BI152 Review Sheet 1

Complete (typed) for up to an additional 5 points on your exam. All answers should be in the students
own words. Due 7/13/16 at the beginning of class.
1. Describe the major characteristics of the endocrine system and compare/contrast those
characteristics to the nervous system
It helps to maintain homeostasis and it works with the nervous system to respond to stress.
A endocrine gland is stimulated by a (hormone, a nerve impulse, a change in environment) it
releases hormones in response, hormones released effects a target cell
Hormones are chemical messengers secreted by cells into extracellular fluid; these messengers
travel through the blood and regulate the metabolic function of other cells in the body. Binding a
hormone to a cellular receptor initiates responses that usually occur after a lag period of seconds
or even days. These responses last much longer than those induced by nervous system.
The major processes that it controls/integrate: 1) reproductive functions 2) growth and
development 3) chemical balances in blood (electrolytes, water, and nutrient balance) 4) regulates
cellular metabolism and energy balance 5) mobilization of body defenses
Endocrine glands lack ducts. Cells are surrounded in fenestrated (holes) capillaries that can
absorb secretions into the blood.
Endocrine glands include Pineal gland, Hypothalamus, Pituitary gland, Thyroid gland,
Parathyroid glands, Thymus gland, Adrenal glands, Pancreas, Ovary, Testis and Placenta
Autocrines and paracrines are short distance chemical signals that travel in the blood or lymph
throughout the body
Pathways it uses
Signaling molecule
Impulses that it uses
Speed of the impulses
The responses are
Duration of the impulse
Area signal controls (target
cells)
Chemical released by
Chemical released into
Effector

Nervous
Nervous System
Neurotransmitter
Electrochemical
Fast
Voluntary or Involuntary
Short (short term process)
Local (only a few cells)

Endocrine
Bloodstream
Hormones
Chemical
Slow
Involuntary
Long (long term process)
Global (controls many cells)

Neurons
Synapse
Neuron/ muscle fiber

Glands
Bloodstream
Organ (receptors)

2. What are the major classes of hormones? How are they synthesized and what are the
precursors for that synthesis?
Amino Acid Based
o Monoamines
o Peptides
o Proteins
Steroids

Amino acid based water soluble except thyroid hormone. Act on receptors in the plasma
membrane. Receptors are couple via regulatory molecules called G proteins to one or more
intracellular second messengers which mediate the targets cell response. Unable to cross cell
membrane.
Steroids - Synthesized from cholesterol in the smooth ER in the adrenal cortex and gonads via
enzymatic action .Synthesized as needed and immediately released into the blood because they
cannot be stored. Have long half-lives and are hydrophobic do not float freely in blood. They are
bound to carrier proteins. Steroid hormones cross the cellular membrane and bind to
intracellular receptors that are within the nucleus and regulate gene transcription. Enzymatic
reactions synthesize various hormones. Act through intracellular nuclear receptors to directly
change gene expression
Monoamines Derived from amino acids tryptophan, tyrosine and phenylalanine. Synthesizes
melatonin and thyroid hormone.
Peptides Made from amino acids; synthesized by transcription and translation. Synthesized in
advanced and stored in lipid vesicles until needed. They have short half lives and are hydrophilic.
Act on receptors in target cell membrane and it activates second messenger systems. It causes a
cascade of reactions within the cell. Along with gene transcription and protein translation it
requires post translational modifications
Proteins - Many protein hormones are synthesized as prohormones, and then proteolytically
clipped to generate their mature form. Sometimes the hormone is originally embedded within the
sequence of a larger precursor, and then released by multiple proteolytic cleavages.
3. How do hormones target only a certain type of cell and what are the potential effects on that
cell?
Hormone influences the activity of only those tissue cells that have receptors for it. These cells
are its target cells. The precise response depends on the target cell type. Response of the cells
depends on the physiology of that cell. Potential effect on that cell include
o Alteration of plasma membrane permeability or membrane potential by opening and
closing ion channels
o Stimulate gene transcription/protein synthesis
o Regulates enzyme activity (Activates or deactivates enzymes)
o Induces secretory activity
o Stimulates mitosis ( Regulates cell development/differentiation/division)
4. Compare and contrast how amino acid and steroid based hormones access and activate
their target cells (specific signaling cascades NOT needed for this question). What hormone
is the exception?
Amino Acid Hormones ( Water Soluble Hormones)
o Amino acid derived hormones are water soluble (except thyroid). The hormone acting as
the first messenger binds to its receptor in the plasma membrane
o Receptor activates G protein. Hormone binding causes the receptor to change shape
allowing it to bind to inactive G protein.
o Binding to GPCR activates linked g-protein (Gs or Gi GDP unbinds and GTP binds (high
energy)) The g protein behaves like a light switch it is off when GDP is bound to it and
on when GTP is bound.
o G protein activates the enzyme adenylate cyclase to generate to convert ATP to cAMP
(Second messenger).

