CHAPTER - 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Over View:
Airplane design is both an art and a science. At the instant time there are different types of
aircrafts with latest technology. Through the course of design exercise, we emphasise our thought
to Commercial Transport Aircraft. The purpose of such aircrafts is to make comport passenger
transportation.
The preliminary design of Tetra seater Propeller Driven Aircraft was accomplished in
aircraft design project-I which included determination of different aspects like weight specification,
wing specification, power plant selections and stability and performance characteristics and
obtained good result.
This Aircraft design project-II focuses on structural study of Tetra Seater Propeller Driven
Aircraft. The development and the design of aircraft structures is a complex, multi disciplinary
exercise. In order to design a structure, which is able to fulfil all requirements from static,
durability and damage tolerance point of view, it is necessary to consider a large range of design
criteria. Figure1 illustrates the most important design criteria, which are today applied to passenger
aircraft structure. The structure must satisfy all design criteria in all structural locations.
The structural design involves determination of the following:

V-n diagram for the design study

Gust and Manoeuvrability envelopes
Critical loading performance and final V-n diagram calculations
Structural design study - Theory approach
Load estimation of wings
Load estimation of fuselage
Balancing and manoeuvring loads on tail plane ,aileron and rudder loads
Detailed structural layouts
Design of some components of wings, fuselage

CHAPTER 2
V-N DIAGRAM
2.1 MANEOUVERING ENVELOPE:
V-n diagram is used primarily in determination of combinations of flight conditions
and load factors to which the airplane structure must be designed. It is also helpful in
determining the manoeuvring capability of airplane. V-n diagram precisely use the structural
(maximum load factor) and aerodynamic boundaries for particular flight conditions. There are
two categories of structural limitations is airplane design
2.2 Limit Load Factor:
This is the boundary associated with permanent structural deformation of one or more parts
of the airplane. If n is less then limit load factor, structure may deflect during a manoeuvre, but
it will return to its original state when n=1. If n>1 permanent deformation takes place.
2.3 Ultimate Load Factor:
This is the boundary associated with outright structural failure. If n>ultimate load factor,
parts of the airplane will break.
Both the aerodynamic and structural limitations for given airplane are illustrated in the V-n
diagram, a plot of load factor (n) vs flight velocity (V).
2.3.1 FOR VSTALL
From adp1
V stall

= 112.5
=11.25 Ft/s

S stall = 72.9

Qstall

1
2

V stall

= 112.7 lb/ ft

N=

w /s stall

Q stall

CD , O 2

112.7
72.9

0.025 2
( 0.077

= 0.8808 ~ 1

V dive

2.3.2 FOR
VD

= 1.5

V cruise

w /s cruise

Qcruise

N=

CD , O 2

From ADP I
Qcruise

= 202.6

( WS ) cruise
V cruise

N=

=61.144

= 226.0024

202.6
61.144

0.025 1 /2

0.077
n

N=1.88~ 1.9
dive=1.5 v cruise
v
1.5226.0024

v dive =33.9 ft/ s

2.3.3 FOR

v corner

v corner

w
n
s max
sealevelCL max
2

From ADP I
CLmax =1.116

( ws )

max

=72.9

Qmax = 202.6
qmax

n=

cd , 0
(
k)
w
max

(s)

202.6 0.025
72.9 0.077

=1.58 1.6

Vcorner =

272.91.584
1.2251.116
230.94
1.36

Vcorner =16.89 ft/s

2.3.4 FOR Vhaa
From adp 1
CLmax=1.116
=14
Aircraft in take off condition

Lift = 0.5*

v 2sCL

L=26.20*106
D=3.428*106
4

T=55.2*106
W=15.6*106

Nmax=

l
t
d
w

26.26
55.2
= 3.428
15.6
Nmax=2.67 2.7

v haa

w
n
s max max
maxCLmax

=55.49 ft/s

2.4 RESULT

Velocity

Load factor

vstall

11.25

Nstall

vdive

33.9

ndive

1.9

vcorner

16.89

Ncorner

1.6

vhaa

55.49

nhaa

2.7

load factor(n)

CHAPTER 3
GUST ENVELOPE
Air worthiness requirements usually specify that loads shall be calculated at certain
combination of gust and flight speed. The equations for gust load factor in the above analysis
show that n is proportional to aircraft speed for given gust velocity.
6

3.1 CONSTRUCTION OF GUST ENVELOPE:

N+1=

1+ K U max Va
W
2( )
S

Where, K=

W
)
S
gca

2(

= Mean Chord
a- Lift curve slope for wing
g- Gravity
= density at sea level
(

W
)
S cruise-

From ADP I

= 11.3629

= 1.225
G= 9.81

( WS ) cruise
=

=674.036

2674.036
1.2259.8111.36296.5

= 1.5188
K=

0.88
(5.3+ )

0.88(1.5188)
(5.3+1.5188)

