INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADVANCED RENEWABLE ENERGY RESEARCH

Kaiser and Siddique, Vol. 2, Issue. 2, pp. 777-784, 2013

Optimal Hybrid Option Analysis for a Remote

Location in Bangladesh
1

M. S. Kaiser , A. R. M. Siddique
1

Institute of Information Technology, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka, Bangladesh

2
Dept. of Electrical, Electronic and Communication Engineering
Military Institute of Science and Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh
*Corresponding Author Email Address: raihansiddique@eece.mist.ac.bd
relatively high and good potential for solar photo-voltaic
(PV) power system. The long term average solar
radiation data indicate that the bright sunshine hours
are vary from 4 to 10 hours daily and global radiation
2
varies from 2.8 to 6.1 kWh/m /day [6][7]. Bangladesh
has a 721 km long coastal belt and many small islands in
the Bay of Bengal. There is the strong south-west wind
flow in summer and gentle north-east wind flow in
winter. From the last 30 years of meteorological data
record, it is found that coastal belt and islands located
in Bay of Bengal have good potential for the electricity
generation from wind. During summer average storm
wind speed of 150 km/hour can be expected. Thus the
wind turbine should be strong enough [8].

AbstractRenewable energy is adopted as alternative

source of energy in almost all countries of the world. In
contrast to fossil fuel, these are sustainable and require only
routine maintenance and produce almost no carbon dioxide
or other chemical pollutants, so they are environment
friendly. But the initial establishment cost of the system is
high. In the remote location of Bangladesh solar, wind,
biogas, coal and tidal energies are the main renewable
energy resources. Other than solar and wind, these resources
are inconsistent. The price of the conventional energy is
increasing day by day and the inflation is more than 70% in
this decade. In terms of reliability and per-unit cost of the
system, hybrid renewable energy systems are the best
option. In this paper, we have proposed optimum hybrid
option analysis for the remote location of Bangladesh based
on available energy resources, required load demand for a
village.
Index Termssolar, wind, mathematical model, numerical
analysis, per-unit cost, Kutubdia, hybrid system,

Kutubdia is a coastal Island in Bangladesh having a

2
population of 0.2 million. The total area is 27 km .
Southern and Eastern sides of Kutubdia are promising
for wind electricity generation using large turbines at a
height of 50m or higher. The energy is found to be
2
above 200W/m annually over the year September 2006
to August 2008 [8]. The nation grid connectivity is not
feasible because of high transmission line cost.
Bangladesh Government generates power by diesel
generator for a limited period of time of a day. Daily
solar radiation received in Bangladesh lies between 4
2
and 6.5kWh/m [3] [4] [8]. Solar PV is a promising
option for electricity generation in Bangladesh. Thus
introducing PV-Wind hybrid system into existing diesel
generator system (DEG) not only leads to significant
reduction in diesel fuel consumption but also improves
the system reliability [9] [10] [11] .

I. INTRODUCTION
Bangladesh is enduring from energy shortage due to
the increasing gap between generation and demand.
Most of the people of Bangladesh live in villages and
more than 70% of them do not have access to grid
electricity [1]. The main source of income of these
villagers is agriculture and farming. The annual income
of them is less than 444 US dollar (1 USD = 78
Bangladesh Taka (BDT)). Due to the high price of diesel,
they cannot use their own diesel generator to use
electricity. Renewable energy (RE) resources like wind,
solar, biomass, hydro-electric and tidal wave etc
become essential to fulfill the energy demand [2]. The
depletion of fossil fuel, fuel price uncertainty, and global
warming concern make the RE popular to all [3] [4] [5].
The solar radiation receives at the gourd surface is

Hybrid optimization model of renewable energy

(HOMER) model is used to analyze the optimum
generation system for 100 household and 10 shops in
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Kaiser and Siddique, Vol. 2, Issue. 2, pp. 777-784, 2013

St. Martin Island in 2012. In this research work, HOMER

is used to design the optimum system also performs
sensitivity analysis to see the impact of solar radiation.
Other researcher has also worked for St Martins Island
using HOMER [5] [12]. Hybrid optimization model of
renewable energy (HOMER) model has been used to
optimize the best energy efficient system for kutubdia
[13] [14]. It considers systems physical behavior and its
life-cycle cost, which is the total cost of installing and
operating the system over its life span. HOMER shows
different design options to the system designer [5].
Rural Electrification Board (REB) aims to electrify 97
million rural populations by 2020 [13]. It needs to
increase electricity production of REB more than 50 %
which is not possible and feasible without the assistance
of the RE technology [15].

