CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
AN OVERVIEW OF AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT I:
1.1 INTRODUCTION:
Aircraft Design Project-II focuses on conveying the completed work on the project,
including the aerodynamic analysis, structural analysis, stresses, failure criteria, aero-elastic
considerations, optimization, CAD. The goal of this project is to design the structural
components for a fighter aircraft which can operate in portable runways, more flexible for
different missions and can reach greater speeds and has long range. Possible future work is also
presented, including more rigorous analytical approaches and more in-depth and detailed CAD
and finite element analysis to verify the structural capabilities before releasing for production.
1.1.1 STRUCTURAL DESIGN OVERVIEW:

FIG 1: FIGHTER STRUCTRAL SPLIT UP OF PARTS

The basic functions of an aircrafts structure are to transmit and resist the applied loads,
to provide an aerodynamic shape, and to protect passengers, payload, systems, and so forth from
the environmental conditions encountered in flight. These requirements, in most aircraft, result in
thin shell structures where the outer surface or skin of the shell is usually supported by
longitudinal stiffening members and transverse frames to enable it to resist bending,
1

compressive, and torsional loads without buckling.Such structures are known as semimonocoque, while thin shells which rely entirely on their skins for their capacity to resist loads
are referred to as monocoque.
1.2 PARAMETERS FROM AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT I:
1.2.1 MISSION PROFILE:

FIG 2: MISSION PROFILE

OUTLINE:
The structural design involves:
1. Determination of load acting on the aircraft

v-n diagram for the design study

gust and manoeuvrability load

schrenks curve

critical loading performance and final v-n graph calculation

2. Determination of loads acting on individual structures

structural design study-theory approach

load estimation of wings

load estimation of fuselage

material selection of structural members

detailed structural layouts

Design of components of wings, fuselage.

2

1.3 PARAMETER TABLE FOR FABRICATION:

S.No

ORIGINAL

UNITS

PARAMETERS

VALUE

TAKE-OFF

17675

Kg

WEIGHT
2

EMPTY WEIGHT

8203

Kg

FUEL WEIGHT

4872

Kg

FUSELAGE

18

1.29

LENGTH
5

FUSELAGE
DIAMETER

WING SPAN

14

Croot

6.2

Ctip

2.3

MAC

5.61

10

V tail

37.34

m2

11

Tail angle

16.64

Degree

12

Croot

5.75

13

Ctip

1.725

14

ENGINE THRUST

91897.62

15

ENGINE LENGTH

3.5

16

ENGINE

0.93

DIAMETER
17

ENGINE WEIGHT

901.85

Kg

18

LANDING GEAR

7953.75

Kg

19

MAIN DIAMETER

23.95

20

MAIN WIDTH

6.5

21

NOSE DIAMETER

19.16

22

NOSE WIDTH

5.2

TABLE 1: PARAMETERS

CHAPTER 2
V-n DIAGRAM
2.1 THE V-n DIAGRAM:
These diagrams are used primarily in the determination of combinations of flight
condition and load factors to which the airplane structure must be designed. For purposes of
structural sizing, analysis is performed at four extreme loading conditions on the V-n diagram.
The Positive High Angle of Attack (PHAA) is the loading condition represented by the
intersection between the positive operational load limit line and the positive maximum lift curve.
The Positive Low Angle of Attack (PLAA) is at the intersection between the positive operational
load limit line and the dive speed. The Negative High Angle of Attack (NHAA) and Negative
Low Angle of Attack (NLAA) are defined similarly except are for the negative loads.
2.1.1 FAR-25:
There are two types of V-n diagram for FAR 25 certified airplanes:
The V-n manoeuvre diagram
The V-n gust diagram

Fig 3 : V-n Diagram

5

2.2 LOAD FACTOR:

In aeronautics, the load factor is defined as the ratio of the lift of an aircraft to
its weight and represents a global measure of the stress ("load") to which the structure of the
aircraft is subjected:

Where,
n = Load factor
L = Lift
W = Weight
Since the load factor is the ratio of two forces, it is dimensionless. However, its units are
traditionally referred to as g, because of the relation between load factor and apparent
acceleration of gravity felt on board the aircraft. A load factor of one, or 1 g, represents
conditions in straight and level flight, where the lift is equal to the weight. Load factors greater
or less than one (or even negative) are the result of maneuvers or wind gusts.
2.3 MANEUVERING V-N DIAGRAM

For an intercept flight phase, the load factor can be calculated using the following
relation.
Where,
q =dynamic pressure
q=(

) = 400.04

W/S = 3638.25 N/m2 (from ADP1)

CDo = 0.014 (from ADP1)
K = (1/Ae)=0.154
A, aspect ratio =2.67 (from ADP1)
On substituting the above value we get
n=
n=0.17(at sea level)

2.3.1 STALLING SPEED:

All fixed-wing aircraft have a minimum speed at which they can maintain level flight,
the stall speed (left limit line in the diagram). As the aircraft gains altitude the stall speed
increases; since the wing is not growing any larger the only way to support the aircraft's weight
with less air is to increase speed. While the exact numbers will vary widely from aircraft to
aircraft, the nature of this relationship is typically the same; plotted on a graph of speed (x-axis)
vs. altitude (y-axis) it forms a diagonal line.
Vstall=

(n=1)

Vstall= 43.31m/s
Vstall for negative stall speed
Vstall=77.95m/s
2.3.2 MANOEUVRING SPEED:
In aviation, the manoeuvring speed of an aircraft is an airspeed limitation selected by the
designer of the aircraft. At speeds close to, and faster than, the manoeuvring speed, full
deflection of any flight control surface should not be attempted because of the risk of damage to
the aircraft structure.
It has been widely misunderstood that flight below manoeuvring speed will provide total
protection from structural failure. The manoeuvring speed of an aircraft is shown on a cockpit
placard and in the aircraft's flight manual but is not commonly shown on the aircraft's airspeed
indicator.
In the context of air combat manoeuvring (ACM), the manoeuvring speed is also known
as corner speed or cornering speed.
VA=

Where na=(L/D)MAX+(T/W)MAX = 11.22 (from adp1)

VA=147.07m/s
7

2.3.3 DIVE VELOCITY:

VD=1.5*VC
Hence Vc=340.29m/s(from adp 1)
The dive velocity is given as
VD=510.44m/s
2.3.4 CORNER VELOCITY:
VA is also known as corner speed, VC, especially by fighter pilots, for whom it has
tremendous tactical significance. VC is the speed for maximum instantaneous turn performance
without exceeding structural limits.
Instantaneous is used because an aircraft might not have the thrust necessary to
sustain VC under the elevated induced drag of maneuvering at high angle of attack. Sustained
corner speed has a lower value.
VCorner=

From adp1
nlim=6.48
nlim negative=0.5*6.48 = 3.24
VCorner=24.65m/s
In aerodynamics, the flight envelope, service envelope, or performance envelope of
an aircraft refers to the capabilities of a design in terms of airspeed and load factor or
altitude. The term is somewhat loosely applied, and can also refer to other measurements such as
maneuverability. When a plane is pushed, for instance by diving it at high speeds, it is said to be
flown "outside the envelope", something considered rather dangerous.