5.

6.

7.

8.

Cyclic AMP activates protein kinases which are enzymes that phosphorylate various
proteins/enzymes. Phosphorylation activates some of these proteins and inhibits others it
may affect a variety of processes in the same target cell at the same time
o Alters cellular function
o This type of intracellular enzymatic cascade has a huge amplification effect. One
molecule regulates multiple molecules in the next step of cascade.
One hormone molecule affects millions in the cell
Amplification gets shut off by phosphodiesterase degrading cAMP
o Certain hormones use different second messenger. PIP2 calcium signaling mechanism
intracellular calcium ions act as a second messenger
o Certain GPCRs are linked to Gq protein that activates a different cascade. PIP2 calcium
signaling mechanism involves G protein (Gq) and a membrane bound effector an enzyme
called phospholipase C.
o Gq protein activates membrane protein phospholipase
o Phospholipase splits PIP 2 (membrane lipid ) into IP3 and DAG
o IP3 released calcium from intracellular store. Calcium itself acts as a second messenger
either by directly altering the activity of a specific enzymes and channels or by binding to
the intracellular regulatory protein calmodulin. Once they bind it activates enzymes that
amplify the cellular response.
o DAG activates protein kinases which phosphorylates various proteins/enzymes (triggers
responses within the target cell).
Steroids Hormones
o Diffuses through the plasma membrane and binds an intracellular receptor
o The receptor hormone complex enters the nucleus
o The receptor hormone complex binds a specific DNA region
o Binding initiates transcription of the gene to mRNA
o The mRNA directs protein synthesis
o Alters cellular function
Describe the Gs signaling cascade.
It stimulates adenylate cyclase. GTP binds to g protein; for as long as the Gs is bound adenylate
cyclase generates the second messenger cAMP from ATP. Each activated adenylate cyclase
generates a large number of cAMP molecules and a single kinase enzyme can catalyze hundreds
of reactions. A single hormone molecule binding to a receptor can generate millions of final
product molecules.
Describe the Gq signaling cascade
o It activates membrane protein phospholipase. Phospholipase splits PIP2 into IP3 and
DAG. DAG like cAMP activates protein kinase enzyme which triggers response within
the target cell. IP3 release calcium from intracellular storage that take on second
messenger role either by directly altering the activity of a specific enzymes and channels
or by binding to the intracellular regulatory protein calmodulin. Once they bind, it
activates enzymes that amplify the cellular response.
Describe how steroid hormones alter the function of a target cell
Hormones travel to target cells in other parts of the body and cause a variety of changes in the
target areas. Changes caused by hormones include changes in gene expression in target cells by
acting as a transcription factor. It prompts transcription of DNA to produce a messenger RNA.
mRNA directs protein translation which alters the function of the cell.
List and describe the three types of stimuli that can stimulate hormone release

Humoral Stimulus
o Hormones release caused by altered levels of certain critical ions or nutrients in the blood
Neural Stimulus
o Nerves fibers stimulate hormone release ex) neural stimuli response to stress- adrenal
release of epinephrine/norepinephrine in response to sympathetic stimulation
Hormonal Stimulus
o Hormone secretions controlled by the concentration of other hormones in the
bloodstream
All are under nervous system control

9. Explain the variables that can alter the effect of hormones on a target cell as well as those
that control hormone concentration in the blood.
Cell must have specific receptor proteins on its plasma membrane or its interior to which that
hormone can bind
Sufficient concentration of hormone in the blood highly dynamic
o Up-regulation low hormones= increased number of receptors=increased sensitivity
o Down-regulation high hormone concentration = decreased number of receptors=
decreased sensitivity
High number of receptors on target cells highly dynamic (produces a pronounced hormonal
effect)
Strong interaction (affinity) between hormone and receptors
- Variables that control hormone concentration in the blood
o Rate of release of hormones into the blood
o Speed at which it is inactivated and removed from the body via liver/kidney
o The length of time for a hormones blood level to decrease by half referred to as its half
life. Water soluble hormones have the shortest half lives
10. List and describe the three ways by which hormones interact.