PV

50 rural homes
78kWh/d
Generator

Synergy SLG

Converter

Battery

Figure 1. Schematic diagrams of hybrid power system for a village of

Kutubdia.

A. Mathematical Model of Solar PV generator

The hourly energy output, denoted by
PV generator tilted at latitude is given by

The scientific contributions of this paper are:

1) An optimal hybrid system of PV-Wind-DEG
Battery for solar home system for Kutubdia has
been carried.
2) In order to find the optimum design HOMER is
used.
3) Financial feasibility is done by Renewable Energy
Technologies screen, i.e., (RET Screen) [16].

( )

( )), of solar

( )

(1)

where, ( )is the hourly irradiance is measured in

3
kWh/m ; is the surface area, and
are the PV
penetration level factor and efficiency of the PV
generator respectively.
B. Mathematical Model of Wind Energy Generator

The rest of the sections are discussed as follows:

section 2 discusses the system model. Available
resources and energy demand for 50 homes in Kutubdia
is included in section 3. The optimization problem and
constrain are given in section 4. HOMER model is
discussed in section 5. Section 6 gives the numerical
results and finally the work is concluded with future
remark in section 7.

The rated energy generated by wind generator,

denoted by
( ), can be written as
( )

(2)
where, w is the air density, A is the surface area, is
the wind speed, (
) is the performance coefficient
of the turbine, is the tip speed ratio of the rotor blade
tip speed to wind speed, is the blade pitch angle, t
and
are wind turbine and generator efficiency

II. SYSTEM MODEL

respectively.

Figure 1 shows the schematic diagram of hybrid

power system that is able to supply 78 KWh of energy
per day to 50 rural houses of a Lemsikhali of Kutubdia.
The model is implemented in HOMER simulation tool to
find out the best energy efficient hybrid system options.

C. Mathematical Model of Diesel Generator

Hourly generated energy by a diesel generator,
denoted by ( ), can be written as
( )
( )
(3)
where, ( ) is the rated power output and
is
efficiency of the diesel generator.

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Kaiser and Siddique, Vol. 2, Issue. 2, pp. 777-784, 2013

D. Mathematical Model of Converter

The rectifier model is given by
( )

( )
(

( )

( ))

(4)

( )

Solar Resources
Daily Radiation (kWh/m^2/day)

( )

year. The clearness index is a dimensionless number,

and clearness index lies between [0, 1]. It is defined as
the surface radiation divided by the extraterrestrial

(5)

( ) is the hourly energy output from

where,
the rectifier,
is the rectifier efficiency
(t) is
the hourly energy output at the rectifier,
(t) is the
hourly energy output from diesel generator,
(t) is
the energy absorbed by the load.

E. Mathematical Model of Inverter

The inverter model for the PV, denoted by
and battery, denoted by

can be written as
( )

( )

( )

,
)

(6)
( )

1
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0

6
4
2
0

Daily radiation

Clearness Index

Figure 2. Monthly solar radiation data and clearness index on the

horizontal surface in Kutubdia.

radiation. The clearness index has a value near to 1

under clear, sunny conditions, and a low value near to 0
under cloudy conditions. The clearness index is higher
than 0.6 for the month October to March. It is lower
during the month of June and July.

and
(

(7)

( )is
where,
is the efficiency of the inverter,
the hourly energy consumed by the load (in KWh), and
is the battery discharge efficiency.
F. Mathematical Model of Battery

B. Solar Resource

The state of charge of battery is the cumulative sum

of the daily charge transfer. During the charging process
when the total output of the entire generator exceeds
the load demand, the rest of the energy is used to
charge the battery. The battery model can be given by

Southern and Eastern sides of Kutubdia are promising

for wind electricity generation using large turbines at a
height of 50m (Figure 3) or higher [8]. Figure 4 shows
wind speed over Kutubdia for different months. HOMER
creates the monthly average data based on other
parameters such as Weibull factor, k, of 1.8,
Autocorrelation factor of 0.90, Diurnal pattern strength
(wind speed variation over a day) of 0.25, Hour of peak
wind speed of 22 to generate hourly data for a year.