K= 0.1960
From Raymer Book
U at se level = 15m/s
7

L= 25% of lift value of your aircraft

U=

2 L
Vcl

By changing the value of velocity we can obtain different velocity

CL = 1.115
Velocity

Load factor

vstall

11.25

Ustall

2.4

vdive

33.9

Udive

3.8

vcorner

16.89

Ucorner

2.6

vhaa

55.49

Uhaa

4.9

n1 = 1.3148
n2 = 1.149
n3 =1.050
n 4 =1.031
3.2 RESULT:
Velocity(V)

1+n

1-n

55.5

2.3148

0.35

33.9

2.149

0.75

16.9

2.050

0.05

11.2

2.0131

0.03

CHAPTER 4
COMBINED VN DIAGRAM
Thus combining Both VN Diagram of Manoeuvring and Gust
Envelope. We can get this Values and Graphs.
4.1 RESULT:

Velocity

Load factor

vstall

11.25

Ustall

2.4

vdive

33.9

Udive

3.8

vcorner

16.89

Ucorner

2.6

vhaa

55.49

Uhaa

4.9

Velocity(V)

1+n

1-n

55.5

2.3148

0.35

33.9

2.149

0.75

16.9

2.050

0.05

11.2

2.0131

0.03

veoity(V)

CHAPTER 5
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF WINGS
5.1 INTRODUCTION:
The wings of a fixed wing aircraft provide the necessary lift for take off and cruise
flight. Wing geometry affects every aspect of an aircrafts flight. The wing area will usually be
dictated by aircraft performance requirements (eg: Field length) but the shape of the plan form
and the other geometry may be influenced by wing layout factors.
The first step towards the structural design is to find lift distribution of the wing. For
a successful flight of aircraft, the wing must posses a strong structure to withstand the loads. To
ensure that the wing is not bend or twisted and is long enough to withstand all the loads
imposed on it, a structural analysis on wings is carried out.
There are various loads acting on aircraft wings. They can be classified into three
categories;
10

o Load due to lift distribution

o Load due to structural weight distribution
o Load due to fuel weight distribution
5.2 SCHRENKS CURVE:
Lift varies along the wing span due to the variation of chord length, angle of attack
and sweep along the span. Schrenks curve defines the lift distribution over the wing span of an
aircraft, also called simply as lift distribution curve.
5.2.1 ELLIPTICAL DISTRIBUTION:
W y=

4W
2Y
1
b
b

( )

From ADP I,
Span Length, b= 228.78
= 0.25
Y= assumed
W =15676.38N

at y=0,
W y=

415676.38
1
228.78

=87.244N

Y(b/2)

Wy(N)

87.24

15

86.48

30

84.09

45

80.17

60

74.26

75

65.87

90

53.82

105

34.61

114.39

11

Elliptical Distribution
140
120
100
80
Y

60
40
20
0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

5.2.2 TRAPEZOIDAL LIFT DISTRIBUTION:

Lift at root,
W y=

[ ( ) ]

2W
2y
1+
( 1 )
b
(1+ )b

Span Length, b= 228.78M

= 0.25
Y= assumed, W =15676.38N, Y=0,
W y=

[ (

215676.38
20
1+
( 0.251 )
228.78
( 1+0.25 ) 78

W y =109.634
Y(Span/2)

Wy

0
15
30
45
60
75
90
105
114.39

109.634
98.84
88.91
77.18
66.43
55.69
49.84
34.09
24.40

12

90

100

120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

5.2.3 SCHRENKS CURVE:

W Y =W Y 1 /2
y
0
15
30
45
60
75
90
105
114.39

Trapezoidal
distribution(N)
109.634
98.84
88.91
77.18
66.43
55.69
49.84
34.09
24.40

W Y 2/ 2

lift Elliptic
distribution(N)
87.24
86.48
84.09
80.17
74.26
65.87
53.82
34.61
0

13

lift Schrenks
(N)
98.43
92.66
86.5
78.67
70.34
60.78
49.33
34.35
12.2

Curve

120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

5.3 STRUCTURAL WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION:

The wing weight varies along the span as the chord length and thickness decrease
on moving from wing root to tip. Hence the spar cross-section should also decrease from root to
tip. This implies weight is higher at the root and it is assumed to decrease parabollically to zero
at the tip.
WY

4 Ww
(1+ x)b

[ ( ) ]
1+

2y
( x1 )
b

29758
}
={ ( 1+3.9 ) 228.78 *{1+0*2.9}
=67.89
Y

wy

114.39

17.40

105

24.02

90

30.64

75

37.26

60

43.89

45

50.51

30

57.10

15

63.75

67.89

14

5.4 FUEL WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION:

Fwd =YF * 10-3
=1*29.47*10-3
=-2.947
Fuel weight distribution
Y
1
2
3
4
5

Fwd
-2.95
-5.89
-8.84
-11.78
-14.73

15

5.5 SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT ESTIMATION:

Cx= a+bx
At, x= 0 cx=44.52
44.52= a
At x=114.39 Cx=4.39
11.39=44.52+b(114.39)
B=-0.289
cx=44.52-0.289x
Ww=944.70
2