Flight envelope is one of a number of related terms that are all used in a similar fashion.
It is perhaps the most common term because it is the oldest, first being used in the early days of
test flying. It is closely related to more modern terms known as extra power.

Vn diagram
8
147.07, 6.48

510.44, 6.48

4
2
43.31, 1
0

0, 0
0

100

200

300

400

500

510.44, 0
600

-2
77.95, -3.24

340.29, -3.24

-4

Graph 1:Vn diagram

CHAPTER 3
GUST LOAD ENVELOPE
3.1 GUST LOADS:
The movements of the air in turbulence are generally known as gusts and produce
changes in wing incidence, thereby subjecting the aircraft to sudden or gradual increases or
decreases in lift from which normal accelerations result.
These may be critical for large, high-speed aircraft and may possibly cause higher loads than
control initiated manoeuvres.

FIG 4: (A) FLIGHT ENVELOPE

(B) GUST ENVELOPE

3.2 GUST FLOW ANALYSIS:

The flight envelope is defined as the range of airspeeds, altitudes and normal load factors
at which the aircraft can (safely) operate.
Operational Flight Envelope: This is the envelope in which the airplane must be capable of
operating in order to accomplish its operational mission. It depends on the mission concerned
and on the external aerodynamic configuration of the aircraft. For example, if the mission is
delivery of a certain type of weapon, the operational flight envelope depends on the
characteristics and limitations of the weapon as well.
Service Flight Envelope: This envelope is based on the limits of the airplane concerned, such
as structural or performance limits. The service flight envelope must encompass the operational
flight envelope.
10

 Permissible Flight Envelope: It is required that from all points in the permissible flight
envelope it shall be readily and safely possible to return to the service flight envelope without
exceptional pilot skill or technique. However, degraded flight handling qualities are acceptable to
a certain extent.

3.3 GUST LINES:

3.3.1 The gust load factor lines:

Where

is gust alleviation factor

=.145

=50.155

3.3.2 For

gust lines:

84.67-0.0009333h for altitudes from 20,000ft to 50,000ft

Where h = 49000 ft

= 1.0731,-0.9269

11

3.3.3 For

gust lines:

66.67-0.0008333h for altitudes from 20,000ft to 50,000ft

Where h = 49000 ft
ft/s

= 1.0494,0.9506

3.3.4 For

gust lines:

33.34-0.004177h for altitudes from 20,000ft to 50,000ft

Where h = 49000 ft
ft/s

= 1.031,-0.969

GUST LINES
5
4
3

Vc Pos

Vc neg
Vd pos

Vd Neg

0
-1

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

Vb neg
Vb pos

-2
-3

GRAPH 2: GUST ENVELOPE

12

3.4 EFFECTIVE GUST VELOCITY:

The vertical component of the velocity of a sharp-edged gust that would produce a given
acceleration on a particular airplane flown in level flight at the design cruising speed of the
aircraft and at a given air density.

FIGURE 5: GUST AND LIMIT LOAD DIAGRAM

V-n ENVELOPE WITH GUST LINES

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

GRAPH 3: FLIGHT ENVELOPE WITH SUPER IMPOSED GUST LINES

13

3.5 LIMIT OVERVIEW:

Next to the limits we just saw, there is one additional limit to the flight envelope of an
airplane. This is the maximum pressure difference. The pressure cabin can only take a maximum
pressure difference, which may not be exceeded.

FIGURE 6: THRUST LIMIT

This is the last limit that will be discussed. Its time to make a graph out of all the limits
we have just talked about. This graph gives an impression on the flight envelope of a normal
aircraft.

14

CHAPTER 4
STRUCTURAL DESIGN STUDY
4.1 STRUCTURAL STUDY OF WING DESIGN:
The specified structural roles of the wing are:
It is usually hard to attach the wing to the fuselage. There is usually a third piece of
wing contained within the fuselage. The connection of wings and fuselage are always by way of
very strong and heavy bolts. The bolts that are used must be much stronger than necessary,
thereby having sucient lifetime.

FIGURE 7: STRUCTURAL LAYOUT OF WING

4.1.1 Stringers:
Stringers are attached to the wing skin, and run span-wise. Their job is to stien the skin
so that it does not buckle when subjected to compression loads caused by wing bending and
twisting, and by loads from the aerodynamic eects of lift and control-surface movement.
4.1.2 Skin:
In most aircraft, the wing skin performs several tasks. It gives it the aerodynamic shape, it
carries a share of the loads, it helps to carry torsional loads, it acts as fuel tanks and allows
inspection and maintenance. Using the skin to carry part of the loads is called stressed skin.

15

Almost all aircraft have their wing structure made entirely in metal, or a mixture of metal and
composite. The skin may be xed to the internal structure by rivets or bonding. The volume
between the spars is often used for storing fuel.An alternative to attaching stringers to the skin
for stiness, is a machined skin, in which the skin, stringers and spar anges can be machined
from a single piece of alloy, called a billet

Fig 8: Wing Design

4.1.3 Spar:
Advantages are that less riveting is required, resulting in a smoother surface, lighter and
stronger structures are possible, construction faults are less likely, less maintenance is required
and easy inspection is possible. However, the costs are relatively high, and replacing parts is
dicult. In commercial aircrafts usually around 25% of the aircrafts maximum operating weight
is for fuel storage.
4.1.4 Flaps:
Flaps are tted at the trailing edges. Light aircraft usually have simple aps, or none at
all. Larger aircraft have the more complex split ap or Fowler ap. Most large transport aircraft
have double-slotted Fowler aps. Leading-edge aps, called slats, may be added to increase lift
even further. Flaps and slats increase both lift and drag, both being advantageous for landings.
Spoilers are tted to the top surface of the wing. When operated, which is usually at touchdown,
spoilers increase drag and reduce lift.

16

4.2 FUSELAGE:

FIG 9: FUSELAGE
4.2.1 Longeron:
In aircraft construction, a longeron, or stringer or stiffener, is a thin strip of material to
which the skin of the aircraft is fastened. In the fuselage, stringers are attached to formers (also
called frames) and run in the longitudinal direction of the aircraft. They is primarily responsible
for transferring the aerodynamic loads acting on the skin onto the frames and formers. In the
wings or horizontal stabilizer, longerons run spanwise and attach between theribs. The primary
function here also is to transfer the bending loads acting on the wings onto the ribs and spar.
Longerons often carry larger loads than stringers and also help to transfer skin loads to
internal structure. Longerons nearly always attach to frames or ribs.
4.2.2 Truss structure:
This type of structure is still in use in many lightweight aircraft using welded steel tube
trusses. A box truss fuselage structure can also be built out of woodoften covered with
plywoodas can be seen on this Ibis canard fuselage. Simple box structures may be rounded by
the addition of supported lightweight stringers, allowing the fabric covering to form a more
aerodynamic shape, or one more pleasing to the eye.

