Renewable Energy and Sustainability Stategies

Dedicated to Reshmi and Somika,  

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To my beloved Parents

ACKNOWLEDGEMNTS

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The author acknowledges various sources for the materials including USERDA, ICRISAT and Wikipedia.

Omissions and mistakes are his own and corrections woukd be gratefully received.

Index

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Selected Papers by the Author

Past QP’s of VTU on Renewable Energy

1 Classification of Energy sources

About 70% of India's energy generation capacity is from fossil fuels, with coal accounting for 40% of India's total energy consumption followed by crude oil and natural gas at 24% and 6% respectively. India is largely dependent on fossil fuel imports to meet its energy demands — by 2030, India's dependence on energy imports is expected to exceed 53% of the country's total energy consumption. In 2009-10, the country imported 159.26 million tonnes of crude oil which amount to 80% of its domestic crude oil consumption and 31% of the country's total imports are oil imports. The growth of electricity generation in India has been hindered by domestic coal shortages and as a consequence, India's coal imports for electricity generation increased by 18% in 2010.

Due to rapid economic expansion, India has one of the world's fastest growing energy markets and is expected to be the second-largest contributor to the increase in global energy demand by 2035, accounting for 18% of the rise in global energy consumption. Given India's growing energy demands and limited domestic fossil fuel reserves, the country has ambitious plans to expand its renewable and nuclear power industries. India has the world's fifth largest wind power market and plans to add about 20GW of solar power capacity by 2022. India also envisages to increase the contribution of nuclear power to overall electricity generation capacity from 4.2% to 9% within 25 years. The country has five nuclear reactors under construction (third highest in the world) and plans to construct 18 additional nuclear reactors (second highest in the world) by 2025.

Types of Energy

Basically energy can be classified into two types:

Potential Energy

Kinetic Energy

Potential Energy

Potential energy is stored energy and the energy of position (gravitational). It exists in various forms.

Kinetic Energy

Kinetic energy is energy in motion- the motion of waves, electrons, atoms, molecules and substances. It exists in various forms.

Various Forms of Energy

Chemical Energy

Chemical energy is the energy stored in the bonds of atoms and molecules. Biomass, petroleum, natural gas, propane and coal are examples of stored chemical energy.

Nuclear Energy

Nuclear energy is the energy stored in the nucleus of an atom - the energy that holds the nucleus together. The nucleus of a uranium atom is an example of nuclear energy.

Stored Mechanical Energy

Stored mechanical energy is energy stored in objects by the application of a force. Compressed springs and stretched rubber bands are examples of stored mechanical energy.

Gravitational Energy

Gravitational energy is the energy of place or position. Water in a reservoir behind a hydropower dam is an example of gravitational energy. When the water is released to spin turbines, it becomes rotational energy.

Radiant Energy

Radiant energy is electromagnetic energy that travels in transverse waves. Radiant energy includes visible light, x-rays, gamma rays and radio waves. Solar energy is an example of radiant energy.

Thermal Energy

Thermal energy (or heat) is the internal energy in substances- the vibration and movement of atoms and molecules within substances. Geothermal energy is an example of thermal energy.

Electrical Energy

Electrical energy is the movement of electrons. Lightning and electricity are examples of electrical energy.

Motion

The movement of objects or substances from one place to another is motion. Wind and hydropower are examples of motion.

Sound

Sound is the movement of energy through substances in longitudinal (compression/rarefaction) waves.

Light Energy

Light energy is a type of wave motion. That is, light is a form of energy caused by light waves. It enables us to see, as objects are only visible when they reflect light into our eyes

Nuclear Energy

Nuclear energy is a controversial energy source. It is not a  source, but because it is a technology not based on fossil fuels many people think nuclear power plants could play an important role in reducing carbon emissions and battling climate change. However, many others feel the risk of accidents and the issues of storing nuclear waste for thousands of years are too significant to warrant the development of this energy source.

Classification of energy resources

The various sources of energy can be conveniently grouped as

Commercial primary energy resources: Non-renewable sources of energy or conventional sources of energy are being accumulated in nature for a very long time and can’t be replaced if exhausted. Nature gifted resources which are consumed can’t be replaced. Eg: coal, petroleum, natural gas, thermal power, hydro power and nuclear power are the main conventional sources of energy.

Renewable sources of energy: Energy sources, which are continuously and freely produced in the nature and are not exhaustible are known as the renewable sources of energy. Eg: solar energy, biomass and wood energy, geo thermal energy, wind energy, tidal energy and ocean energy. But main attention has to be directed to the following sources of renewable namely, a) solar photovoltaic, b) wind, and c) hydrogen fuel cell.