Synergistic - When combinations of hormones acting together have a greater effect on a target
cell than the sum of the effects that each would have if acting alone
Permissive A small amount of one hormone permits, or enables second one to have its full
effects on a target cell
Antagonistic - one hormone produces the opposite effects of another hormone
11. What is the relationship between the hypothalamus and posterior pituitary gland? Where
are hormones that get released from the posterior produced? Where do they go and how do
they get there?
Hypothalamus controls the release of hormones from the pituitary gland. Hypothalamus is part of
the brain and it receives all the signals from the brain. Then it passes the signals to pituitary gland
that secretes hormones that regulate other glands from a long distance-endocrine control. The
nerve connections signals posterior pituitary gland to secrete hormones.
ADH and Oxytosine are produced in the hypothalamus; which synapse directly on capillaries that
fenestrate the pituitary. Axon terminals in the posterior pituitary release these hormones on
demand in response to action potential that travel down the axons of these same hypothalamic
neurons. ADH and oxytocin are shipped to axon terminals via anterograde transport; released via
action potential firing.
12. List and describe the two hormones that are released from the posterior pituitary gland.
Describe the dysfunctions associated with antidiuretic hormone.

Oxytocin Produced in hypothalamus; released in high concentrations during childbirth to

stimulate uterine contractions as well as during breastfeeding. Initiates response via Gq signaling
(increase in intracellular calcium) Release is stimulated by stretching of the uterus (positive
feedback)
ADH prevents urine formation (control water balance). Osmoreceptors detect changes in solute
concentration its released when high solute concentrations exist. Targets kidney tubule cells that
reabsorb water from urine and its inhibited by alcohol.
o Dysfunction: SIADH - caused by hypersecretion of ADH. Hyponatremia leading to fluid
overload within the body (weight gain), edema and diluted blood solutes. Caused by
meningitis, brain or lung tumors.
13. Describe the signaling pathway between the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary gland.
What hormones signal from the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary gland and what are
the effects of those hormones.
Its a gland that produces and secrets its own hormones. Blood supplied by the superior
hypophyseal artery, branches into primary capillary plexus. Hypothalamus secrets releasing and
inhibiting hormones. Hypothalamic hormones enter primary capillary plexus and travel to
anterior pituitary via hypophyseal portal veins .These stimulate the release of hormones from the
anterior pituitary into the secondary capillary plexus (into general circulation) which regulates
activity of other glands in the body
o Growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) and growth inhibiting hormone (GHIH)
control growth hormone secretion.
o Tyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) stimulates secretion of thyroid stimulating hormone
o Prolactin inhibiting hormone (PIH) inhibits secretions of prolactin
o Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) stimulates secretion of adrenocorticotropic
hormone
o Gonadptropin releasing hormone (GnRH) - stimulates secretion of gonadotropins.
Lutenizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone are regulated by GnRH.
14. What hormones get released from the anterior pituitary gland? How do they get released?
Where do they signal to and what are the effects of those hormones? Describe the
dysfunctions associated with growth hormone and prolactin.
Growth Hormone (GH) GHRH- muscle and bone- Growth; protein production, breakdown of
fat for energy
Thyroid stimulating hormone TRH- thyroid gland-Stimulates release of thyroid hormones
Adrenocorticotropic hormone-CRH- adrenal cortex- Stimulates release of glucocorticoids and
androgens
Follicle Stimulating hormone-GnRH- ovaries in females; testes in males- Females: stimulates
ovarian follicle and estrogen production Males: Stimulates production of sperm
Luteinizing hormone GnRH- ovaries in females; testes in males- Stimulates production of
estrogen and progesterone. Triggers ovulation.
Prolactin PRH- mammary glands- milk production
o
o
o

Acromegaly - hypersecretion of GH in adults. Growth of bones particularly of the face,

hands, and feet
Pituitary Dwarfism -hyposecretion of GH in childhood. Slow growth pattern, small
stature
Gigantism -hypersecretion of GH in childhood. Large body stature