17

4.2.3 Monocoque:
In this method, the exterior surface of the fuselage is also the primary structure. A typical
early form of this (see the Lockheed Vega) was built using molded plywood, where the layers of
plywood are formed over a "plug" or within a mold. A later form of this structure
uses fiberglass cloth impregnated with polyester or epoxy resin, instead of plywood, as the skin.
A simple form of this used in some amateur-built aircraft uses rigid expanded foam plastic as the
core, with a fiberglass covering, eliminating the necessity of fabricating molds, but requiring
more effort in finishing .
4.2.4 Semi-monocoque:
This is the preferred method of constructing an all-aluminium fuselage. First, a series
of frames in the shape of the fuselage cross sections are held in position on a rigid fixture. These
frames are then joined with lightweight longitudinal elements called stringers. Most modern
large aircraft are built using this technique, but use several large sections constructed in this
fashion which are then joined with fasteners to form the complete fuselage.
Both monocoque and semi-monocoque are referred to as "stressed skin" structures as all
or a portion of the external load (i.e. from wings and empennage, and from discrete masses such
as the engine) is taken by the surface covering. In addition, all the load from
internal pressurization is carried (as skin tension) by the external skin.

Fig 10: LONGERONS

The proportioning of loads between the components is a design choice dictated largely by
the dimensions, strength, and elasticity of the components available for construction and whether
or not a design is intended to be "self jigging", not requiring a complete fixture for alignment
18

4.3 NACA 4414 COORDINATES:

TABLE 2: For 1mm chord
X

-y

1.0000

0.0013

-0.0013

0.9500

0.0147

-0.0147

0.9000

0.0271

-0.0271

0.8000

0.0489

-0.0489

0.7000

0.0669

-0.0669

0.6000

0.0814

-0.0814

0.5000

0.0919

-0.0919

0.4000

0.0980

-0.0980

0.3000

0.0976

-0.0976

0.2500

0.0941

-0.0941

0.2000

0.0880

-0.0880

0.1500

0.0789

-0.0789

0.1000

0.0659

-0.0659

0.0750

0.0576

-0.0576

0.0250

0.0339

-0.0339

0.0125

0.0244

-0.0244

0.000

0.0000

-0.0000

19

TABLE 3: For 7880mm chord

X

-Y

7880

10.244

10.244

7486

115.836

12.608

7092

213.348

17.386

6304

385.332

30.72

5516

527.172

51.22

4728

641.482

78.8

3940

724.172

110.32

3152

772.24

141.84

2364

769.088

178.088

1576

693.44

215.912

1187

621.732

226.944

591

453.888

215.912

394

372.724

196.212

199

267.132

153.66

98.5

192.292

112.684

2000
0
-2000

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

9000

20

CHAPTER 5
SRUCTURAL DESIGN OF WING
5.1 WING DESIGN:
The initial step for the structural design of the wing is to find the lift distribution of the
wing. The lift distribution of the is approximated using schrenks curve which is an average of
the elliptical distribution of the lift over the wing and the trapezoidal distribution of the lift over
the wing. So the elliptical and the trapezoidal of the lift over the wing should be approximated.
5.2 ELLIPTIC LOADING:
Elliptic loading is a force distribution on a wing that has an elliptical form in the span
wise direction. It is well known that this load distribution results in the induced drag for a given
wing span, and total lift. Thought elliptic planform naturally result in elliptic load distributions,
there are other methods to design for this reduced drag advantage.
Steps involved in plotting the elliptic lift distribution:
1. The area under the elliptic curve is given by
A = *b* w o / 8
This gives the lift produced by a single wing.
2. In steady level flight lift produced is equal to weight
*b* w o / 8 = W TO / 2
From the above w o can be calculated
3. Using the equation of ellipse the curve is plotted for different values of y
w y =(4 W TO/ *b)/ [ 1- (2y/b)2]0.5
where, b=Actual lift at root, Y=wing semi span
WTO=takeoff weight =169923.915N
b = span =14m

21

wo=

W0.5=

=15453.85N/m

=15414.37N/m

Wing span(m)

Wy(N/m)

15453.85

0.5

15414.37

15295.34

1.5

15094.87

14809.65

2.5

14434.66

13962.67

3.5

13383.42

12682.22

4.5

11837.43

10815.44

5.5

9559.58

7959.95

6.5

5735.73

TABLE 4: Elliptic Loading

22

GRAPH 3: Elliptical Wing Loading

5.3 TRAPEZOIDAL LIFT DISTRIBUTION:
Steps involved in plotting trapezoidal lift distribution:
1. The area under the trapezoid is given by
A = b ( w 1 + w 2)/4
This gives the lift Distribution
2. In the steady level flight lift produced is equal to weight
b ( w 1 + w 2)/4 = W TO / 2
3. The lift produced by any section of wing is directly proportional to the chord of the wing.
w 2 / w 1 = c t / c r = ( taper ratio)
w 1 = 2 W TO / b (1+ )
w 2 = 2 W TO / b (1+ )
4. Using the equation of trapezoid, the lift distribution is given by
w y = 2 W TO / b (1+ )*[ 1 + 2y/b*( 1)]
WTo=169923.915N
B=14
23

 =0.3
W0=
W0=18672.95N/m
Similarly for the various wing span
Wing span(m)

Wy(N/m)

18672.95

0.5

17739.31

16805.66

1.5

15872.01

14938.36

2.5

14004.72

13071.07

3.5

12137.42

11203.99

4.5

10270.1

9336.482

5.5

8402.83

7469.18

6.5

6535.53

5601.88
Table 5: Trapezoidal lift distribution
24

GRAPH 4: TRAPEZOIDAL LIFT DISTRIBUTION

5.4 SCHRENKS CURVE:
SCHRENKS CURVE is the average of the elliptical lift distribution and trapezoidal lift
distribution

Wy

SCHRENKS CURVE
20000
18000
16000
14000
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0

wingspan

GRAPH 5: SCHRENKS CURVE

25

CHAPTER 6
STRUCTURAL WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION
Structural weight varies linearly from the root to tip of the wing and the intensity of the load is
proportional to the chord of the section.
Landing gear weight = 26008.76N
Weapon weight