44.520.289 x
K
944.70=

114.3

dx

By solving,
K=9.27
x
0
15
30
45
60
75
90
105
114.39
x2
2

R
944.69
916.31
866.34
795.81
693.03
554.8
320.5
150.64
16.12

X(span)

R*x

2
R x /2

944.69

108063.1

6180668

112.5

15

916.31

91072.05

4525826

450

30

866.34

73110.43

3084895

1012.5

45

795.81

55221.26

1915901

1800

60

693.03

37693.9

1025086

2812.5

75

554.8

21853.57

430406.1

4050

90

320.5

7816.995

95328.25

5512.5

105

150.64

1414.51

6641.123

6542.536

114.5

16.12

16

Shear Force
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0

10

12

10

12

Bending Moment
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0

5.6 TORQUE:

W ac =0.25 C
=0.25*37.28
=9.32

W cg =0.4 C
=0.4*37.28
=14.912
17


W sc =0.35 C
=0.35*37.28
=13.048

Fcg =0.27 C
=0.35*37.28
=10.06
T lift =W

schrenk curve

* ( W sc

- W cp )

=98.43*(13.048-14.912)
=-183.47
Y/2

T lift

(Nm)

Net Torque(N)

-183.47

-183.47

30

-161.23

-161.23

60

-131.03

-131.03

90

-91.89

-91.89

114.39

-22.74

-22.74

18

200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0

20

40

60

80

100

5.7 SPAR SELECTION:

Front Spar Selection=15Y. C

= 37.28

Mid Spar=55Y. C
=20.504

Rear Spar= 0.667Y. C

= 24.865
Bending Moment= Max.bending moment*Factor of Safety*max
Factor of Safety= 1.5

max =2.7
Bending moment= Max.bending moment*Factor of Safety*max
By Solving,
(BM)max

=25.03*106

B. M
= FOS max

25.031 06
4.05
19

120

140

=6.180*106
BM,Spar=0.7*25.03*106
=17.521*106

5.7.1 Front Selection:

= 37.28

Elemen
t

Area

AX

AY

AX2

AY2

IXX

IYY

0.14

0.35

0.1

0.049

0.014

2.401

1.96

9.51

0.36

0.1

0.35

0.45

0.035

0.045

1.225

2.025

6.31

0.93

0.14

0.35

0.8

0.049

0.112

2.401

0.0148

9.51

0.56

Centroid
X=

AX
A

=0.336
Y=

Ay
A
20

=0.414
IXX=ICX+AX2-AY2
=9.51
IYY=ICY+AX2-AX2
=6.36
Front Spar= BM=0.6*(25.03*106)
=15.018*106(9.3*106)
Points

Front,2

0.9

8.63

0.7

66.05

0.7

5.96

0.2

1.29

0.2

0.86

5.7.2 Rear Selection:

21

= 37.28

Elemen
t

Area

AX

AY

AX2

AY2

IXX

IYY

0.05

0.2

0.1

0.02

0.0145

0.025

0.014

7.89

9.7

0.04

0.5

0.3

0.014

0.0258

0.0147

0.015

9.4

8.4

0.05

0.4

0.4

0.056

.01445

0.0568

0.016

8.7

5.6

Centroid:
X=

AX
A

=0.245
Y=

Ay
A

=0.298
IXX=ICX+AX2-AY2
22

=7.89
IYY=ICY+AX2-AX2
=9.7
Rear Spar= BM=0.6*(25.03*106)
=15.018*106(9.3*106)
Points

Front,2

0.3

9.1

0.2

5.6

0.2

8.4

-0.2

3.6

-0.2

1.9

-0.3

1.2

CHAPTER 6
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF FUSELAGE
6.1 Description:
Fuselage contributes very little to lift and produces more drag but it is an important
structural member/component. It is the connecting member to all load producing components such
as wing, horizontal tail, vertical tail, landing gear etcAnd thus redistributes the load. It also
serves the purpose of housing or accommodating practically all equipment, accessories and systems
in addition to carrying the pay load. The balancing reactions are provided by inertia forces
contributed by weight of fuselage structure and the various components inside the fuselage. The
main load in case of fuselage is the shear load because the load acting on wing is transferred to the
23

fuselage skin in the form of shear only. The maximum bending stress produced in each of them is
checked to be less than the yield stress of material chooses for the respective member.
6.2 Loads and its distribution:
To find out the loads and their distribution consider the different cases.The main
components of the fuselage landing diagram are :
Weight of fuselage
Engine weight
Weight of the horizontal and vertical stabilizers
Tail lift
Weight of crew, payload and landing gear
Systems, equipments, accessories
TABLE: Loads acting on fuselage
SI.no