Hypoprolactinemia hyposecretion of PRL. s/s delayed puberty, menstrual disorders in

females, decreased milk production in nursing mothers.
o Hyperprolactinema Hypersecretion of PRL. s/s decreased libido, infertility, irritability,
gynecomastia, amenorrhea and galactorrhea in females, increased breast milk production
in nursing mothers, erectile dysfunction in males.
15. Describe the feedback mechanism between the hypothalamus, anterior pituitary gland and
target glands in the body.
Hypothalamus secrets a releasing hormone while the pituitary secrets stimulating hormone. The
stimulating hormone stimulates gland to secrete hormone. Hormone signals to target organs to
adjust the activity; hormone inhibits hypothalamus and pituitary gland. In negative feedback, a
product near the end of the pathway works to inhibit the reactions at the start of the pathway, so
the reaction rate decreases.
16. Describe the structure of the thyroid gland. Describe thyroid hormone and its functions.
Describe the dysfunctions associated with thyroid hormone.
Butterfly shaped located on the trachea inferior to larynx. Has a large rate of blood flow from the
inferior and superior arteries. Internally the gland is composed of hollow spherical follicles. The
central cavity of the follicle stores colloid consisting of the thyroglobulin molecules with attached
iodine atoms. Follicular cells convert this colloid to TH and secrete TH.
Parafollicular cells located in the thyroid produce calcitonin. Secreted with rise in blood calcium
it stimulates calcium uptake into bone matrix.
o Thyroid hormone increases metabolic rate and heat production, breaks down glucose.
o Development and maturation of skeletal, reproductive and nervous systems
o Controls blood pressure by increasing the number of adrenergic receptors in blood
vessels.
o Thyroid hormone is actually T3 and T4. T3 is formed near target organ and T4 is secreted
into bloodstream.
Myxedema- Hypothyroidism leading to decreased metabolism, feeling cold,
puffy eyes, dry skin and feeling tired/sluggish. If the cause is due to lack of
iodine it will lead to a goiter.
Cretinism lack of iodine in infants or congenital hypothyroidism s/s mental
disabilities, short and disproportionate body
Graves disease Hyperthyroidism; autoimmune disorder that target follicular
cells to stimulate thyroid hormone release. S/S sweating, bulging eyes, elevated
metabolic rate and inability to gain weight
17. How is thyroid hormone synthesized?
o

1. thyroglobulin is synthesized and discharged into the follicle lumen

2. iodide trapped once trapped it moves into the follicle lumen by facilitated diffusion
3. iodide oxidized to iodine and converted to I2
4. Iodine is attached to tyrosines amino acids that form part of the thyroglobulin colloid.
Attachment of one iodine to a tyrosine produces MIT and attachment of two iodines produces
DIT
5. iodinated tyrosines link to form t3 and t4 by the enzymes in the colloid. Two linked DIT form
T4 and MIT and DIT linked form T 3. Hormones are still part of the thyroglobulin colloid
6. Thyroglobulin colloid endocytosed into a lysosome- To secrete hormones the follicular cells
must reclaim iodinated thyroglobulin by endocytosis and combine the vesicles with lysosomes
7. Lysosomal enzymes cleave t3 and t4 from thyroglobulin and the hormones diffuse from the

follicular cell into the bloodstream. The main hormonal product secreted is T4 while T3 is
generated in the peripheral tissues
18. Describe the structure and function of the parathyroid glands and the parathyroid
hormone. Describe the dysfunctions associated with parathyroid hormone.
Its embedded in the thyroid. Parathyroid cells produce parathyroid hormone (PTH) and its
surrounded by adipose tissue. PTH get released in order to raise calcium in blood during
hypocalcaemia. PTH release is inhibited by high calcium concentration. Blood calcium is raised
by digestion of the bone matrix by osteoclasts, activation of vitamin D and reabsorption of
calcium from urine.
o Hypoparathyroidism hyposecretion of PTH. Hypocalemia leading to decreased bone
density. The neurons are depolarizing without stimulation leading to muscle tetany and
loss of sensation. S/S muscle twitching, spasms and convulsions. It can be fetal if left
untreated.
o Hyperparathyroidism Hypersecretion of PTH; usually caused by parathyroid gland
tumors. Hypercalimia leading to decalcification of bone. One has soft bones and bone
pain. Spontaneous bone fractures, renal calculi and depression of the nervous system.
19. Describe the adrenal medulla, the hormones that get released from adrenal medulla and
their action.
Its dark, deep and receives sympathetic input. Medullary chromaffin cells which crowd around
capillaries and sinusoid are modified postganglionic sympathetic neurons. The cells synthesize
the catecholamines. Epinephrine, norepinephrine and dopamine as hormones. Short term stressors
activates the body to fight or flight status. It increases alertness and prepares the body for physical
activity. Blood vessels constrict and hear rate increases; blood is derived from non essential
organs to the heart and skeletal muscles. Epinephrine inhibits insulin secretion preventing glucose
absorption.
20. Describe the adrenal cortex, the hormones that get released from the adrenal cortex and
their action.
The outer portion synthesizes corticosteroids.
o Mineralcorticoids produced in zona glomerulosa. Maintain mineral and water balance in
the body. Regulates electrolytes. Sets the resting membrane potential controlling the ease
of action potential firing. Aldosterone is the most common mineralcorticoid increases
sodium reabsorption-increases blood volume and pressure
o Glucocorticoids produced in the zona fasciculate control energy metabolism in order to
resist stressors. Primary hormone is cortisol it increases blood glucose, fatty acids and
amino acids during stress; gluconeogenesis. Peaks in the morning and is at the lowest
before we go to sleep. Cortisol inhibits release of CRH preventing the release of ACTH.
o Gonadocorticoids produced in the zona reticularis serve as sex hormones. Mostly male
sex hormone, contribute to sex drive in women. Converted to testosterone and estrogen in
target organs.
21. List and describe the various stages of the stress response.