= 22072.5N

Landing gear

weapon

w1
w2
2m

Y =7m

3m

The structural weight distribution is given by

Weight of wing =27780.68N
6.1 SELF WEIGHT OF THE WING:
The wing weight varies along the span as the chord length and thickness decrease on moving from wing
root to tip. Hence the spar cross-section should also decrease from root to tip. This implies weight is higher at the
root and it is assumed to decrease parabolically to zero at the tip.
6.1.1 Shear force and bending moment:
The expressions that are derived can be used for load on the wing to calculate bending moment. The first
step is to start by integrating total load to determine shear force: V(x) = - q r(x) dx. The bending moment
can then be calculated by integrating shear force: M(x) = V(x) dx. The solution methods which
26

follow Eulers beam bending theory(/y=M/I=E/R) use the bending moment values to determine
the stresses developed at a particular section of the beam due to the combination of aerodynamic and
structural loads in the transverse direction. They are as follows:
Lift force (given by Schrenks curve)
Self -weight of the wing
Fuel weight distribution
Landing gear and Payload
6.1.2 Bending moment:
My=-196261.31+43.84(0)3
My=-196261.31
so on.. thus obtained values are tabulated as follows,
Span (b/2)

My (N.m)

-196261.31

0.5

-196266.79

-196305.15

1.5

-196409.27

-196612.03

2.5

-196946.31

-197444.99

3.5

-198140.95

-199067.07

4.5

-200256.23

-201741.31

5.5

-203555.19

-205730.75

6.5

-208300.87

-211298.43
27

My

Bending Moment
-194000
-196000 0
-198000
-200000
-202000
-204000
-206000
-208000
-210000
-212000
-214000

Span

Graph 6: Bending moment

6.1.3 Shear force:

Shearing forces are unaligned forces pushing one part of a body in one direction, and
another part the body in the opposite direction. When the forces are aligned into each other, they
are called compression forces. An example is a deck of cards being pushed one way on the top,
and the other at the bottom, causing the cards to slide.
Sy=
Sy=
Sy=
Sy=

=-48081.26

28

span(b/2)

SHEAR FORCE (N)

-48081.26

0.5

-48114.14

-48212.29

1.5

-48377.20

-48607.38

2.5

-48903.32

-49265.32

3.5

-49692.50

-50185.74

4.5

-50185.74

-50744.74

5.5

-51369.51

-52060.04

6.5

-52060.042

-52816.34
Table 7: Shear Force

29

span vs Shear force

0
-100 0

10

15

-200
shear force

-300
-400
-500
-600
-700
-800
-900
-1000

span

GRAPH 7: SPAN VS SHEAR FORCE

6.2 DESIGN OF SPAR:
Steps involved:
1. Plot the airfoil in the graph and identify the spar location. The front spar is placed near
the maximum (t/c) max of the airfoil and the rear spar is placed at 2/3rd of the chord
location.
2. Using the co ordinates of the airfoil chosen, the height of the front spar and the rear spar
is identified.
To identify the area of Flanges
3.

The maximum bending moment is identified from the bending moment diagram

plotted and is given by

M max = M 1 + M 2
Where M 1 is the bending moment at the front spar
M 2 is the bending moment at the rear spar
4. M 1, M 2 is proportional to the height of the front and the rear spar respectively i.e
M 1/ M 2 =( h 1 / h 2 )2
30

Where h 1 is the height of the front spar

h 2 is the height of the rear spar
5. For the material selected, the yield is identified for the material. Based on the yield , the
area of the flanges are calculated using the formula
A flange = M / yield * h
To identify the thickness of the web:
8.

The shear force experienced by the spar is again proportional to the height of the spars

Which is given by

V1/V2=h1/h2

Where V 1 is the shear force acting on the front spar

V 2 is the shear force acting on the rear spar
V 1 + V 2 = V max (identified from the graph plotted for shear force)
7. Based on the material selected the shear strength of the material is selected and based on
this shear strength the thickness of the web is calculated using the formula
= V/ A = V / h*t
6.3 MATERIAL FOR THE SPAR:
Material chosen for the spar is ALUMINIUM
To indentify the flange area:
Mmax=19261.31
Mmax=M1+M2
M1+M2 are the bending moment of the front and rear spar
H1=947.176mm
H2=730.311mm

31

To find the thickness web

V1/v2=h1/h2
V1,V2 are the shear force acting on the front and rear spar
M1+M2=19261.31
Hence
M1/M2=H1/H2=(947.176/730.311)
M1=73231.82N
M2=123175.94N
To find the area of the flange
Aflange=M/(yield stress *h)
yield stress=55*10^6 N/m2
A1=2.346 *10^-3 m2
A2=1.823 *10^-3 m2
To find the thickness of the web
=V1/A2=V1/(h1+t1)
where
V1/v2=h1/h2
Vmax =48081.28 N
V1 =20932.198N
V2=27149.08N
There we can find the thickness of the spar by the shear acting on it

32

t1=2.97*10^-4m
t2=2.97*10^-4m
Torque distribution over the wing:
Before going into the construction of the torque diagram we know the quantities such as
C.G of the aircraft =7.16m
Shear centre =0.35 =1.96 (=5.64)
Centre of pressure = 0.25*b=0.25*7.88 =1.97m
6.4 TORQUE DUE TO LIFT:
Torque, moment or moment of force (see the terminology below), is the tendency of
a force to rotate an object about an axis, fulcrum, or pivot. Just as a force is a push or a pull, a
torque can be thought of as a twist to an object. Mathematically, torque is defined as the cross
product of the lever-arm distance and force, which tends to produce rotation.
Torquelift=schrenks curve*(S.C-C.P)

Fig 11: Relationship between force F, torque

T1,0=-170.63
And so on thus obtained values are tabulated as follows
33

span(b/2)

Torque due to lift,Nm

-170.63

0.5

-165.76

-160.50

1.5

-154.83

-148.74

2.5

-135.16

-127.60

3.5

-119.42

-119.42

4.5

-110.53

-100.75

5.5

-81.81

-77.14

6.5

-61.35

-28.01
Table 8: Torque due to Lift

34

Torque due to lift

-195000
Torque due to lift

-200000
-205000
-210000
-215000

Span

GRAPH 8: Torque due to lift

6.5 TORQUE DUE TO STRUCTURAL LOADING:
For aircraft, loading is divided into two major categories: limit loads and ultimate loads.
Limit loads are often just flight loads and are further divided into maneuvering loads and gust
loads. Ultimate loads are crash loads. Maneuvering loads are determined based on the
performance limits of the aircraft whether imposed by the flight manual or by the actual
aerodynamic performance of aircraft. Gust loads are determined statistically are taken from
guidelines or requirements given by the applicable regulatory agency. Crash loads are loosely
bounded by the ability of humans to survive extreme accelerations and are also typically taken
from regulations.