Components

Distance

Mass

Weight

Moment

Nose

1.04

100

981

1020.24

Engine

3.19

285

2795.85

8918.76

Nose Landing Gear 6.09

367

360.027

2192.56

Crew

10.76

183

1795.23

19316.67

Fuel in Fuselage

13.91

29.4

288.44

4012.20

Main
Gear

207

2030.67

31272.31

Payload bay

18.9

349

3423.69

64707.74

Equipment

21.5

109

1069.29

22989.73

Landing 15.4

24

Horizontal
Stabilizer

23.71

104.7

1027.107

24352.706

10

Vertical
Stabilizer

27.52

94.2

924.102

25431.28

C.G from Nose= 18.9

6.3 BULK HEAD DESIGN:
l = *(Slope gradient)*density*v2*sa
Slope Gradient =3.26
Density= 1.225
V= 226.504
Sa= 0.06*Sw (ws = wetted area of fuselage)
= 0.06*151.492
=9.0895
l = 0.5*3.26*1.225*226.0042*9.0895
=18.149* 51077.808
=927011.13
Torque= d*L
= 5.504*L
=50102269.2595

6.4 SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT:

Distance(m)

Load(N)

Shear force(N)

Bending
moment(Nm)

1.04

981

4562.25

1020.24

3.19

2795.85

5632.45

8918.76

6.09

360.027

8653.78

2192.56

10.76

1795.23

10123.55

19316.67

13.91

288.44

11278.95

4012.20

25

15.4

2030.67

15642.63

31272.31

18.9

3423.69

18753.56

64707.74

21.5

1069.29

19634.45

22989.73

23.71

1027.107

20145.46

24352.706

27.52

924.102

21457.15

25431.28

Shear force

Chart Title
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0

Bending moment

26

Chart Title
70000
60000
50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
0

10

15

20

25

30

6.5 STRINGER DESIGN :

Design of the fuselage can be carried out by considering the maximum bending moment
which is taken as the design bending moment. The cross sectional area required to withstand the
bending stress is found out by using the formula for bending stress. Now the first step is to
calculate the required cross sectional area of the stringers. Use the following formula for bending
stress.
The total circumference of the fuselage cross section is found to .this circumference is
distributed with n number of stringers such that the total bending moment is taken up by these
stringers effectively. Now, the net IYY is computed considering these stringers to be lumped
masses. As it is symmetric cross section,

27

CHAPTER 7
MATERIAL SELECTION
7.1 Description:
Aircraft Structures are basically unidirectional. This means that one dimension, the
length, is much larger than the others- width or height. For example, the span of the wing and
tail spars is much longer than their width and depth; the ribs have a much larger chord length
than height and/or width; a whole wing has a span that is larger than its chords or thickness; and
the fuselage is much longer than it is wide or high. Even a propeller has a diameter much larger
than its blade width and thickness, etc. For this simple reason, a designer chooses to use
unidirectional material when designing for an efficient strength to weight structure.
Unidirectional materials are basically composed of thin, relatively flexible, long
fibres which are very strong in tension (like a thread, a rope, a stranded steel wire cable, etc.)
An aircraft structure is also very close to a symmetrical structure. That means the up and down
loads are almost equal to each together tail loads may be up or down or up depending on the
pilot raising or dipping the nose of aircraft by pulling or pushing the pitch control; the rudder
may be deflected to right as well as left. The gusts hitting the wing may be positive or negative,
giving the up or down loads which the occupant experiences by being pushed down in seat...or
hanging in the belt.
Because of these factors the designer has to use a structural material that can
withstand both tension and compression. Unidirectional fibres may be excellent in tension but
due to small cross section they have a very little inertia and cannot take much compression.
They will escape load by buckling away. As in the illustration, you cannot load a string, or wire,
or chain in compression.
In order to make thin fibres strong in compression they are glued together with
some kind of an embedding. In this way we can take advantage of their tension strength and
are no longer penalized by their individual compression weakness. The embedding is usually a
lighter, softer resin holding the fibres together and enabling them to take the required
compression loads. This is a very good structural material.
7.2 STUDY OF VARIOUS MATERIALS:
7.2.1 WOOD:
Historically wood has been used as the first unidirectional structural raw material. They have to
be tall and straight and their wood must be strong and light. The dark bands contain many
fibres, whereas the light bands contain much more resin. Thus the wider the dark bands the
stronger and heavier the wood.
Some of our aircraft structures are 2d.Plywood is often used for such structures. Plywood
makes excellent shear webs if the designer nose how to use plywood efficiently.