( )

(8)

( )is the hourly energy stored in battery,

where,
is the energy output of the charge controller,
is the charging efficiency of the battery.

C. Load Demand
The electrical loads of the Kutubdia Island are divided
into domestic, agricultural, government and private
office and rural industry. The electrical appliances like
fan and compact fluorescent lamp (CFL) are used for
domestic use. For this analysis we consider that the
each home requires 1.58 KWh/day of energy. Thus 50
rural houses of Lemsikhali village of Kutubdia required
78 KWh of energy per day. Figure 5 shows the monthly
load profile as a function of time for 50 rural homes in
Lemsikhali.

III. AVAILABLE RESOURCES AND ENERGY DEMAND

A. Solar Resource
Bangladesh Meteorological Department (BMD) has
measured climatologically data such as cloud cover and
sunshine duration data in Kutubdia. These data are used
for the estimation of solar radiation data as they are
correlated. The annual average solar insulation on the
horizontal surface over Kutubdia Island is 4.95KW
2
h/m /day. Figure 2 shows the values of solar radiation
and clearness index data for the different months of the
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Kaiser and Siddique, Vol. 2, Issue. 2, pp. 777-784, 2013

On the other hand, the total capital cost, i.e., Cc, for
the proposed combination of PV-Wind-DEG hybrid
system can be given by

(10)

where,
,
,
,
and
are the cost of
each unit of wind generator or turbine, solar panel,
diesel generator, battery and fixed cost including
cost of converter, inverter and other respectively.
Figure 3. Map of Kutubdia showing wind resource at 50m height
above the ground level.

The annual capital cost

(

Wind Resource
7
Wind Speed m/s

can be written as
) ,

(11)

where,
(
) is the capital recovery factor, i is
the interest rate in [%]
is the project lifetime [yr].

6
5

The annual operating cost

4
3

( )) ,

2
1
0

( )

can be written as
( )

( )

( )
(12)

( ),
( ),
( ),
( ) and
where
( )are the operating cost of PV, wind, DEG,
battery and others respectively. The total annual life
cycle cost of the system, i.e.,
, is composed of
both capital and operating cost

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Agu Sep Oct Nov Dec
Months

Figure 4. Wind speed for different months.

IV. FORMATION OF OPTIMIZATION PROBLEM

,

The total energy of the PV, Wind, and DEG hybrid

system at time t, i.e., ( ), can be written as
( )

(13)

The cost of energy (COE) is the average cost per

KWh of useful electrical energy produced by the
system. Mathematically it can be written as

(9)

where
, ,
are number of units of wind
generator or turbine, number of solar panel and
number of diesel generator respectively.

(14)

Net Present Cost (NPC), denoted by

, is the
main economic output which can be calculated as
(

If,

(15)

and
are the power generated by wind, PV
and diesel generator
is the total load
demand. The objective function fo the optimization
problem for the proposed PV-Wind-DEG hybrid
system can be given by
Figure 5. Monthly load profile for a year.

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28kW, 32 kW and so on. The unit cost of inverter

is approximately 50 BDT/W. The life time of
inverter is 10 years and efficiency is 0.85. The wind
speed varies continuously from hour-to-hour and
day-to-day. Battery bank is another essential
component for the considered system. It ensures
constant energy supply to the load and makes
the system independent of wind and solar energy
variations. Battery from Trojan Company (Model:
Trojan T 105, nominal V: 6V nominal capacity: 225
Ah) has been used at a cost of 10,000.00 BDT / unit
with battery charge controller.

(16)
,

(17)

V. HOMER MODEL AND SIMULATION MODEL

A. Load Sizing
Table-I shows electrical appliances for single
home user, which is considered for analysis. Monthly
average hourly load demand has been inputted and
then it generates daily and monthly load profile
for a year (Figure 5). The total energy consumption
for a home is found to be around 99 to 279
Wh/day with a peak demand of nearly 26 to 86 W,
since all the home does not have Black and While
(B/W) TV at all. For the analysis, we have
considered that 25 homes have B/W TV.
TABLE I.