New sources of energy: The new sources of energy are available for local exploitation. In many cases, autonomous and small power plants can be built to avoid transmission losses. Most prominent new sources of energy are tidal energy, ocean waves, OTEC, peat, tar sand, oil shale, coal tar, geo thermal energy, draught animals, agricultural residues etc., The total energy production in India is 14559×1015 joules. 93% of India’s requirement of commercial energy is being met by fossil fuels, with coal contributing 56%, and oil and natural gas contributing 37%. Waterpower and nuclear power contributing only 7% of total energy production. Comparing the total energy production in India from commercial sources with that of world, it is only 3.5% of total world production.

Total Installed Capacity (June 2012)

2  Introduction to  sources

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Renewable sources derive their energy from existing flows of energy from on-going natural processes, such as sunshine, wind, flowing water, biological processes, and geothermal heat flows. A general definition of  sources is that  is captured from an energy resource that is replaced rapidly by a natural process such as power generated from the sun or from the wind. Currently, the most promising (aka economically most feasible) alternative energy sources include wind power, solar power, and hydroelectric power. Other renewable sources include geothermal and ocean energies, as well as biomass and ethanol as renewable fuels.

Solar

The recent disasters in the southeastern United States highlighted the decline in the world’s oil supply, forcing us to begin considering other energy options. One promising technology, solar power is worth considering for its sustainable, renewable and emissions reducing qualities. Modern residential solar power systems use photovoltaic (PV) to collect the sun’s energy. Photo means produced by light, and voltaic is electricity produced by a chemical reaction. PV cells use solar energy to generate a chemical reaction that produces electricity. Each cell contains a semiconductor; most commonly silicon in one of several forms (single-crystalline, multi-crystalline, or thin-layer), with impurities (either boron or phosphorus) diffused throughout, and is covered with a silk screen. Cells are joined together by a circuit and frame into a module. Semiconductors allow the electrons freed from impurities by the sun’s rays to move rapidly and into the circuit, generating electricity. Commercial residential PV modules range in power output from 10 watts to 300 watts, in a direct current. A PV module must have an inverter to change the DC electricity into alternating current energy in order to be usable by electrical devices and compatible with the electric grid. PV modules can also be used en masse to create large-scale power plants.

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Using PV modules to generate electricity can significantly reduce pollution. The most energy used in creating solar panels is used to purify and crystallize the semiconductor material. No official numbers are available on the exact amount of energy used to create solar panels because there is no industry standard for making the crystals. A number of researchers have done work in attempt to address concerns about energy payback for PV systems. Assuming 12% conversion efficiency and 1,700 kWh/m2 of sunlight per year, the estimates range between 2 and 4 years for rooftop PV systems to generate the energy it took to make them.44 The average United States household uses 830 kWh of electricity per month. Over twenty years, a 100-megawatt solar thermal electric power plant can avoid producing over three million tons of carbon dioxide. Estimates regarding pollution prevention suggest that producing 1,000 kWh of electricity through solar power can reduce emissions by 8 pounds of sulfur dioxide, 5 pounds of nitrogen oxide, and 1,400 pounds of carbon dioxide. Lifetime estimates (over a projected 28 years) average in the thousands of pounds of prevented emissions. Installing a PV system is a hefty investment for homeowners. 5-kW systems can cost up to $40,000. PV system power can cost as much as $9 per watt, and small systems will not produce enough power to offset electricity costs and save the homeowner any substantial money. As a result, over 30 states offer incentives (mostly in the form of tax rebates) to help encourage homeowners to purchase and install PV systems. California is one of the key states, receiving a huge amount of radiation, with the better part of the industry located there, and high-energy costs. The state of California offers a number of incentives under the Emerging Renewable Program passed by the state legislature. The California Energy Commission offers a rebate of $4 per watt to help homeowners affordably install PV systems. However, the mortgage financing required to purchase a realistic PV system is still quite substantial. As PV technology advances, more efficient, easily affordable, standardized, reliable and longer-lasting modules will become available. PV systems’ value to the energy sector especially in residential capacities, is increasingly apparent. However, the continued high cost means that many homeowners will be deterred from purchasing and installing PV systems. The only way to encourage further growth in this sector is for consumers to purchase such systems. The energy emissions reductions are substantial enough to be worth the consideration of the federal government. In order to encourage consumers’ interest in PV systems and growth in the sector at a faster rate, the federal government should create an incentive program to help homeowners and businesses purchase and install PV systems, especially on new constructions.