28

7.2.2ALUMINIUM ALLOYS:
So, since the wood may not be as available as it was before we look at another material
which is strong light and easily available at a reasonable price. Aluminium alloys are certainly
one answer. For the time being we will look at aluminium as a construction material.
7.2.3 EXTRUDED ALLUMINIUM ALLOYS:
Due to manufacturing process for aluminium we get a unit directional material quiet bit
stronger in length wise direction than across. And even better it is not only strong in tension but
also in compression.
Aluminium alloys in thin sheets provide an excellent 2D material used extensively as shear
webs-with or without stiffeners-and also as tension/compression members when suitably
formed.
As a rule of thumb aluminium is three times heavier but also three times stronger than
wood. Steel is again three times heavier stronger than aluminium.
7.2.4 STEEL:
The next material to be considered for aircraft structure will thus be steel which has the
same weight-to-strength ratio of wood or aluminium.
Apart from mild steel which is used for brackets needing little strength we are mainly using
a chrome-molybdenum alloy called AISI 413ON or 4140.The common raw material available are
tubes and sheet metal. Steel due to its high density is not used as shear webs like aluminium sheets
or plywood.
7.2.5 COMPOSITE MATERIALS:
The designer of composite aircraft simply uses fibres in desired direction exactly where and
in the amount required. The fibres are embedded in resin to hold in place and provide a require
support against buckling. This has advantage of freedom of shape in double curvature as required
by optimum aerodynamic shapes and for very appealing group.
From an engineering stand point this method is very attractive and supported by many
authorities because it allows new developments which are required in case of war. But this method
also has its drawbacks which restricts its use.
7.3 HEAVY AIRCRAFT RAW MATERIALS:
The focus of our article is our table which gives typical values for a variety of raw materials.
COLOUMN 1 lists the standard materials which are easily available at reasonable costs. Some of
the materials that fall along the border line between practical and impractical are:
7.3.1 MAGNESSIUM;
An expensive material. Castings are only readily available forms. Special precaution must
be taken when machining magnesium because this metal burns when hot.
29

7.3.2 TITANIUM:
A very expensive material. A very tough and difficult to machine.
7.3.3 KEVLAR FIBRES:
Very expensive and also critical to work with because it is hard to soak in the resin.When
this technique is mastered the resulting structure is very strong but it also lacks in stiffness.
COLUMNS 2 THROUGH 6 LIST THE RELEVANT MATERIAL PROPERTIES IN METRIC
UNITS:
Column 2, the density (d), is the weight divided by volume.
Column 3, the yield stress (fy), is the stress (load per area) at which there will be
permanent deformation after unloading (the material has yielded, given way...)
Column 4, the ultimate stress is stress at which it cannot carry a further load
increase. It is maximum load before failure.
Column 5, the elongation at ultimate stress (e), in percentage gives an indication of
Toughness of material.
Column 6 lists the Youngs Modular or Modulus of elasticity (E), which is steepness
of stress/strain diagram as shown
Column 7 to 10: Columns 7 to 10 are values which allow comparison of materials
from weight stand point.
Column 7 gives stiffness of a sandwich construction. The higher the value the stiffer
the construction.
Column 8 shows the buckling resistance for same geometric shapes. This time wood
is better than light alloys combining before steel and fibre glass.
Column 10 provides a crude way of measuring the strength to weight ratio of
material because it does not take into account the various ways material is used in Light
structures.
7.4 MATERIAL SELECTED
The material selected is ALUMINIUM ALLOY
Material properties:

The ultimate shear stress is

The yield tensile stress is
The shear buckling stress is
The youngs modulus is

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CHAPTER 8
DESIGN OF MISCELLANEOUS MEMBERS
8.1 WING FUSELAGE INTERSECTION:
The 4 seater passenger aircraft has high wing configuration, thus the entire wing
structure continues in the way of airplane body.
Four pin design concept:
This concept is adopted as it is the most simple and straight forward method used during
1950s.The lift and moment loads can be carried between the wing and fuselage by simple shear on
the four pins. The drag and thrust is taken by breather web.
The wing body structures produces aerodynamic interference which in turn promotes
flow separation with its higher drag and unsteady buffeting. This adverse pressure gradient and
consequent flow separation can be minimized using contoured surface called fillet.
8.2 EMPENAGE DESIGN:
Horizontal stabilizer:
The horizontal tail of aircraft is conventional and consists of a fixed tail box. The horizontal
stabilizer is usually a two spar structure consisting of a centre structural box section and two outer
sections. The two basic horizontal stabilizer box constructions for modern transports are
Box constructions with spars, closer light rib spacing (usually less than 10inches) and surface
without stringer reinforcement. The future of this design is the low manufacturing cost and high
tensional stiffness required by the flutter analysis.
Box construction with spar stronger ribs and surface skins with stringer reinforcements (skin
stringer are integrally stiffened panels) is a lighter weight structure.
Vertical stabilizer:
The structural designer of vertical stabilizer is essentially is same as for the horizontal
stabilizers. The vertical stabilizer box is two or multi spar structure with cover panels. The root of
the box is terminated at the fuselage conjunctive with fittings.
8.3 WING FUEL TANKS:
In addition to providing the required strength and stiffness, the structural box is almost always
as to provide fuel space. Integral tanks, as opposed to separate internally supported types, are prefer
since the use enables the maximum advantage to be taken of the available value. The major
problem occurs at tank end ribs, particularly in the corners of the spar web and skins, and at lower
surface access panels. The corner difficulty is overcome by using special suitcase corner fittings.
Access panels should be large enough for a person to get through so that the inside can be
inspected and resealed if necessary. on shallow section wings, the access has to be in the lower
surface so that the operator can work in an acceptable way even if the depth is insufficient to climb
31