F. Economics and Constraints

As the life time span of the PV array is 20 years,
the project life has been considered to be 20 years.
Annual real interest rate is the discount rate which
converts one-time costs into annualized costs and
the annual real interest rate has been assumed as
6%. No capacity shortage penalty and cost subsidy
have been taken.

APPLIANCES FOR SINGLE HOME USER

Appliance

Quantity

Power

Use hour/day

CFL

21

Radio/Cassette Player

B/W TV*

60

VI. NUMERICAL ANALYSIS

Figure 6 shows energy generation profile of the
system based on the load demand for the
considered scenario. HOMER shows the top-ranked
efficient system configuration based on present or
installment cost in Tables II and III.

B. Photovoltaic Module
The unit price of PV panel is considered 60 to 70
BDT/Watt. Life time of the modules is 20 years, the
derating factor is 0.9, ground reflection is 0.15 and
these are tilted at 21 degree with no tracking mode.

12
10
Power (kW)

C. Wind Generator

PV

Wind

Generator

0
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec

For this analysis, Synergy SLG 3000 turbine with a

capacity of 1.0 - 2.5 KW has been considered. The cost
of the turbine with tower and installation has been
considered as 96000 BDT/ turbine. For the load higher
than 1.0 KW, turbine from Southwest Wind power,
(model: W175, capacity: 3.0 KW) has been considered
at the cost of 200000 BDT/ turbine with tower and
installation. The life time of the wind generator is 20
years and hub height is 30 m [17].

Monthly Average Electricity Production

Figure 6. Energy generation profile of the system.

E. Battery with Controller

In Table II the energy efficient configuration is 4

kW PV, 1 SLG, 24 kW generator, 36 battery unit.
The renewable energy fraction is found to be 0.85.
In HOMER, all systems are ranked according to
CN P C . Here the renewable fraction (Ren. Frac) is
obtained by dividing the total annual renewable
power production by the total energy production.
A detailed analysis and system architecture for the
50 homes with 77.7 kWh/day system has been
given in Table IV. It could be summarized from the
analysis that it will be better to use PV-Wind-DEG
combination system for 50 homes instead of single
home system. The overall cost of energy would be
low if the turbine cost decreases.

As the system considered the AC load only,

inverter is required. The sizes of the available
inverter in the market are 6 kW, 20 kW, 24 kW,

Figure 7 represents the spider graph of

leveling energy cost as a function of value related to

D. Diesel Generator
The diesel generator has also been considered in
the system. The lifetime is 10000 hours, minimum
load ratio is 0.3, the unit cost is 30000 BDT/kW, per
liter diesel cost is around 50 BDT and intercept
coefficient is 0.08 L/hr/kW (Shaahid SM and ElAmin, 2010).

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Kaiser and Siddique, Vol. 2, Issue. 2, pp. 777-784, 2013

best estimation. The baseline estimation is considered

as wind speed= 6 m/s, diesel price= 50 BDT, Interest
rate=6%. It is found that if the wind speed increases
energy cost decreases whereas levelized energy cost
increases with increase of diesel price and interest rate.
The financial feasibility analysis has been done by using
RETScreen software [18] [19]. Figure 8 presents the
Internal rate of return (IRR) and payback period for the
proposed project based on different electricity selling
rates with 5% annual escalation rate. Net annual
greenhouse gas emission reduction is about 700 tons.