C.G of the wing = 7.5-4=3.5 m

Torquestructural loading=Integration of structural load distribution *(S.C-C.P)
Ts0=-74045.2 Nm

35

span(b/2)

Torque due to structure,Nm

-74045.40

0.5

-74095.77

-74247.69

1.5

-74500.88

-74855.36

2.5

-75311.12

-75868.14

3.5

-76526.45

-50185.74

4.5

-78146.89

-79109.04

5.5

-80172.46

-81337.16

6.5

-82603.13

-83970.39
Table 9: Torque due to structure

36

torque

Wx-s
0
-100 0
-200
-300
-400
-500
-600
-700
-800
-900
-1000

10

12

14

16

span

Graph 9: Torque due to structural loading

6.6 ALUMINUM 6063-T1:
Alloy composition ALUMINUM 6063-T1
Definition:
T1 temper 6063 has an ultimate tensile strength of at least 17,000 psi (117 MPa) in
thicknesses up to 0.5-inch (13 mm), and 16,000 psi (110 MPa) from 0.5 to 1.0-inch (25 mm)
thick, and yield strength of at least 9,000 psi (62 MPa) in thickness up to 0.5-inch (13 mm) and
8,000 psi (55 MPa) from 0.5 to 1.0-inch (25 mm) thick. It has elongation of 12%.
Chemical Composition:
Silicon 0.2%-0.6%
Iron max 0.35%
Copper max 0.10%
Manganese max 0.10%
Magnesium 0.45%-0.9%
Zinc max 0.10%
Titanium max 0.10%
Other elements 0.15% total
37

General Information:
Principal Design Features:
This is generally considered to be an extrusion alloy that is heat treatable for strengthening.
Applications:
Commonly used in the manufacture of furniture, windows, stair rails, and in pipe railing.
Commonly used in architectural extrusions.
Machinability:
Machinability is considered to be average for this alloy.
Forming:
Forming ability, either hot or cold, is good.
Welding:
The alloy is readily welded by all of the conventional methods. Filler rod should be of the same
alloy or AL 4043 alloy.
Heat Treatment:
Solution heat treat at 970 F for 1 hour followed by water quench. This produces T 4 temper.
Other tempers are accomplished by aging.
Forging:
Hot forging may be done in the range of 500 F to 950 F
Hot Working:
Hot working, as with forging, may be done at temperatures above 500 F up to maximum of 950
F.

38

Cold Working:
Cold working characteristics are good for all conventional forming methods.
Annealing:
Anneal at 775 F for 3 hours and use controlled cooling at rate of 50 F per hour down to
500 F. Then air cool.
Other Mechanical Props:
Shear strength for various tempers is: O temper 10, ksi . T 5 temper 17 ksi. T 83 temper
22 ksi
6.7 STRINGER DESIGN:
The stringers are attached to the skins by lines of rivets or spot welds.....etc.
These joints will be called upon to transmit forces mainly along their length. Forces parallel
to the skin and directed at right angles to the stringers or rings or ribs will be limited by the
torsional flexibility of these member. Forces normal to the skin will be limited in magnitude
by the small bending strength of the skin and stringers. The primary function of these joints is
thus the transmission, by shear forces of direct loads in the reinforcing members to the skin
and vice versa.

FIG 12: Various Types Of

Stringer

Z section stringers are chosen due to its high structural efficiency and easy assembly.

39

Spacing of stringer:

Where E=69*109N/m2
Kb=8.5
=0.33
t=7.335*10-3

b=150.4mm
Diagram

No of stringers as 50

40

Xc=25mm = 0.025m ; Yc = 30mm =0.03m

Moment of Inertia:
Sectio X

Ax

Ay

Axy

Ax2

Ay2

Icx

Icy

57.5

250

6250

14375

35937

15625

82656

520.8

52083

2.5

.33

18750

15625

22500

52088

520.8

.8

15625

15625

15625

520.8

52083

.33

n
1

25

25

25

30

2.5

250

250

6250

6250

7500

625

0
total

750

18750

22500

56250

46875

10671

53129

10468

87.5

.96

7.49

Table 10: Moment of Inertia

Then
Ixx=53129.96 mm4
Iyy=104687.49 mm4
Mx=Mcos
My=Msin
Where
M=-196261.31N-m
=40
Mx=195783.22N-m
My= 13690.496N-m
zz =374.59N/m2

41

6.8 SHEAR FLOW OF THE AIRFOIL:

General procedure:
1. The shear force acting on the root airfoil is obtained from the shear force diagram
constructed and the shear force obtained is resolved into x and y since the wing is
attached at a wing setting angle ()
V x = V sin ;

V y = V cos

2. The root airfoil is considered as a 2 cell box and the cut is made at the origin and at
top of the front spar.
3. K 1 , K 2 , K 3 are evaluated using the following relations given
I xy

K 1 = I xx I yy I xy 2

K2=

K3=

I yy
I xx I yy I xy 2
I xx
I xx I yy I xy 2

4. The basic shear flow equation is given by

q ( K3Vx K1Vy )AX ( K2Vy K1Vx )AY

Where A(X X c) and A(Y- Y c)have been already evaluated.

1. The shear flow due to torque and bending has to be added to the above obtained basic
shear flow for the closed cell. So the twist equation for cell1 and 2 are considered here
again and shear flow obtained in cell 1 and cell 2 are added as constants to the
respective twist equation. There force the equation will be in the form

2G1 a1q1 b1q2 const

2G2 a 2q1 b2q2 const

42

Constants are found by substituting thickness of the skin in q 1 and q 2 which

were evaluated in finding the skin thickness.
2. Assuming twist in both cells are equal one equation is framed and other equation is
framed by taking the moment contribution of the components of shear force.
3. Solving the two equations we get q 1 and q 2 which is added to the basic shear flow and
the shear flow is evaluated in the root airfoil section.

By following the above steps,

Shear force acting on the root airfoil
V

= 48081.26 N-m2

VX

= Vsin

VY

= Vcos

= 4o

Vx

= 3353.98 N-m2

Vy

= 47964.13N-m2

The root airfoil is constructed as a 2 cell box & cut is made at the origin & top of the front spar .
K1

= Ixy / (Ixx Iyy-Ixy2)

K1

= 0

K2

= Iyy /(Ixx Iyy-Ixy2)

K2

= 1882352.977

K3

= Ixx /(Ixx Iyy-Ixy2)

K3

= 9552239.718

Shear flow equation, q

Q

= (K3Vx-K1Vy) Ax -(K2Vy-K1Vx)Ay
= -1.4307 x 1015 N/m

43

CHAPTER 7
LOAD ESTIMATION OF FUSELAGE
7.1 STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF FUSELAGE:
The distributed loads on the fuselage is identified
1. Fuselage structural distribution
2. Passenger weight distribution
3. Cargo weight distribution

From diagram,
*4*w2+1/2*14*w2= w1 of the fuselage
2w1+7w2 = 11055.87N
W2= 1228.43N
Wfuselage =Wtotal-Wfuel-Wwing-Wpayload-Wcrew-Wengine
=17675-4872-5256-4500-100-1820
Wfuselage =1127kg=11055.87N
Load intensity distribution on structural weight fuselage:
Wxs=-A1x(x varies from 0 to 4m)
Wxs=-A2x-A1(x varies from 4 to 18m)
A1=18.85m2, A2=65.97m2
W
0.5s=-18.85*0.5=-9.435.