Wind

Wind energy is one of the most promising alternative energy technologies of the future. Throughout recent years, the amount of energy produced by wind-driven turbines has increased exponentially due to significant breakthroughs in turbine technologies, making wind power economically compatible with conventional sources of energy. Wind energy is a clean and renewable source of power. The use of windmills to generate energy has been utilized as early as 5000 B.C., but the development of wind energy to produce electricity was sparked by the industrialization. The new windmills, also known as wind turbines, appeared in Denmark as early as 1890. The popularity of wind energy however has always depended on the price of fossil

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fuels. For example, after World War II, when oil prices were low, there was hardly any interest in wind power.

However, when the oil prices increased dramatically in the 1970s, so did worldwide interest in the development of commercial use of electrical wind turbines. Today, the wind-generated electricity is very close in cost to the power from conventional utility generation in some locations.

Where does wind come from? Wind is a form of solar energy and is caused by the uneven heating of the atmosphere by the Sun, theirregularities of the Earth’s surface, and rotation of the Earth. The amount

and speed of wind depends on the Earth’s terrain and other factors. The wind turbines use the kinetic

energy of the wind and convert that energy into mechanical energy, which in turn can be converted

into electricity by means of a generator.

There are essentially two types of wind turbines: The horizontal-axis variety, and the vertical-axis design. The horizontal-axis design is used more commonly and looks like an Old Dutch windmill, whereas the vertical-axis designs look like an eggbeater. These wind turbines generally have either two or three blades, called rotors, which are angled at a pitch to maximize the rotation of the rotors. The horizontal-axis design is slightly more efficient and dependable than the vertical-axis windmill. Most of the windmill models that are currently in production are thus horizontal-axis windmills.

Utility scale turbines can produce anywhere from 50 kilowatts to several megawatts of energy. These large windmills are generally grouped together in a windy area in what is called a wind

farm. The proximity of the windmills in a wind farm makes it easier to feed the produced electricity into the power grid. Wind energy offers many advantages compared to fossil based power and even some other types of alternative energy, which explains why it is the fastest growing energy source in the world. The two main reasons are cleanliness and abundance. The fact that wind is a renewable resource gives it a major advantage over oil and the nonrenewable resources. Considering that environmental pollution is being linked to several global problems that might eventually threaten the existence or at the very least worsen human living conditions, the fact that windmills do not produce any emissions whatsoever is another reason to increase the use of wind turbines. Increasing the percentage of wind power used by the United States would not be unreasonable, seeing that the price of wind power is between 4 and 6 cents.

Even though wind energy has many environmental and supply advantages, there are several disadvantages that limit the usability of wind power. The main disadvantage to wind power is that it is unreliable. Wind does not blow at a constant rate, and it does not always blow when energy is needed. Furthermore, the windiest locations are often in remote locations, far away from big cities where the electricity is needed. Just like with any other energy plant, people oppose it because of aesthetic reasons. The rotor noise produced by the rotor blades is another reason for opposition.

Wind seems to be a very good source of alternative energy. Its biggest setback is its unreliability, but in combination with other, more reliable sources, wind energy should be used extensively to supplement the demand for energy.

Hydroelectric Power

Hydropower is America’s leading  resource. This notable success can be attributed to the fact that out of all the renewable power sources, hydropower the most reliable, efficient, and economical. Furthermore, the concept behind hydroelectric power is fairly simple and has been in use for a significant span of time.

The earliest reference to the use of the energy of falling water is found in the work of the Greek poet Antipater in the 4th century BC. Indeed, the word hydro comes from the Greek language meaning water. Several centuries later, the Romans were the first to utilize the waterwheel. Due to the Romans’ powerful influence on Europe through conquest, the waterwheel was soon

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found throughout that continent, and by 1800, tens of thousands of waterwheels had been built. These early waterwheels were of course not used for power generation, but mostly for grinding crops. Water energy was first converted into electricity on Sept. 30, 1882 near Appleton, Wisconsin.8 By 1980 hydroelectric power accounted for about 25% of global electricity and 5% of total world energy use, which amounted to approximately 2,044 billion kilowatt hours (kW h).

