Ch.

1 Heat & Gases

1.1 Temperature, Heat and Internal Energy
- (Heat supplied by joulemeter) = mc T + (heat lost to surroundings)
has a y-intercept heat lost to surroundings
- Immersion heater switched off still transfer heat! (not cooled down immediately)
- Measure S.H.C of liquid Dont take final T immediately after switching off power
supply!
T
1.2 Change of State and Evaporation
- Evaporation : molecules with greater K.E. leave the liquid average K.E. of
molecules in liquid
- Kinetic energy of water molecules increases with T leave water surface
- Evaporation of water : not water in gaseous state
- STATE evaporation occurs below boiling point
1.3 Transfer Processes of Heat
- Why reduce heat transferred by conduction? X is poor conductor of heat
- Particles in solid are NOT at rest!
- Conduction : Particles at X gain heat KE KE transferred to neighboring
particles particles at Y move more vigorously TY
- Why reduce heat transferred by convection? X reduces convection current of fluid
- State one special design of X Do not just state one component of X! Answer
scientifically
- Heating element at bottom whole tank of water heated evenly by convection

Coiled tube in part A surface area stay longer

Coiled tube in part B painted black to radiate heat faster
Air fan creates a flow of air current
Metal fins and the coiled tube carry heat away by conduction
Trap air in clothes air cannot move freely reduce rate of heat transfer by
convection
1.4 Gases
Conclusion: Pressure of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its volume at
constant T
Precaution of Boyles law : pump gently / tap the Bourden gauge before taking a
reading / after pressing the pump, wait for a while before taking the reading (for
constant T) short rubber tubing
How gas exerts pressure : Random motion collide with wall
Pressure law : T speed of gas molecules p in each collision + f of
collision pressure
(more violently)
-

Precautions : Immerse flask completely into water / place thermometer in flask /

short rubber tubing /
stir the water throughout the exp / remove heater until reading
becomes steady
Precautions of Boyles law : Push or pull piston slowly / tap the gauge before
taking reading / well lubricate the piston / do not take reading immediately after
piston is moved
Boyles law : V distance travelled by gas molecules % 2 collisions f
pressure
Average force Impact force (average spacing % molecules )
Absorption of solar energy : reach steady T Rate of absorption of energy = Rate
of energy loss
Charles law : upper end of capillary tube should not be sealed
Chamber A is heated from To to T Temperature of chamber B is still To
n A nB n

pV A n A RT
pV n RT
B
B
o

Suck air from empty carton : n - p V - p

Charles law : T speed of gas molecules + frequency of collision p to push
piston outside frequency of collision pinside = poutside piston stops
Boyles law of a syringe : After turning vertical, W of piston no balanced piston
drops f p when pinside = poutside + ppiston piston stops
Assumptions of kinetic theory :
1) NOT perfectly elastic speed of particles & no definite value of p
cant find pressure
P1V1 P2V2
V V

P( 1 2 )
T2
T1 T2
Conservation of molecules : n
=n
T1
initial

final

Conservation of K.E. : K.Einitial = K.Efinal

3P1V1 3P2V2 3P (V1 V2 )

2
2
2

At r.t.p. and same V : crms of H2 > crms of O2 BUT freq. of collision of H2 freq.
-

of collision of O2
For a real gas : Collisions % molecules & wall of container are perfectly elastic
Barometer : Poutside = gh (Pinside is negligible)

Ch.2 Mechanics
2.1 Position and movement

The stroboscope is flashing at a frequency of 5 Hz

s1 s 2
0.04 0.12

t 0.2
0.2
a t
2t
2 0.2
For uniformly accelerated object from rest, s1 : s2 : s3 : : sn = 1 : 3 : 5 : : (2n1), where sn is displacement travelled during the nth second
Ways to monitor v/a : Use strobe photographs. Objects should be evenly space for
a=0

Physical meaning : displacement during its upward motion

Height of object above ground when it is released = area of graph below t-axis
shaded area
graph take +ve
2.2 Force and motion
Friction-compensated : f = mgsin
In Newtons laws