the stress response Triggered by extreme or prolonged stress

Stage 1: Alarm Reaction (Immediate)
Fight or flight reaction; short duration; increases blood flow to brain, heart, and skeletal muscles
(lasts hours to days). Alarm reaction mediated by epinephrine/norepinephrine. Activates
angiotensin and aldosterone levels rise increasing blood pressure.

Stage 2: Stage of Resistance (Alternatives)

Long term response (days to months). Resistance reaction mediated by hypothalamic hormones:
CRH, ACTH, adrenal cortex and glucocorticoids. Metabolites are used for gluconeogenesis.
Resistance reaction results.
Stage 3: Stage of exhaustion (prolonged)
When stressor condition is too severe or prolonged. Protein break down occurs. Adrenal cortex
stops producing glucocorticoids and aldosterone retains water. Exhaustion leads to weakening
of organs, depletion of glucocorticoids and suppression of immune system. It can be fatal.
22. Describe the characteristics and functions of the pineal gland
Roof of the third ventricle, it shrinks by 75% at puberty (involution)
Synthesizes melatonin at night (regulates circadian rhythm)
It receives indirect input from visual pathways
Affects the timing of puberty and sexual maturation.
Exposure to bright light suppresses melatonin secretion. Suprachiasmatic nucleus of the
hypothalamus referred to as our biological clock
23. Describe the characteristics and functions of the pancreas
Posterior and inferior to the stomach
Primarily an exocrine gland main function is digestion
Scattered are 1-2 million clusters called pancreatic islets (endocrine)
5-3000 cells, important in regulating blood glucose
o Alpha cells secrete glucagon (glycogen breakdown in liver, increases blood glucose)
o Beta cells secrete insulin (lowers blood glucose)
o Glucagon and insulin are antagonistic
o Do this thru the liver
24. Describe the characteristics and functions of the gonads
Exocrine Egg and sperm
Endocrine
o Ovaries - Estradiol, progesterone
Development of the reproductive system, feminine physique, regulates menstrual
cycle, pregnancy, lactation
o Testis Testosterone
Development of reproductive system, masculine physique, sex drive, sperm
production
25.

Describe the characteristics and functions of the thymus

Billowed in mediastinum superior to the heart
Undergoes significant involution (decrease in size relative to surrounding organs)
Secretes hormones that stimulate development of lymphatic organs and regulate activity of T
cells (thymopoietin, thymosin, thymulin)

26. Describe the major dysfunctions associated with the adrenal gland.
Adrenal cortex:
o Secrete mineralcorticoids (electrolyte/water balance), glucocorticoids (metabolism) and
gonadocorticoids (male sex hormones and sexual development)
Mineralcorticoids

