Hund's Rule

The Aufbau principle let's us build up an atoms electronic configuration by placing

electrons into orbitals of every increasing energy. Hund's Rule tells us about how the
electrons in an atom should be placed into degenerate orbitals. Technically Hund's
Rules say that the ground state configuration should maximize the multiplicity of a
configuration. What does that mean? The simple rule is that electrons should be
placed into separate orbitals before going into the same orbital. This is because
these best represent the configurations that are the lowest energy when we do the
quantum mechanical calculation.

Pauli exclusion principle:

The Pauli exclusion principle is an assertion that no two electrons in an atom can be
at the same time in the same state or configuration, proposed (1925) by the
Austrian physicist Wolfgang Pauli to account for the observed patterns of light
emission from atoms. The exclusion principle subsequently has been
generalizeSubatomic particles fall into two classes, based on their statistical
behaviour. Those particles to which the Pauli exclusion principle applies are called
fermions; those that do not obey this principle are called bosons. When in a closed
system, such as an atom for electrons or a nucleus for protons and neutrons,
fermions are distributed so that a given state is occupied by only one at a time.
Particles obeying the exclusion principle have a characteristic value of spin, or
intrinsic angular momentum; their spin is always some odd whole-number multiple
of one-half. In the modern view of atoms, the space surrounding the dense nucleus
may be thought of as consisting of orbitals, or regions, each of which comprises
only two distinct states. The Pauli exclusion principle indicates that, if one of these
states is occupied by an electron of spin one-half, the other may be occupied only
by an electron of opposite spin, or spin negative one-half. An orbital occupied by a
pair of electrons of opposite spin is filled: no more electrons may enter it until one of
the pair vacates the orbital. An alternative version of the exclusion principle as
applied to atomic electrons states that no two electrons can have the same values
of all four quantum numbers.to include a whole class of particles of which the
electron is only one member.

The Aufbau Principle

The equations of modern atomic theory are difficult to solve. Fortunately, many of
the results can be obatined by following some simple rules. These rules are known
as the Aufbau principle. However, we first need to discuss quantum numbers, shells,
subshells and orbitals.

The principal quantum number n - the shell

Quantum numbers abound in quantum theory. These quantum numbers serve the
purpose of keeping track of the various quantum possibilities that emerge. Perhaps
the most important quantum number is the "principal" quantum number n. The
principal quantum number n can take on the values 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ... . Associated
with each n is a principle energy level known as a shell. Thus, shell 1 has n=1, shell
2 has n=2 etc. and so on associated with it.

Each shell has subshells associated with it

Depending upon its quantum number, each shell can have one or more subshells
associated with it. For the n=1 shell there is only one subshell - the s subshell. For
the n=2 shell there are two subshells - the s and p subshells and so on. The number
of subshells within a shell is equal to n.

principle quantum number

1

s, p

s, p, d

s, p, d, f

number of subshells

the subshell labels

The shells, subshells and orbitals can be summarized with the diagram below for a
typical atom. (A mnemonic device exists to recall this order.)

Each subshell has one or more orbitals within it

Orbitals are like "rooms" within which electrons "reside". The s subshell has one sorbital. The p subshell has three p-orbitals. The possibilities are listed in the table
below:

subshell
type of
orbital
number of
orbitals
s

The Aufbau Principle

The physical and chemical properties of elements is determined by the atomic
structure. The atomic structure is, in turn, determined by the electrons and which
shells, subshells and orbitals they reside in. The rules af placing electrons within
shells is known as the Aufbau principle. These rules are:

1.

Electrons are placed in the lowest energetically available subshell.

2.

An orbital can hold at most 2 electrons.

3.
If two or more energetically equivalent orbitals are available (e.g., p, d etc.)
then electrons should be spread out before they are paired up (Hund's rule).
Examples
Hydrogen
Helium
Lithium
Beryllium
Boron
Carbon
Nitrogen
Flourine
Neon
Sodium
Scandium
Aufbau Principle Definition

The Aufbau principle, simply put, means electrons are added to orbitals as protons
are added to an atom. The term comes from the German word "aufbau", which
means "built up" or "construction". Lower electron orbitals fill before higher orbitals
do, "building up" the electron shell.

The Aufbau principle outlines the rules used to determine how electrons organize
into shells and subshells around the atomic nucleus.

Electrons go into the subshell having the lowest possible energy.

An orbital can hold at most 2 electrons obeying the Pauli exclusion principle.
Electrons obey Hund's rule, which states that electrons spread out before they pair
up if there are two or more energetically equivalent orbitals (e.g., p, d).
Aufbau Principle Exceptions

Like most rules, there are exceptions. Half-filled and completely filled d and f
subshells add stability to atoms, so the d and f block elements don't always follow
the principle.

For example, the predicted Aufbau configuration for Cr is 4s23d4, but the observed
configuration is actually 4s13d5. This actually reduces electron-electron repulsion in
the atom, since each electron has its own seat in the subshell.