The trolley remains stationary

2.3
2.4
-

Inertia!
Extension of string = stretched length unstretched length
Accurate use of language : remains at rest stops
Forces in a plane (torque)
torque D Force +
Dont forget weight
Reaction force acting on the moment: horizontal force!!
Work and energy
1
1
m ( v 2u2 ) m ( v u )2 (M.C )
W.D. to change speed u of object to v =
2
2
Projected up an inclined plane Pushed by a force
K.E. against time : parabolic ; K.E. against displacement : straight

W.D. by the experimenter / Chemical energy Elastic potential energy Kinetic

energy

The cart can reach B as long as : loss in P.E. > W.D against friction

Input power = useful output power to raise passenger + power lost in increasing
PE of car and counterweight + other power losses
Describe energy change : do not forget W.D against friction (if any)

(1) (At top) P.E. lost = W.D. against water resistance mg(10+d) = f d
(2) (At water surface) K.E. lost + P.E. lost = W.D. against water resistance
1
m v 2+ mgd=
2
2.5 Momentum
For an elastic collision, mechanical energy of each particle is not conserved
(different masses)
For an inelastic collision, mechanical energy is lost.
Is K.E. conserved: K.E. may or may not be conserved. It depends on whether the
collision is elastic
m( vu)
Average force
(1M)
t
Use air bags % object and place of collision: air bags deform during collision
impact force reduced
2.6 Projectile motion
-

tan

vx v y

vy vx

different in this case

2.7 Circular motion
Banking of road increases component of normal reaction weight of car towards
centre of path

0 .3 2 2
0.3 10 F
0 .5
F 0 .6
Force acting on P by rod = 0.6N upward tensional

 Force acting on rod by P = 0.6N downward compressive (Action-reaction!!!)

2 gr v 5 gr
For vertical circular motion, if
, then subsequent motion is projectile
motion
2.8 Gravitation
GM
g= 2
SQUARE!!!
r
period above equator
Weight of astronaut is all used for circular motion no longer pulled to floor
weightless
Ch.3 Waves
3.1 Reflection
Minimum length of mirror = half of height of object
3.2 Refraction
Periscope: right-angled prisms > plane mirrors Image formed is brighter
Total internal reflection D optically dense optically less dense!!!
3.3 Lenses
Object distance changes from < focal length to > focal length image formed
behind observers eyes
3.4 Wave motion
Along antinodal line, interference is always constructive (although s-t graph of a
particle is sinusoidal)

3.5
-

Along XZ, meter reading decreases intensity decreases with distance

Properties of waves
Radar uses microwave radio wave
For particles in adjacent loops in standing wave:
1) vibrate in anti-phase
2) X has a larger / smaller amplitude than Y
3) vibrate with the same frequency (for all particles except nodes)
In a guitar string:
T
wave speed is determined
v=

Length of string determines wavelength of standing wave

frequency is of standing wave is determined the frequency corresponds to
frequency of sound
3.6 Wave nature of light
When light passes through slits on grating, it diffracts
d
nmax = 3 3 4 x

3.7 Sound
Pitch frequency
Ch.4 EM
4.1 Electrostatics
4.2 Electric Field and Potential
4.3 Circuits

Bulb is working at its rated value, T

resistance
internal resistance:

V
P

is much higher than operating

4.4
-

Power and Domestic Electricity

% power loss, power voltage
Live wire touches metal case large current flows from appliance to earth
Operating voltage >> rated operating voltage fuse will blow
Large current flows through appliance fuse blows break circuit
P
For parallel: total current drawn =
V
4.5 Electromagnetic Effects
Sprinkle iron filings on solenoid tap cardboard gently B-field pattern shown
by pattern of filings
Split-ring (no s) reverse direction of current flowing thru coil keep on
rotating in same direction
D.C. motor couple / moment
4.6 Electromagnetic Induction

diaphragm vibrate
Coil rotates in magnetic field induced e.m.f. induced current
In Faradays induction ring, if a d.c. supply is used, when switch is closed, the bulb
flashes once
4.7 Alternating Current
Ch.5 Nuclear physics
5.1 Radiation and radioactivity
background radiation only / / deflect
AND drop count rates
5.2 Atomic model
Magnetic force acting on / always v no work is done on / by B-field
5.3 Nuclear energy