And so on thus obtained values are tabulated as follows

44

Wx-s

-18.83

-37.5

-55.55

-75.3

-347.6

-414.57

-480.63

-546.60

-612.55

10

-678.45

11

-744.5

12

-810.59

13

-876.44

14

-942.44

15

-1008.4

16

-1074.27

17

-1140.33

18

-1206.31

Table 11: Load intensity distribution on structural weight fuselage

45

Wx-s
0
-200

10

15

20

WX-S

-400
-600
-800
-1000
-1200
-1400

GRAPH 10: Load Intensity Distribution On Structural Weight Fuselage

7.2 IDENTIFICATION OF POINT LOAD:

Taking moment
Ra=1/18[(981*10)+(-26008.76*9.5)+(36846.36*3.5)+(4.7794.32*2)+(17854.2*-0.5)+(9810*2)+(4905*-3)]
Ra=-4164.7N
Ra+Rb=92182.12N
Rb=96437.92N

46

7.3 SHEAR FORCES ON FUSELAGE:

A shear force having an upward direction to the right hand side of a section or downwards to
the left of the section will be taken as positive.similarly,a negative shearing force will be one
that has a downward direction to the right of the section
SC=0
Sd=-981N
Se=25027.7N
Sa=20861.96N
Sf=20861.96N
Sg=-15984.0N
Sb=-63778.72N
Sh=32569.2N
Si=14715N
Sj=0
7.4 BENDING MOMENT:
MC=0
Md=-981*1.5=-1471.5N-m
Me=25027.7*1-(981*1.5)N-m
Ma=(-4165.8*0)-(1471.5-(26008.76*1))=-27480.26N-m
Mf=(-36846.36*4)+(26008.76*5)-(9.81*6.5)=-23718.14N-m
Mg=(-47794.32*6.5)+(26008.76*7.5)-(981*8)=-123435.38N-m
Mb=(-47793.32*0.5)+(26008.76*9.5)+(981*10)-(96347.93*8.5)(36846.36*3.5)=903371.13Nm
Mh=(-17854.2*10)+(96347.92*0.5)-(47794.32*2.5)-(36846.36*4)+(26008.76*10)(981*0.5)=-147453.18N-m
47

Mi=((-17854.2*1.50)+(96347.92*2)-(47794.32*4)-(36846.36*5.5)+(26008.76*11.5)(981*12)=-45593.76N-m
Mj=(-17854.2*2.5)+(96347.92*3)-(47794.32*5)-(36846.36*6.5)+(26008.76*12.5)(981*13)=12074.58N-m
Mk=0
Distance (m)

Point

Shear force

Bending moment

3.5

-981

-1471.5

25027.7

25517.26

20861.96

-27480.26

10

20861.96

-23718.14

11.5

-15984.0

-123435.38

13.5

-63778.72

903371.13

14

32569.2

-147453.18

15.5

14715

-45593.76

16.5

12074.58

18

Table 12: Shear force and Bending moment of Fuselage

Steps followed in Stringer Design:
1. The maximum bending moment experienced by the fuselage is calculated by allowing a
Factor of Safety of 2
M y M max * n

48

Where M max is identified from the bending moment diagram of fuselage

2. The material for the Stringer is selected and the Critical Shear stress of the material is
identified.
3. The moment of inertia for the fuselage is given by
nAR 2
I yy
2

Where n is the number of stringers

A is the area of the stringer, m2
R is the radius of the fuselage, m
4. The bending stress experienced by the stringer in the fuselage is

My *z
I yy

; max

2M y
nAR

5. The skin should withstand the buckling stress so using the formula

cr

2 * E * Kb t 2
( )
12(1 2 ) b

Where Kb =8.5 ( for aircraft applications) and b is the stringer spacing.

6. Number of stringer is calculated as
n=

d
b

where d is the diameter of the fuselage.

7. The area of the Stringer is calculated as
A=

nA
n

8. From the book ,Airframe Stress Analysis and Sizing, the properties of the section is
known choosing the Area to be closer to the Area calculated in Step 7

Following the above steps,

My=Mmax*n
Mmax=90332.12Nm

(n=2)

49

M y = 1806742.24Nm

The material Selected is composite for which the critical stress cr =95MPa

cr =9.5*106N/m2
b = 2 ft; n = 6, A= 0.018
Calculation of bending Stress in the Stringer:
The bending stress of the Stringer is given by

My *z
I yy

; Z=Rsin

R=0.9m
I yy

nAR 2
= 0.45nA
2

Substituting in the bending stress formula,

nA=2My/maxR
=2*180673.33/(95*106*0.9)
=0.042162
Iyy=0.45nA
Iyy=0.019017m4
Where E=69Gpa
Ks=8.5
=0.333
t=0.009m

50

b=

=
b = 0.5284m

No of stringers
n= d/b=*1.8/0.5284=10.696
taken no of stringer as 11
n=11
A=nA/n
=0.042262/11
A=3.842*10-3 m2

My *z
I yy

Where Z=Rsin
x =My* Rsin /Iyy
=1806742.24*0.9sin
sin= x/(85.502*106)
sin =0.081869429
=40

51

Stringer

Angle in rad

Bending stress

0.069813

594318.019

0.139636

11899578.48

0.20944

17776865.39

0.279235

23567545.2

0.349066

29243406.3

0.418879

34776796.46

0.488692

40140757.57

0.558505

45309156.94

10

0.628319

50256814.65

11

0.698132

59394680

Table 13: Bending Stress

7.5 BULK HEAD:

The semi-monocoque system uses a substructure to which the
airplanes skin is attached. The substructure, which consists of bulkheads and/or formers
of various sizes and stringers, reinforces the stressed skin by taking some of the bending
stress from the fuselage.

52

Fig 13: Bulkhead

The aft pressure bulkhead or rear pressure bulkhead is a component of all large
commercial aircraft. It is an airtight bulkhead located between the cabin and the tail of the
aircraft. Its purpose is to seal the rear of the plane and thus maintain cabin pressure, and as such
it is a vital part of the aircraft.