Aufbau Rule Definition

A related term is the "Aufbau Rule", which states that the filling of different electron
subshells is by order of Rules for Writing Electron Configurations
1) Aufbau's Principle = Electrons enter orbitals of the lowest energy first. An energy
level (or
sublevel more precisely) will fill with electrons before electrons start to fill the next
energy level
or energy state. All lower energy levels are full up to the last energy level; levels are
not skipped
or eliminated because of energy level.
2) The Pauli Exclusion Principle = An atomic orbital may describe at most two
electrons, at
least one for that orbital to exist. To occupy the same orbital, two electrons must
have opposite
spins. If two electrons occupy the same orbital they are said to be paired. Orbitals
with one

electron are unpaired.

3) Hund's Rule = When electrons occupy orbitals of equal energy, one electron
enters each
orbital until all the orbitals contain one electron, with spins parallel, before they are
paired.

SPolar Bond Definition

A polar bond is a covalent bond between two atoms where the electrons forming the
bond are unequally distributed. This causes the molecule to have a slight electrical
dipole moment where one end is slightly positive and the other is slightly negative.
The charge of the electric dipoles is less than a full unit charge, so they are
considered partial charges and denoted by delta plus (+) and delta minus (-).
Because positive and negative charges are separated in the bond, molecules with
polar covalent bonds interact with dipoles in other molecules. This produces dipoledipole intermolecular forces between the molecules.

Polar bonds are the dividing line between pure covalent bonding and pure ionic
bonding. Pure covalent bonds (nonpolar covalent bonds) share electron pairs
equally between atoms. Technically, nonpolar bonding only occurs when the atoms
are identical to each other (e.g., H2 gas), but chemists consider any bond between
atoms with a difference in electronegativity less than 0.4 to be a nonpolar covalent
bond.econd electrons then add to each orbital so that their spins are
pairedincreasing energy following the (n + 1) rule.
Nonpolar covalent bonds are a type of bond that occurs when two atoms share a
pair of electrons with each other. These shared electrons glue two or more atoms
together to form a molecule. Like children who share toys, atoms involved in a
nonpolar covalent bond equally share electrons.
Ionic bonding is a type of chemical bond that involves the electrostatic attraction
between oppositely charged ions, and is the primary interaction occurring in ionic
compounds. The ions are atoms that have gained one or more electrons (known as
anions, which are negatively charged) and atoms that have lost one or more
electrons (known as cations, which are positively charged). This transfer of electrons
is known as electrovalence in contrast to covalence. In the simplest case, the cation
is a metal atom and the anion is a nonmetal atom, but these ions can be of a more
complex nature, e.g. molecular ions like NH4+ or SO42. In simpler words, an ionic
bond is the transfer of electrons from a metal to a non-metal in order for both atoms
to obtain a full valence shell.

It is important to recognize that clean ionic bonding in which one atom or

molecule completely share an electron from another cannot exist: all ionic
compounds have some degree of covalent bonding, or electron sharing. Thus, the
term "ionic bonding" is given when the ionic character is greater than the covalent
characterthat is, a bond in which a large electronegativity difference exists
between the two atoms, causing the bonding to be more polar (ionic) than in
covalent bonding where electrons are shared more equally. Bonds with partially
ionic and partially covalent character are called polar covalent bonds.

Ionic compounds conduct electricity when molten or in solution, typically as a solid.

Ionic compounds generally have a high melting point, depending on the charge of
the ions they consist of. The higher the charges the stronger the cohesive forces
and the higher the melting point. They also tend to be soluble in water. Here, the
opposite trend roughly holds: The weaker the cohesive forces, the greater the
solubility.
A covalent bond, also called a molecular bond, is a chemical bond that involves the
sharing of electron pairs between atoms. These electron pairs are known as shared
pairs or bonding pairs, and the stable balance of attractive and repulsive forces
between atoms, when they share electrons, is known as covalent bonding.[1][better
source needed] For many molecules, the sharing of electrons allows each atom to
attain the equivalent of a full outer shell, corresponding to a stable electronic
configuration.

Covalent bonding includes many kinds of interactions, including -bonding, bonding, metal-to-metal bonding, agostic interactions, bent bonds, and three-center
two-electron bonds.[2][3] The term covalent bond dates from 1939.[4] The prefix
co- means jointly, associated in action, partnered to a lesser degree, etc.; thus a
"co-valent bond", in essence, means that the atoms share "valence", such as is
discussed in valence bond theory.

In the molecule H
2, the hydrogen atoms share the two electrons via covalent bonding.[5] Covalency
is greatest between atoms of similar electronegativities. Thus, covalent bonding
does not necessarily require that the two atoms be of the same elements, only that
they be of comparable electronegativity. Covalent bonding that entails sharing of
electrons over more than two atoms is said to be delocalized.