Hypersecretion of aldosterone (aldosteronism) usually results from tumor of the adrenal

glands
o Excessive Na+ and water retention lead to edema
o Excessive loss of K+ ions from cells
o Leads to paralysis
Glucocorticoids:
o Hypersecretion - Cushings Syndrome and caused by tumor of the pituitary gland
(ACTH release increased) or adrenal cortex. Can also be caused by administration of
glucocorticoid drugs
o Elevated blood glucose, loss in muscle and bone, water and salt retention causing edema
and hypertension
o Other signs include redistribution of fat: moon face, buffalo hump, increased belly. Also
poor wound healing and bruising
o Treatment includes surgical removal of the tumor or discontinuing administration of the
drug
Glucocorticoids:
o Addisons disease is hyposecretion of glucocorticoids
o Weight loss is common, glucose and Na+ levels fall while K+ levels increase depolarizing
o Replacement therapies are sufficient for treatment
Gonadocorticoids:
o Androgenital syndrome is a hypersecretion of gonadocorticoids and leads to
masculinization.
o Not always noticeable in adult males, but it is in prepubescent males (early development
of reproductive organs and secondary sex characteristics, elevated sex drive) and females
(development of beard, masculine body hair distribution, enlarged clitoris that resembles
a small penis).
Adrenal medulla
o Secretes epinephrine, norepinephrine and dopamine as hormones for fight or flight
response
o Hyposecretion has no detrimental effect
Hypersecretion of catecholamines often caused by tumor of the adrenal medulla
o Leads to prolonged sympathetic activity hyperglycemia (high blood glucose),
increased metabolic rate, rapid heart rate, nervousness, sweating, palpitations and
hypertension

27. Describe the major dysfunctions associated with the pancreas.

Pancreas
o Controls blood sugar with glucagon (released glucose from liver) and insulin (liver
absorbs glucose from blood)
Diabetes mellitus
o Inability of insulin to be effective
o Type 1 Genetic, insulin is completely absent
o Type 2 Developed, insulin is present but not sufficiently effective
o Blood glucose remains high after a meal, causing nausea and the initiation of a fight-orflight response
o Glucose soars even higher and is lost in the urine

Three signs of diabetes mellitus

Polyuria Excess glucose in kidney filtrate, which inhibits water reabsorption
from filtrate (large urine output and dehydration)
Polydipsia Excessive thirst caused by large urine output
Polyphagia Excessive hunger caused by inability to use glucose despite being
plentiful
Fats are used as main cellular fuel
o Byproduct of their metabolism are called ketones, which reduce blood pH (ketoacidosis)
and increase ketones in the urine (ketonuria)
o Ketoacidosis is life threatening induces hyperventilation as well as massive loss of
electrolytes
Pancreas
o Hypersecretion of insulin leads to decreased blood glucose, hypoglycemia
Triggers release of glucagon and other hyperglycemic hormones, which causes
anxiety, nervousness, shakiness and weakness
Hypoglycemia can cause dysfunction of the brain due to insufficient glucose
delivery:
Disorientation
Convulsions
Unconsciousness
Death
Treated by ingestion of sugar

28. What are the major functions and characteristics of blood?

Blood transports everything that must be carried from one place to another, such as:
o Nutrients from digestive tract to body cells
o Wastes from cells to elimination sites
o Hormones from endocrine glands to target organs
o Oxygen from lungs to body tissues and carbon dioxide from body tissues to lungs
o Proteins
o Salts
o Water
Also blood is there for regulation and protection
Regulation:
o Body temperature
o Body pH
o Fluid volume
Protection
o Blood clotting preventing blood loss
o Contains antibodies and white blood cells to fight infection
Color
o Oxygen-rich blood is scarlet red
o Oxygen-poor blood is dull red blue - purple color
pH between 7.35 and 7.45
Blood temperature is at 100.4F
Blood volume is about 56 liters

Blood makes up 8% of body weight

The only fluid tissue (90% water) in the human body
Classified as a connective tissue
Components of blood
o Living cells
Formed elements: RBCs, WBCs, Platelets
o Non-living matrix
Plasma contains water, nutrients, gases, hormones, wastes, proteins (including
the carrier albumin), metabolites