53

CHAPTER 8
BALANCING AND MANEUVERING LOADS

Aircraft load estimation combines aerodynamics, structures, and weights. Load

estimation remains a critical area because an error or faulty assumptions will make the aircraft
too heavy or will result in structural failure when real loads are encountered flight.
Loads acting on the aircraft can be classified according to the following load categories
Air loads:

Manoeuvre

Gust

Control deflection

Components interaction

Buffet

Landing:

Vertical load factor

Spin up

Spring back

Crabbed

Braking

Inertia loads:

Acceleration

Rotation

Dynamic

Vibration

54

Flutter

Power plant loads:

Thrust

Torque

Gyroscope

Vibration

Take off loads:

Catapult

Aborted

Taxi:

Bumps

Turning

Other loads:

Towing

Jacking

Bird strike

Crash

Limit load:
The largest load the aircraft is expected to encounter without an permanent deformation
is known as limit load or applied load
Design load:
To provide a margin of safety, the aircraft structure is always designed to withstand
higher load than the limit load. The highest load the aircraft is designed to withstand without
breaking is the design or ultimate load

55

Load sources:
There are generally two cases of the load sources
1. Manoeuvrability cases
In this the loads which act on the aircraft is due to the pilots action
2. Environmental cases
In this the loads are imposed by the environment on the aircraft where it operates.
8.1 AIRCRAFT STRUCTURAL LOADS:
For aircraft, loading is divided into two major categories: limit loads and ultimate loads.
Limit loads are often just flight loads and are further divided into maneuvering loads and gust
loads. Ultimate loads are crash loads. Maneuvering loads are determined based on the
performance limits of the aircraft whether imposed by the flight manual or by the actual
aerodynamic performance of aircraft. Gust loads are determined statistically are taken from
guidelines or requirements given by the applicable regulatory agency.
Thermal loading is rarely considered for the analysis of the primary structure of aircraft
but it can become critical under extreme operating conditions and should be examined where
materials of disparate coefficients of thermal expansion are joined.
8.2 MAIN CONTROL SURFACES:
The main control surfaces of a fixed-wing aircraft are attached to the airframe on hinges
or tracks so they may move and thus deflect the air stream passing over them. This redirection of
the air stream generates an unbalanced force to rotate the plane about the associated axis.
Ailerons:

Ailerons are mounted on the trailing edge of each wing near the wingtips and move in
opposite directions. When the pilot moves the stick left, or turns the wheel counter-clockwise,
the left aileron goes up and the right aileron goes down. A raised aileron reduces lift on that wing
56

and a lowered one increases lift, so moving the stick left causes the left wing to raise and the
right wing to drop
Elevator:
An elevator is a moveable part of the horizontal stabilizer, hinged to the back of the fixed
part of the horizontal tail. They move up and down together. When the pilot pulls the stick
backward, the elevators go up. Pushing the stick forward causes the elevators to go down. Raised
elevators push down on the tail and cause the nose to pitch up. This makes the wings fly at a
higher angle of attack, which generates more lift and more drag.
Rudder:
The rudder is typically mounted on the trailing edge of the vertical stabilizer, part of
the empennage. When the pilot pushes the left pedal, the rudder deflects left. Pushing the right
pedal causes the rudder to deflect right. Deflecting the rudder right pushes the tail left and causes
the nose to yaw to the right.
8.3 SECONDARY EFFECTS OF CONTROLS :
Turning the aircraft:
The lifting force, perpendicular to the wings of the aircraft, is tilted in the direction of the
intended turn by rolling the aircraft into the turn. As the bank angle is increased, the lifting force,
which was previously acting only in the vertical, is split into two components: One acting
vertically and one acting horizontally.
Alternate main control surfaces:
Some aircraft configurations have non-standard primary controls. For example instead of
elevators at the back of the stabilizers, the entire tail plane may change angle. Some aircraft have
a tail in the shape of a V, and the moving parts at the back of those combine the functions of
elevators and rudder.
V-tail:
A V-tail has no distinct vertical or horizontal stabilizers. Rather, they are merged into
control surfaces known as ruddervators which control both pitch and yaw. The arrangement
looks like the letter V, and is also known as a butterfly tail.
57

High lift devices:

In aircraft design, high-lift devices are moving surfaces or stationary components
intended to increase lift during certain flight conditions. They include common devices such
as flaps and slats, as well as less common features such as leading edge extensions and blown
flaps.
Flaps:
The most common high-lift device is the flap, a movable portion of the wing that can be
lowered into the airflow to produce extra lift. Their purpose is to re-shape the wing section into
one that has more camber. Flaps are usually located on the trailing edge of a wing, while leading
edge flaps are occasionally used as well.

Fig 14:Flaps
Some flap designs also increase the wing chord when deployed, increasing the wing area
to help produce more lift; such complex flap arrangements are found on many modern aircraft.
Slats and slot:
Another common high-lift device is the slat, a small aerofoil shaped device attached just
in front of the wing leading edge. The slat re-directs the airflow at the front of the wing, allowing
it to flow more smoothly over the upper surface while at a high angle of attack. A slot is the gap
between the slat and the wing. The slat may be fixed in position, or it may be retractable. If it is
fixed, then it may appear as a normal part of the leading edge of a wing which has slot
Leading edge root extensions:
Although not as common, another high-lift device is the leading edge root
extension (LERX) or leading edge extension (LEX). A LERX typically consist of a small
58

triangular fillet between the wing leading edge root and fuselage. In normal flight the LERX
generates little lift. At higher angles of attack, however, it generates a vortex that is positioned t

Fig 15: Aileron

8.4 BOUNDARY LAYER CONTROL AND BLOWN FLAPS:
Powered high-lift systems generally use airflow from the engine to shape the flow of air
over the wing, replacing or modifying the action of the flaps. Blown flaps use "bleed air" from
the jet engine's compressor or engine exhaust which is blown over the rear upper surface of the
wing and flap, re-energising the boundary layer and allowing the airflow to remain attached at
higher angles of attack. A more advanced version of the blown flap is the circulation control
wing; a mechanism that tangentially ejects air over a specially designed airfoil to create lift
through the Coanda effect.

59

CHAPTER 9
COMPONENTS OF WINGS AND FUSELAGES

9.1 WING FUSELAGE INTERSECTION:

The wing fuselage interaction of Delta Wing with tapered is discussed based on
components specified as follows.
Four pin design concept:
This concept is adopted as it is the most simple and straight forward method used during
1950s. The lift and moment loads can be carried between the wing and fuselage by simple shear
on the four pins. The drag and thrust is taken by breather web. This design allows the wing spar
and fuselage bulkheads to deflect independently of each other such that no
spar moment is directly transferred to the bulkheads.

FIGURE 16: FOUR PIN DESIGN CONCEPT

The wing-body juncture produces aerodynamic interference which in turn promotes flow
separation with its attendant higher drag and unsteady buffeting. This adverse pressure gradient
and consequent flow separation can be minimized using contoured surface called fillet.