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Harvesting energy from water is possible due to the gravitational potential energy stored in water. As water flows from a high potential energy (high ground) to lower potential energy (lower ground), the potential energy difference thereby created can be partially converted into kinetic, and in this case electric, energy through the use of a generator. There are essentially two major designs in use that utilize water to produce electricity: the hydroelectric dam, and the pumped-storage plant. The waterwheel discussed at the beginning of this paper is currently no longer in use and has been replaced by the far more economical and efficient dam. Both the waterwheel and the dam work on the same general principle, but the dam has the advantage of being more reliable due to the reservoir behind it. The principle is simple: the force of the water being released from the reservoir through the penstock of the dam spins the blades of a turbine. The turbine is connected to the generator that produces electricity. After passing through the turbine, the water reenters the river on the downstream side of the dam. A pumped-storage plant is very similar to the hydroelectric dam, the main difference being that the pumped-storage plant uses two reservoirs, one being considerably higher than the other. The advantage of this design is that during periods of low demand for electricity, such as nights and weekends, energy is stored by reversing the turbines and pumping water from the lower to the upper reservoir. The stored water can later be released to turn the turbines and generate electricity as it flows back into the lower reservoir. Now that the two types of facilities have been discussed, there are also two way of obtaining the water: dam and run-of-the-river. A dam raises the water level of a stream or river to an elevation needed to create the necessary water pressure. In a run-of-the river scenario, the water is diverted from its natural path, enters the turbine, and is later returned to the river. Hydroelectric power offers several significant advantages compared to fossil based power, and even other types of alternative energy. Probably the most important asset of hydroelectric power is its reliability. Furthermore, it creates no pollution, and once the dam is built, even though that process is very expensive, the produced energy is virtually free. A dam has the ability to continuously produce electricity and can adjust to peaks in demand by storing water above the dam and by being able to increase production to full capacity very quickly. Other than the high construction and planning costs, the major drawbacks of large dams are mostly environmental. The dam does not produce harmful emissions as in the case of fossil fuel burning. It does however alter the landscape dramatically, producing several severe, even unbearable changes to the habitat of fish and other plants and animals. Building a large dam will of course flood a large area of land upstream of the dam, causing problems for the animals that used to live there. It furthermore affects the water quantity and quality downstream of the dam which in turn affects plants and animals. Blocking the river also disallows certain migration pattern of fish. Finding sites that are suitable for dams is also a challenge. This is one of the reasons why the hydroelectric power production in the U.S. cannot increase by much in the future: most of the suitable locations have already been utilized. According to the Energy Information Administration, the total amount of electricity produced in the U.S. through hydroelectric means has increased by 6.3% from 2004 to 2005. Even though U.S. construction of dams has peaked and is decreasing, advances in turbine technology maintain a slight growth margin of electricity production. Precipitation however also influences the ability of dams to produce electricity. In this sense, 2005 could have been a year of increased precipitation if compared to 2004. Overall, hydroelectric power seems to be a very good source of alternative energy: one that should be maintained at the maximum level possible. It has the main advantage over all the other forms of alternative energy production in that it is reliable, whereas the other forms of alternative energy are not. The main disadvantage is that hydroelectric energy production in the U.S. is currently being used to its maximum potential, which means that large sums of investment will produce only small increases productivity. Other alternative energy sources are not yet as developed and hence will produce greater advances in productivity with the same or even a smaller input of money. Hydroelectric spending should be maintained at current levels, and more money should be invested in the other sources of alternative energy.

Geothermal

Geothermal energy is one of the only  sources not dependent on the Sun. Instead, it relies on heat produced under the surface of the Earth. Geothermal energy already has several applications and could potentially provide a significant source of renewable power for the United States. However, it is limited by a multitude of factors revolving around the issues of sustainability and economics. There are two main applications of geothermal energy, which include producing electricity at specialized power plants, and direct-heating, which puts to direct use the temperature of water piped under the earth’s surface. Geothermal power plants take on several types of forms, depending on the type of geothermal area from which they extract energy. In any case, the plants depend on steam to power turbines and generate electricity, though the methods of producing steam varies depending on the type of geothermal reservoir.12 Direct-heating, on the other hand, provides immediate, usable energy. This type of energy can heat individual buildings or entire areas, as in the city of Klamath Falls, Oregon. It can also cool buildings by pumping water underground where the temperature remains relatively stable near 60 degrees Fahrenheit, and then into buildings, where the water absorbs heat, thus helping to air condition the building. The United States also uses direct heating in fish farms, spas, and

greenhouses. Geothermal energy could potentially become a major source of renewable power for the United States. This is because geothermal energy reduces the United States dependence on foreign oil, it’s extremely reliable due to the constant source of heat emanating from the earth, and it has almost no negative environmental impact.15 In 2004, the US produced approximately 2300 MW of electricity, and the Department of Energy estimates that the figure could reach 15000 MW per year