[3] R. Bacon, Public policy journal of the world

bank,http://rru.worldbank.org/Documents/PublicPolic
yJournal/240Bacon- 831.pdf, 2010.
[4] K. S. Zeinab Abdallah, M. Elhassan, Muhammad Fauzi
Mohd. Zain and A. A. Abass, Design and
performance of photovoltaic power system as a
renewable energy
source
for residential in
Khartoum, International Journal of the Physical
Sciences 7(25), 4036-4042, 2012.
[5] S. K. K. M. Shamim Kaiser and S. K. Aditya, Energy
efficient system for st martins island of Bangladesh,
Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences1 (1), 9397, 2006.
[6] L. M. H. R. Ghosh and S. K. Khadem, Estimation of
monthly averaged daily and global and diffuse radiation
for bangladesh, Dhaka University Journal of Science4(1),
109-113, 2006.
[7] H. R. G. Sanjoy Kumar Nandi, Mohammad Nasirul Hoque
and S.K.Roy, Potential of wind and solar electricity
generation in Bangladesh, ISRN Renewable Energy,
2012.
[8] S. K. Khadem and M. Hussain, A pre-feasibility study of
wind resources in kutubdia island, bangladesh,
Renewable Energy Journal31, 2329-2341, 2006.
[9] M. Muralikrishna and V. Lakshminarayana, Hybrid
energy systems for rural electriffcation, APRN Journal of
Engineering and Applied Science3 (5), 2008.
[10] Amin Hajizade, Saeed Bouyerahmad, Faramarz Samani,
Optimal Sizing of Grid Connected Hybrid PV/ Battery
Energy Storage Power Generation System, International
Journal of Advanced Renewable Energy Research
(IJARER), vol-1, issue-2, pp-133-138, 2012.
[11] Hatam Abdolrahimi, Hossein Kazemi, Optimization and
Sensitivity Analysisof a Hybrid System for a Reliable Load
Supply in KISH_IRAN. International Journal Of Advanced
Renewable Energy Research (IJARER), vol-1, issue-4, pp217-225, 2012.
[12] M.B. Mollah, Feasibility Analysis on Solar wind and
Biomassenergy in Bangladesh, 2nd International
Conference on the Developments in Renewable Energy
Technology (ICDRET), pp-1-5, IEEE Conference
publication, 5-7 January, 2012.
[13] M. R. I. S. M. A. Motion, Md. F. Zaman, Energy effcient
modelling of solar wind hybrid power system for a tourist
island, Int. Journal of Advanced Renewable Energy
Research 1(1), 1-7, 2012.
[14] T. Givler and P. Lilienthal, Homer software, nrel.s
micropower optimization model, to explore the role of
gen-sets in small solar power systems, Technical Report
NREL/TP-710-36774, 2005.
[15] N. H. M. E. A. Al-Ammar and M. Usman, Application of
using hybrid renewable energy in saudi arabia,
Engineering, Technology and Applied Science
Research1(4), 84-89, 2011.
[16] S. K. M. Ibrahim, M. Anisuzzaman and S. C. Bhattacharya,
Demonstration of pv micro-utility system for rural
electriffcation, Journal of Solar Energy72(6), 521-530,
2002.

VII. CONCLUSION
It is clear that human life can be sustained on earth in
the future if we are able to replace conventional energy
sources with an alternative source of energy such as
Solar, Wind, tidal wave etc and hybrid of these options.
Optimal hybrid option analysis is required for designing
solar home system. In this paper, we have proved
optimal hybrid option analysis for Kutubdia based on
energy resources and required load demand. As an
example scenario, we have done the analysis for
Lemsikhali, a village of 50 homes in Kutubdia Island,
required 78kWh of energy per day. Hybrid optimization
model of renewable energy (HOMER) is used to find the
optimal combination of Solar Photovoltaic (PV)-WindDiesel (DEG) hybrid system, and financial feasibility is
analyzed using Renewable Energy Technologies screen
(RETScreen) for the optimal combination of PV-WindDEG hybrid system. From the optimal result, it is found
that 4kW PV, 1kW wind, 24kW DEG, 36 Battery and
24kW converter. It has been found that PV-Wind-DEG,
hybrid system is feasible in Kutubdia. This study shows
that HOMER analysis is required for selecting optimal
system configuration based on the installment cost of
the system and available energy resources. Internal rate
of return and payback period analysis has been done
using RETScreen software. If clean development
mechanisms, carbon tax, and oil price increase are
considered, the unit cost would be reduced
considerable and system will be found to be more
feasible. We would like to developed a mathematical
model that combined both HOMER and RETScreen.

REFERENCES
[1] BPDB, Annual
report
of
bangladesh
power
development
board
(bpdb)
2012,
http://www.bpdb.gov.bd/generation.html, 2012.
[2] M. A. Motin, Md. Forhad Zaman, M.R.I. Sheikh, Energy
Efficient Modeling of Solar Wind Hybrid Power System for
a Tourist Island International Journal Of Advanced
Renewable Energy Research (IJARER), vol-1, issue-1, pp-17, 2012.

