other special treatments. It is
pumped through the dialysis machine. Here, the nitrogenous waste products from the blood

diffuse into the dialysis fluid. The purified blood is then warmed to the body temperature and
pumped back into the patients body through a vein.

Kidney transplant (renal transplant) is a surgical procedure that involves the removal of a
healthy kidney from a donor, and transplanting it to a kidney patient (recipient). Transplant
Considerations
The greatest concern after a transplant is rejection of the new kidney, by the recipient's immune
system. There is always the risk that the recipient's immune system might attack the new
kidney. Rejection is when your bodys defense system called the immune system guards against
attack by all foreign matter, such as bacteria. To help avoid this, you will need to take
antirejection medications (also called immunosuppressants) every day to help stop rejection of
your new kidney. Specific risks related to this procedure include:

Heart attack or stroke

Blood clots (deep venous thrombosis)
Wound infections
Side effects from medicines used to prevent transplant rejection
Loss of transplanted kidney

You may need to continue following a special diet. The diet may include:

Eating foods low in protein

Getting enough calories if you are losing weight
Limiting fluids
Limiting salt, potassium, phosphorous, and other electrolytes

Diabetes mellitus is a very serious condition and should not be taken lightly. It affects the
quality of a patient's life and is responsible for almost 4 million deaths per year. If you are not
diabetic... then prevention is the best way to avoid the complications associated with diabetes
and kidney disease. Healthier lifestyle choices like
healthy diet
regular exercise
avoidance of harmful substances (such as tobacco and drugs), will go a long way in
preventing and slowing the effects of this terrible disease.

AIM AND SCOPE

This experiment was conducted to investigate the selective permeability of dialysis tubing. The
permeability of the tubing to glucose, starch and iodine (potassium iodide) was tested. . This
experiment showed that dialysis tubing is selective in its permeability to molecules. It was
permeable to glucose and iodine but not starch. . This exchange of materials between the cell and
its surroundings is crucial to its existence. Cells have membranes composed of a phospholipid
bilayer embedded with proteinsSelective permeability is a property of a cell membrane that
allows it to control which molecules can pass (moving into and out of the cell) through the pores
of the membrane. Selective permeable membranes only allows small molecules such as glucose,
amino acids to readily pass through, and inhibits larger molecules like protein, starch, from
passing through itThe dialysis tubing is a semi-permeable membrane tubing used in separation
techniques and demonstration of diffusion, osmosis, and movement of molecules across a
restrictive membrane. . This experiment consists of two tests; the test for starch and the test for
reducing sugar. When iodine (potassium iodide) is added to a solution in which starch is present,
the solution turns blue-black or purple otherwise it remains yellow-amber. And when Benedicts
reagent is added to a solution in which reducing sugar is present and it is heated in a water bath,
the solution turns green, yellow, orange, red, and then brick red or brown (with high
concentration of sugar present). Otherwise, the solution remains blue

MATERIALS AND METHOD

Beakers
Dialysis Tubing
Test Tubes
Test Tubes rack
Clips
Water Bath
Water
SOLUTIONS:
Benedicts reagent
Glucose
Starch
Iodine (Potassium Iodide)

EXPERIMENT PROCEDURE:
1. 250 ml of tap water was added to a beaker. Several droppers of Iodine (Potassium Iodide)
solution was added to the water until it was visibly yellow-amber in color. The color was
then recorded.
2. The dialysis tubing was soaked in water for a few minutes until it began to open. One end
of the bag was folded and clipped in order to secure it so that no solution seeped through.
3. The other end of the tubing was opened so that it forms a bag and 4ml of glucose and 3ml
of starch was fed into it. The bag was also closed and its content was mixed. The color of
the solution was then recorded.
4. The outside of the bag was rinsed in tap water.
5. The magnetic stirrer and then the bag was placed in the beaker. The other end of the bag
was made to hang over the edge of the beaker.
6. 6.the bag was left in the beaker for about 30 min,as the beaker was being stirred
7. After 30 minutes, the bag was carefully removed and made to stand in a dry beaker. The
final color of the solutions was recorded.
8. Benedict test was performed to test for the presence of reducing sugar in the solution in
the bag, beaker and tap water (serves as control).
a) 3 test tubes were labelled control, bag and beaker.
b) 2 ml of water was added to the control test tube. 2 ml of the bag solution was added to the
bag test tube and 2 ml of the beaker solution was added to the beaker test tube.
c) 2 ml of Benedicts reagent was added to each test tube and was suspended in a boiling
water bath for 10 minutes. The color change was recorded.

OBSERVATIONS
Solution Source

Original Contents

Original Color

Final Color

Color after
Benedicts test

Bag

Starch and Glucose

Colorless

Blue-black

Brown

Beaker

Water and Iodine

Yellow-amber

Pale yellow-amber

Brown

Control

Water

Colorless

Blue

Blue

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

The solution in the bag turned blue-black in color owing to the movement of molecules of iodine
from the beaker to the bag which contains starch. The solution in the beaker turned brown after
Benedicts test. This indicated the presence of glucose in the beaker. This means that the tubing
was permeable to both glucose and iodine but not starch. It is known that starch didnt pass
because the solution in the beaker which contains iodine didnt turn blue-black in color, but
remained yellow-amber. The dialysis tubing was not permeable to all the three solutionsglucose, starch and Iodine (Potassium Iodide). Rather, the tubing was permeable to glucose and
iodine but not starch. This could be known from the color change in the solutions in the beaker
and the bag. The tubing was permeable to iodine and so the content of the bag turned blue-black
in color indicating the presence of starch. Glucose also readily passed through the pores of the
membrane. After performing Benedicts test on the solutions, the bags solution as well as the
beakers solution turned brown in color. This shows the presence of reducing sugar in both
solutions, meaning that glucose passed into the beaker from the bag.

CONCLUSION
It was concluded that the dialysis tubing doesnt allow all kinds of substances to pass readily
through the pores of its membrane. This means that it is selective in its permeability to
substances. The dialysis tubing was permeable to glucose and iodine but not to starch. Starch was
excluded because it has a larger molecular size than glucose and iodine.
PRECAUTIONS
It was ensured that the right quantity of solutions was used in every part of the experiment.
It was also ensured that the time required for the successful complement of the experiment was
adhered to.
It was ensured that all apparatus used were handled with caution.
And also, the dialysis tubing was clipped well on both ends to secure it so that no solution seeped
through

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ramlingam.S.T.(2008)Modern Biology.Onitsha:African First Publishers.
Todd,I.S.(2012).Dialysis:History,Development and Promise.World Scientific Publishing Co Pte
Ltd.d