in completely. The access panels are arranged in a span wise line so that the edge reinforcing can be
contiguous and minimum stress concentration due to the cut-outs. A deep wing can avoid these
problems by using upper surface access panels but this is not a preferred aerodynamic solution.
8.4 AUXILIARY SURFACES:
The structural layout of auxiliary surface is generally similar to that of the wing but there are
differences, in part due to smaller size and in part due to the need to provide hinges or supports.
The latter implies that each auxiliary surface is well-defined.
Hinged control surface:
Conventional training edge control surfaces are almost invariably supported by a number of
discrete hinges, although continuous, piano type, hinges may be used for secondary tabs
The major points to be considered are,
The bending distortion of control relative to fixed surface must be limited so that the nose of
control does mot fouls the fixed shroud.
The control hinge loads and the resulting shear forces and bending moments should be
equalized as far as is possible.
Structural failure of a single hinge should be tolerated unless each hinge is of fail-safe
design and can tolerate cracking one load path.
When more than two hinges are used the floating hinge concept cannot fully overcome the
problems. However, it is possible to design the control surface so that it is flexible in bending and
indeed the more hinges there are the easier this is to accomplish. The hangers are supported near to
the aft extremities of the main surface ribs.
Pivoted control surfaces:
In certain high-performance aircraft the whole of a stabilizing or control surface on one side
of the aircraft may be pivot about one point about a point on its root chord. Clearly in this case the
structural considerations are dominated by need to react all forces and moments at pivot and
operating points. High skin shear loading is inevitable due to the need to bring loads to the two
concentrated points. Shear loads due to torsion may be limited by locating operating point on the
root rib some distance away from the pivot.
High lift systems:
There is a wide variety of leading and trailing edge high-lift systems. Some types are simply
hinged to wing, but many require some degree of chord-wise extension. Trailing edge flaps may
consist of two or more separate chord-wise segments, or slats, to give a slotted surface and these
often move on tracts attached to main wing structure.
The majority of flaps and slats are split into span wise segments of no greater lengths than can be
supported at two or three locations. As with control surfaces, the locations of support points are
established so as to minimize local deformations since various slots are critical in determining the
aerodynamic performance. This is often a matter of convenience, layout clearance, and the like.
32

The structural design of flaps is similar to that of control surfaces but it is simpler as there is
no requirement for mass balance, the operating mechanism normally being irreversible. There may
be a bending stiffness problem in case of relatively small chord slat segments and fully depth honey
combs can be used to deal with this. Figure show a cross section of a typical slotted flap of metal
construction but same layout applies if composite materials are used.
In many cases the slipstream or afflux from power plants impinges upon a flap and this is
likely to require special consideration in the design. However the extensive local support offered by
sandwich construction, either in panel or fully depth configuration is usually beneficial. Trailing
edge flaps tends to be prone to damage by debris thrown up by landing gear and it may be desirable
to use Kevlar or glass rather than carbon fibres for lower surface but material compatibility needs to
be considered.

33

CHAPTER 9
BALANCING AND MANEUVERING LOADS
Aircraft load estimation combines aerodynamics, structures, and weights. Load estimation
remains a critical area because an error or faulty assumptions will make the aircraft too heavy or
will result in structural failure when real loads are encountered flight.
Loads acting on the aircraft can be classified according to the following load categories
Air loads:

Manoeuvre

Gust

Control deflection

Components interaction

Buffet

Landing:

Vertical load factor

Spin up

Spring back

Crabbed

Braking

Inertia loads:

Acceleration

Rotation

Dynamic

Vibration
34

Flutter

Power plant loads:

Thrust

Torque

Gyroscope

Vibration

Take off loads:

Catapult

Aborted

Taxi:

Bumps

Turning

Other loads:

Towing

Jacking

Bird strike

Crash

Limit load:
The largest load the aircraft is expected to encounter without an permanent deformation is
known as limit load or applied load
Design load:
To provide a margin of safety, the aircraft structure is always designed to withstand higher
load than the limit load. The highest load the aircraft is designed to withstand without breaking is
the design or ultimate load
35

Load sources:
There are generally two cases of the load sources
1. Manoeuvrability cases
In this the loads which act on the aircraft is due to the pilots action
2. Environmental cases
In this the loads are imposed by the environment on the aircraft where it operates.
9.1 AIRCRAFT STRUCTURAL LOADS:
For aircraft, loading is divided into two major categories: limit loads and ultimate loads.
Limit loads are often just flight loads and are further divided into manoeuvring loads and gust
loads. Ultimate loads are crash loads. Manoeuvring loads are determined based on the performance
limits of the aircraft whether imposed by the flight manual or by the actual aerodynamic
performance of aircraft. Gust loads are determined statistically are taken from guidelines or
requirements given by the applicable regulatory agency.
9.2 MAIN CONTROL SURFACES:
The main control surfaces of a fixed-wing aircraft are attached to the airframe on hinges or
tracks so they may move and thus deflect the air stream passing over them. This redirection of the
air stream generates an unbalanced force to rotate the plane about the associated axis.
Ailerons:

Ailerons are mounted on the trailing edge of each wing near the wingtips and move in
opposite directions. When the pilot moves the stick left, or turns the wheel counter-clockwise, the
left aileron goes up and the right aileron goes down. A raised aileron reduces lift on that wing and a
lowered one increases lift, so moving the stick left causes the left wing to raise and the right wing
to drop
Elevator:
An elevator is a moveable part of the horizontal stabilizer, hinged to the back of the fixed
part of the horizontal tail. They move up and down together. When the pilot pulls the stick
backward, the elevators go up. Pushing the stick forward causes the elevators to go down. Raised
elevators push down on the tail and cause the nose to pitch up. This makes the wings fly at a
higher angle of attack, which generates more lift and more drag.
36

Rudder:
The rudder is typically mounted on the trailing edge of the vertical stabilizer, part of
the empennage. When the pilot pushes the left pedal, the rudder deflects left. Pushing the right
pedal causes the rudder to deflect right. Deflecting the rudder right pushes the tail left and causes
the nose to yaw to the right.
9.3 SECONDARY EFFECTS OF CONTROLS:
Turning the aircraft:
The lifting force, perpendicular to the wings of the aircraft, is tilted in the direction of the
intended turn by rolling the aircraft into the turn. As the bank angle is increased, the lifting force,
which was previously acting only in the vertical, is split into two components: One acting vertically
and one acting horizontally.
Alternate main control surfaces:
Some aircraft configurations have non-standard primary controls. For example instead of elevators
at the back of the stabilizers, the entire tail plane may change angle. Some aircraft have a tail in the
shape of a V, and the moving parts at the back of those combine the functions of elevators and
rudder.
V-tail:
A V-tail has no distinct vertical or horizontal stabilizers. Rather, they are merged into
control surfaces known as ruddervators which control both pitch and yaw. The arrangement looks
like the letter V, and is also known as a butterfly tail.
High lift devices:
In aircraft design, high-lift devices are moving surfaces or stationary components intended
to increase lift during certain flight conditions. They include common devices such
as flaps and slats, as well as less common features such as leading edge extensions and blown flaps.
Flaps:
The most common high-lift device is the flap, a movable portion of the wing that can be
lowered into the airflow to produce extra lift. Their purpose is to re-shape the wing section into one
that has more camber. Flaps are usually located on the trailing edge of a wing, while leading edge
flaps are occasionally used as well.

37

Fig 14:Flaps
Some flap designs also increase the wing chord when deployed, increasing the wing area to
help produce more lift; such complex flap arrangements are found on many modern aircraft.
Slats and slot:
Another common high-lift device is the slat, a small aerofoil shaped device attached just in
front of the wing leading edge. The slat re-directs the airflow at the front of the wing, allowing it to
flow more smoothly over the upper surface while at a high angle of attack. A slot is the gap
between the slat and the wing. The slat may be fixed in position, or it may be retractable. If it is
fixed, then it may appear as a normal part of the leading edge of a wing which has slot
Leading edge root extensions:
Although not as common, another high-lift device is the leading edge root
extension (LERX) or leading edge extension (LEX). A LERX typically consist of a small triangular
fillet between the wing leading edge root and fuselage. In normal flight the LERX generates little
lift. At higher angles of attack, however, it generates a vortex that is positioned t

Fig 15: Aileron

9.4 BOUNDARY LAYER CONTROL AND BLOWN FLAPS:
Powered high-lift systems generally use airflow from the engine to shape the flow of air
over the wing, replacing or modifying the action of the flaps. Blown flaps use "bleed air" from
the jet engine's compressor or engine exhaust which is blown over the rear upper surface of the
38

wing and flap, re-energising the boundary layer and allowing the airflow to remain attached at
higher angles of attack. A more advanced version of the blown flap is the circulation control wing;
a mechanism that tangentially ejects air over a specially designed airfoil to create lift through
the Coanda effect.
CHAPTER 10
COMPONENTS OF WINGS AND FUSELAGES
10.1 WING FUSELAGE INTERSECTION:
The wing fuselage interaction of Delta Wing with tapered is discussed based on components
specified as follows.
Four pin design concept:
This concept is adopted as it is the most simple and straight forward method used during
1950s. The lift and moment loads can be carried between the wing and fuselage by simple shear on
the four pins. The drag and thrust is taken by breather web. This design allows the wing spar and
fuselage bulkheads to deflect independently of each other such that no
spar moment is directly transferred to the bulkheads.

FIGURE 16: FOUR PIN DESIGN CONCEPT

The wing-body juncture produces aerodynamic interference which in turn promotes flow
separation with its attendant higher drag and unsteady buffeting. This adverse pressure gradient and
consequent flow separation can be minimized using contoured surface called fillet.
10.2 EMPENNAGE DESIGN:
10.2.1Horizontal Stabilizer:
The horizontal tail of the aircraft is conventional and consists of a fixed tail box. The
horizontal stabilizer is usually a two spar structure consisting of a Centre structural box section and
two outer sections.
The two basic horizontal stabilizer box constructions for modern transports are

39

1. Box constructions with spars, closer light rib spacing (usually less than 10 inches) and surface
(may be tapered skins) without stringer reinforcement. The feature of this design is the low
manufacturing cost and high torsional stiffness require by the flutter analysis.