782

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADVANCED RENEWABLE ENERGY RESEARCH

Kaiser and Siddique, Vol. 2, Issue. 2, pp. 777-784, 2013

Communication Engineering from University of Dhaka, Bangladesh, in

2005 and 2003 respectively. He has authors more than 50 research
articles I National / International Journals / Conferences.
He is now working as an assistant professor in Institute of Information
Technology, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka. His research interests
include Renewable Energy, Bio Inspired NGN, Artificial Intelligent
System, Resource Allocation and Management, Cross Layer
Optimization, Cognitive Cooperative Network.

[17] I. R. Group, World Bank/Bangladesh energy services

delivery project, impacts assessment and lessons
learned.http://rru.worldbank.org/Documents/worldban
k/bdenergy.pdf, 2003.
[18] R. E. P. Analysis, Retscreen engineering and cases,
Canada, pp. 54-62, 3rd ed, 2005.
[19] G. Shaffiullah and A. M. T., Economic analysis of hybrid
renewable model for subtropical climate, Int. J of
Thermal and Environmental Engineering1, 57, 2010

A. R. M. Siddique received the B.Sc. degree

in Electrical, Electronic and Communication
Engineering with major in Power Engineering
from the Military Institute of Science and
Technology (MIST), Bangladesh in 2011.
Currently, he is serving as a lecturer in
Electrical, Electronic and Communication
Engineering department at the MIST. His research interests include
Power Electronics, Renewable Energy Technologies, Power System,
Smart
Grid;
Electrical
machines.

M. Shamim Kaiser received Ph.D. in

Telecommunications, School of Engineering and Technology from AIT,
Thailand, in 2010; M.Sc. and B.Sc in Applied Physics Electronics &

OPTIMIZED RESULT FOR 50 RURAL HOMES WITH 77.7 KWH/DAY WHEN THE AVERAGE WIND SPEED IS 4.4M/S

TABLE II.
PV
(kW)
4
20
32
32

Wind
(kW)
1
1
1
-

DEG
(kW)
24
25
8

TABLE III.
PV
(kW)
8
36

Wind
(kW)
1
2
1

DEG
(kW)
24
24
-

Batt
36
56
52
64
64

Conv
(kW)
24
24
28
24
24

CC
(BDT/kWh)
7345416
7049484
12365574
13098774
13298142

NPC
(BDT)
9059856
9337380
12556908
13261170
13412802

COE
(BDT/kWh)
27.85
28.70
38.61
40.79
41.26

Ren
Frac
0.85
0.78
1
1
1

Diesel
(L)
2856
3760
6

Gen
(hr)
393
788
5

Batt
Life yr
19.2
20
20
20
20

OPTIMIZED RESULT FOR 50 RURAL HOMES WITH 104 KWH/DAY WHEN THE AVERAGE WIND SPEED IS 4.4M/S
Batt

Conv
(kW)
32
32
32

56
48
64

TABLE IV.

CC
(BDT/kWh)
9805068
9813726
17456400

NPC
(BDT)
12002328
12023232
17675112

COE
(BDT/kWh)
27.53
27.61
40.56

Ren
Frac
0.83
0.88
1

FINANCIAL ANALYSIS OF BEST OPTIMAL RESULT OFTABLE-II

PV

CC
BDT
(106)
1.27

Cac
BDT
/yr(106)
0.111

Cac
BDT
/yr(106)
-

Wind

3.12

0.727

DEG

0.495

0.043

-2628.6

Co
BDT /yr

Cfuel
BDT
/yr
-

Cannual
BDT
/yr(106)
0.113

3900

0.276

1778.4

133458

0.176

1817.4

Batt

1.99

0.174

4243.2

5023.2

0.183

Conv

.463

0.040

1872

0.0423

Total

7.35

0.064

1606.8

14398.8

133458

0.789

783

Diesel
(L)
3716
3789
-

Gen
(hr)
496
512
-

Batt
Life yr
19.2
20
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ADVANCED RENEWABLE ENERGY RESEARCH

Authors name, et al., Vol. xx, Issue. xx, pp. y-z, 2013

ddd

Figure 7. Levelized energy cost as a function of

value related to best estimation

Figure 8. Internal rate of return (IRR) and payback period.

784
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