60

9.2 EMPENNAGE DESIGN:

9.2.1Horizontal Stabilizer:
The horizontal tail of the aircraft is conventional and consists of a fixed tail box. The
horizontal stabilizer is usually a two spar structure consisting of a Centre structural box section
and two outer sections.
The two basic horizontal stabilizer box constructions for modern transports are
1. Box constructions with spars, closer light rib spacing (usually less than 10 inches) and surface
(may be tapered skins) without stringer reinforcement. The feature of this design is the low
manufacturing cost and high torsional stiffness require by the flutter analysis.

FIG 17: SPAR

2. Box construction with spar stronger ribs and surface skins with stringer reinforcements (skinstringer or integrally stiffened panels) is a lighter weight structure.

9.2.2 Vertical Stabilizer:

The structural design of the vertical stabilizer is essentially the same as for the
horizontal stabilizer is essentially the same as for horizontal stabilizers. The vertical stabilizer
box is a two or multi spar structure (general aviation airplanes usually use single spar design)
with cover panels (with or without ribs). The root of the box is terminated at the aft fuselage
conjuncture with fittings or splices.
Wing Fuel Tanks:
In addition to providing the required strength and stiffness, the structural box almost
always has to provide fuel space. Integral tanks, as opposed to separate internally supported
61

types, are preferred since their use enables the maximum advantage to be taken of the available
volume. Integrally machined or moulded constructions, which use a small amount of large
components, are obviously an advantage since sealing is reduced to a minimum.
Access panels should be large enough for a person to get through so that the inside can
be inspected and resealed if necessary
9.3 AUXILIARY SURFACES:
The structural layout of the auxiliary lifting surfaces is generally similar to that of the
wing but there are differences, in part due to the smaller size and in part due to the need to
provide hinges or supports. The latter implies that each auxiliary surface is a well-defined.

9.3.1 Hinged control surfaces:

Conventional training edge control surfaces are almost invariably supported by a number
of discrete hinges, although continuous, piano type, hinges may be used for secondary tabs. The
major points to be considered are:
The bending distortion of the control relative to the fixed surface must be limited so that the
nose of the control does mot fouls the fixed shroud.
The control hinge loads and the resulting shear forces and bending moments should be
equalized as far as is possible.
Structural failure of a single hinge should be tolerated unless each hinge is of fail-safe design
and can tolerate cracking one load path.

9.3.2 Pivoted control surfaces:

In certain high-performance aircraft, the whole of a stabilizing or control surface on one
side of the aircraft may be pivot about a point on its root chord. Clearly in this case, the structural
considerations are dominated by the need to react all the forces and moments at the pivot and
operating points. Shear loads due to torsion may be limited by locating the operating point.

9.3.3 High lift systems:

There is a wide variety of leading and trailing edge high-lift systems. Some types
are simply hinged to the wing, but many require some degree of chord-wise extension. This can

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be achieved by utilizing a linkage, a mechanism, a pivot located outside the aerofoil contour or,
perhaps most commonly, by some form of track.
The majority of flaps and slats are split into span wise segments of no greater
lengths than can be supported at two or three locations. As with control surfaces, the
locations of the support points are established so as to minimize local deformations since
the various slots are critical in determining the aerodynamic performance.

9.3.4 Attachment of lifting surfaces:

The joint of the fuselage with the wing is subjected to heavy load inputs and
there is a potential for considerable relative distortion. This distortion is usually accepted
and the wing centre box is built completely into the fuselage, the resulting constraint
stresses being allowed for.
It is sometimes possible to arrange the wing pick-ups as pivots on the neutral axis or set
them on swinging links. In this case, the relative motion is allowed to take place and there are no
induced stresses. Structural assembly of the wing to the fuselage is relatively simple.

9.4 FLUTTER:
Flutter is the dynamic instability of an elastic body in an airstream. It is found most
frequently in aircraft structures subjected to large aerodynamic loads such as wings, tail units and
control surfaces. Flutter occurs at a critical or flutters speed Vf which in turn is defined as the
lowest airspeed at which a given structure will oscillate with sustained simple harmonic motion.
Flight at speeds below and above the flutter speed represents conditions of stable and unstable
(that is divergent) structural oscillation, respectively.

FIG 18: FLUTTER

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9.5 AILERON BUZZ:

Another non-classical form of flutter, aileron buzz, occurs at high subsonic speeds and is
associated with the shock wave on the wing forward of the aileron. If the aileron oscillates
downwards the flow over the upper surface of the wing accelerates, intensifying the shock and
resulting in a reduction in pressure in the boundary layer behind the shock. The aileron,
therefore, tends to be sucked back to its neutral position.

9.6 BUFFETING:
Buffeting is produced most commonly in a tail plane by eddies caused by poor airflow
In the wing wake striking the tail plane at a frequency equal to its natural frequency; a resonant
oscillation having one degree of freedom could then occur. The problem may be alleviated by
proper positioning of the tail plane and clean aerodynamic design.

FIG 19: BUFFETING

9.7 AEROELASTIC FLUTTER:

Aeroelastic flutter, a rapid self-feeding motion, potentially destructive, excited by
aerodynamic forces, in aircraft structures, control surfaces and bridge engineering
Aerodynamic buffeting is a vibration (sometimes violent) that is felt in the airframe and
controls of an aircraft. It is brought on by the separation of the boundary layer of air that
normally flows along the wing or tail. It is usually associated with slow speed and high angle
of attacks, but can also be brought on by high (near-supersonic) speeds as well.

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CHAPTER 10
THREE VIEWS OF AIRCRAFT

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CONCLUSION
The conceptual design phase of an aircraft is probably the most interesting and intriguing
phase of an aircraft design. It is clear indication of the compromise that has to be made between
various divisions of an aircraft design, and yet satisfy an incredible number of real world
constraints and the design specifications. Aircraft design involves a variety of the field of
Aerospace Engineering like structures, performance, aerodynamics stability etc. Among this we
went through the structure part in this project which enabled us to get a taste of what it is to
design a real aircraft. The fantasies of the flying world seem to be much more than what we
thought. With this design project as the base, we will strive a progress in the field of airplane
design and maintenance. Wee convoy our heartfelt gratitude to all of them who had provide their
helping hand in the completion of project.

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REFERENCES:
1. Raymer, D.P., Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach, Third Edition,
AIAA, Inc.,

2. Roskan, Jan., Airplane Design, Roskan Aviation and Engineering

Corporation, Ottawa, KS, 2007.
3. Lloyd R. Jenkinson and James F. Marchman III, Aircraft Design Projects
for engineering students, 2003.

4. John.D.Anderson , Airplane Design and Performance.

5. T.H.G. Megson, Aircraft Structures(3rd edition)

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