FIG 17: SPAR

2. Box construction with spar stronger ribs and surface skins with stringer reinforcements (skinstringer or integrally stiffened panels) is a lighter weight structure.
10.2.2 Vertical Stabilizer:
The structural design of the vertical stabilizer is essentially the same as for the horizontal
stabilizer is essentially the same as for horizontal stabilizers. The vertical stabilizer box is a two or
multi spar structure (general aviation airplanes usually use single spar design) with cover panels
(with or without ribs). The root of the box is terminated at the aft fuselage conjuncture with fittings
or splices.
Wing Fuel Tanks:
In addition to providing the required strength and stiffness, the structural box almost always
has to provide fuel space. Integral tanks, as opposed to separate internally supported types, are
preferred since their use enables the maximum advantage to be taken of the available volume.
Integrally machined or moulded constructions, which use a small amount of large components, are
obviously an advantage since sealing is reduced to a minimum.
Access panels should be large enough for a person to get through so that the inside can be
inspected and resealed if necessary
10.3 AUXILIARY SURFACES:
The structural layout of the auxiliary lifting surfaces is generally similar to that of the wing
but there are differences, in part due to the smaller size and in part due to the need to provide hinges
or supports. The latter implies that each auxiliary surface is a well-defined.
10.3.1 Hinged control surfaces:
Conventional training edge control surfaces are almost invariably supported by a number of
discrete hinges, although continuous, piano type, hinges may be used for secondary tabs. The major
points to be considered are:
The bending distortion of the control relative to the fixed surface must be limited so that the nose
of the control does mot fouls the fixed shroud.
The control hinge loads and the resulting shear forces and bending moments should be equalized
as far as is possible.
40

 Structural failure of a single hinge should be tolerated unless each hinge is of fail-safe design and
can tolerate cracking one load path.

10.3.2 Pivoted control surfaces:

In certain high-performance aircraft, the whole of a stabilizing or control surface on one
side of the aircraft may be pivot about a point on its root chord. Clearly in this case, the structural
considerations are dominated by the need to react all the forces and moments at the pivot and
operating points. Shear loads due to torsion may be limited by locating the operating point.
10.3.3 High lift systems:
There is a wide variety of leading and trailing edge high-lift systems. Some types are
simply hinged to the wing, but many require some degree of chord-wise extension. This can be
achieved by utilizing a linkage, a mechanism, a pivot located outside the aerofoil contour or,
perhaps most commonly, by some form of track.
The majority of flaps and slats are split into span wise segments of no greater
lengths than can be supported at two or three locations. As with control surfaces, the
locations of the support points are established so as to minimize local deformations since
the various slots are critical in determining the aerodynamic performance.
10.3.4 Attachment of lifting surfaces:
The joint of the fuselage with the wing is subjected to heavy load inputs and there
is a potential for considerable relative distortion. This distortion is usually accepted and the
wing centre box is built completely into the fuselage, the resulting constraint stresses being
allowed for.
It is sometimes possible to arrange the wing pick-ups as pivots on the neutral axis or set
them on swinging links. In this case, the relative motion is allowed to take place and there are no
induced stresses. Structural assembly of the wing to the fuselage is relatively simple.
10.4 FLUTTER:
Flutter is the dynamic instability of an elastic body in an airstream. It is found most
frequently in aircraft structures subjected to large aerodynamic loads such as wings, tail units and
control surfaces. Flutter occurs at a critical or flutters speed V f which in turn is defined as the
lowest airspeed at which a given structure will oscillate with sustained simple harmonic motion.
Flight at speeds below and above the flutter speed represents conditions of stable and unstable (that
is divergent) structural oscillation, respectively.

41

FIG 18: FLUTTER

10.5 AILERON BUZZ:

Another non-classical form of flutter, aileron buzz, occurs at high subsonic speeds and is
associated with the shock wave on the wing forward of the aileron. If the aileron oscillates
downwards the flow over the upper surface of the wing accelerates, intensifying the shock and
resulting in a reduction in pressure in the boundary layer behind the shock. The aileron, therefore,
tends to be sucked back to its neutral position.
10.6 BUFFETING:
Buffeting is produced most commonly in a tail plane by eddies caused by poor airflow In
the wing wake striking the tail plane at a frequency equal to its natural frequency; a resonant
oscillation having one degree of freedom could then occur. The problem may be alleviated by
proper positioning of the tail plane and clean aerodynamic design.

FIG 19: BUFFETING

10.7 AEROELASTIC FLUTTER:

Aero elastic flutter, a rapid self-feeding motion, potentially destructive, excited by
aerodynamic forces, in aircraft structures, control surfaces and bridge engineering
Aerodynamic buffeting is a vibration (sometimes violent) that is felt in the airframe and
controls of an aircraft. It is brought on by the separation of the boundary layer of air that
42

normally flows along the wing or tail. It is usually associated with slow speed and high angle of
attacks, but can also be brought on by high (near-supersonic) speeds as well.

43