29. List and describe the various formed elements of blood.

Erythrocytes
o Red blood cells (RBCs)
o Lack nuclei dont carry DNA, grow or divide
Leukocytes
o White blood cells (WBCs)
Platelets
o Cell fragments
Most formed elements do not divide and only last a few days in the bloodstream
30. Describe the structure and function of erythrocytes.
Erythrocytes (red blood cells, or RBCs)
o Main function is to carry oxygen
o Anatomy of circulating erythrocytes
Biconcave disks large surface area for gas diffusion and gas is close to
membrane regardless of location
Essentially bags of hemoglobin (proteins that bind oxygen 97% of cellular
content)
Anucleate (no nucleus)
Contain very few organelles including mitochondria
5 million RBCs per cubic millimeter of blood is the normal count
31. Describe the structure and function of hemoglobin, and the various forms of hemoglobin.
Hemoglobin is the protein that allows erythrocytes to perform their function of oxygen transport
Contains four iron containing red (gives pigment) heme groups, bound to the protein globin
o Therefore, each hemoglobin molecule can transport four oxygen molecules (one per
heme group)
One red blood cell contains 250 million hemoglobin molecules (~1 billon oxygen molecules per
RBC).
Oxyhemoglobin hemoglobin has that been loaded bind with oxygen that diffused from the
lungs into erythrocytes in capillaries
Deoxyhemoglobin hemoglobin that had been unloaded - unbind with oxygen that diffused
from capillaries into tissue cells (then goes back to the lungs)
Carbominohemoglobin hemoglobin that carries CO2 from body tissues to the lungs (NOT
bound to heme, bound to amino acid on the protein)
o About 20% of CO2 going from body tissues to lungs utilizes this path

32. List and describe the various steps of erythropoiesis

Erythropoiesis (creating red blood cells, takes ~15 days) Starts with commitment of a
hematopoietic stem cell to an erythrocyte by differentiating into a proerythroblast first cell
thats differentiates
o Differentiate into erythroblast (produce large number of ribosomes to synthesize
hemoglobin)
o Differentiation into normoblast signals change from high ribosome concentration to high
iron/hemoglobin more heme, less ribosomes
o Eventually nucleus gets expelled due to overcrowding of hemoglobin: cell becomes a
reticulocyte
o Become mature erythrocytes as leftover ribosomes are degraded

33. What is erythropoietin and how does it control erythrocyte homeostasis? How do
erythrocytes die?
Blood homeostasis Need to produce ~2 million erythrocytes per second in order to maintain
oxygen needs to body tissues.
o Depends on hormones and diet - for iron
Hormonal
o EPO produced by kidney and liver and responds to hypoxic conditions
o Erythropoietin (EPO), stimulates differentiation of erythrocytes
o EPO production also reduced when there are too many erythrocytes
Life span of an erythrocyte ranges from 100-120 days
Cannot synthesize proteins, grow or divide.
Eventually lose flexibility and hemoglobin begins to degenerate
Become trapped and fragment in the spleen
Macrophages destroy and remove erythrocyte fragments
o Hemoglobin is metabolized
o Iron atoms are bound to proteins that keep them in the body
34. Describe the major dysfunctions associated with erythrocytes.
Anemia: Oxygen carrying capacity is too low for normal function and metabolism
o A symptom of a disease but not a disease itself
o Individuals will be fatigued, short of breath, pale and chilled
Three causes:
o Hemorrhagic anemia: rapid blood loss, blood transfusions are needed to treat
o Decreased erythrocyte production: insufficient iron, vitamin B12 deficiency, lack of EPO
or destruction of red bone marrow
o Rapid erythrocyte destruction: caused by hemoglobin abnormalities, infections or
mismatched blood transfusion
Hemoglobin abnormalities: Usually caused by a genetic mutation that alters the structure of
globin
Thalassemias:

o
o

Affects individuals of Mediterranean descent

Piece of the globin is missing, leading to deficient hemoglobin and thin, delicate
erythrocytes.
Sickle-cell anemia:
o Affects individuals of African descent
o Single point mutation on hemoglobin that causes molecules to link together under low
oxygen conditions (causing the erythrocyte to deform into a sickle phenotype)
o Sickle cells can clog vessels, leading to insufficient oxygen delivery

35. What are the general characteristics and functions of leukocytes? What is the difference between
a granulocyte and an agranulocyte?
36. List and describe the five types of leukocytes.
37. List and describe the various steps of leukopoiesis
38. What are the major dysfunctions of leukocytes? Describe them.
39. List and describe the various steps of platelet formation
40. In detail, list and describe the major steps of hemostasis (including the three steps of coagulation).
41. Describe the processes of clot retraction and fibrinolysis
42. List and describe the variables that control the formation of blood clotting
43. Describe the various dysfunctions of blood clotting
44. What is a blood type? What are the two major blood groups in humans? Why is it crucial to know
someones blood type before a blood transfusion?
45. What is blood typing? What blood types are compatible? What blood types arent? Why would
two blood types not be compatible.