5 LIGHTING

TECHNOLOGIES

Chapter 5: Lighting technologies

Topics covered
5

Lighting technologies.......................................................................................................... 93
5.1

Introduction ................................................................................................................. 93

5.2

Light sources ............................................................................................................ 94

5.2.1

Overview ........................................................................................................ 94

5.2.2

Lamps in use ............................................................................................ 96

5.2.3

Lamps............................................................................................................. 98
Incandescent lamp.......................................................................................... 98
Tungsten halogen lamp ............................................................................... 99
Fluorescent lamps ........................................................................................ 100
Compact fluorescent lamps (CFL) ......................................................... 101
High Intensity Discharge lamps (High Pre.s.s..u..r.e..)..............................
103
Mercury Lamps ............................................................................................ 103
Metal halide lamps .................................................................................... 103
High pressure sodium lamps .................................................................. 104
Electrodeless lamps...................................................................................... 105
Induction lamp ............................................................................................. 105
Compact fluorescent lamps (electrodeless) ........................................... 105

5.2.4

Auxiliaries.................................................................................................... 106
Ballasts ............................................................................................................ 106
Comparison of the electro-magnetic-ballasts catnrodniceleballasts .............
108
Transformers ................................................................................................... 108
Starters ............................................................................................................ 110
Dimming ......................................................................................................... 110

5.3

Solid-state lighting ................................................................................................. 111

5.3.1

Light-emitting diodes (LEDs)................................................................ 111

Operation principle and light
LED

generation............................................. 111

characterization ................................................................................... 113

5.3.2
117

OLEDs - Organic light-emitting dio..d..e..s............................................

5.3.3

LED drivers............................................................................................... 118

5.3.4

LED dimming and control .................................................................. 120

91
91

5 LIGHTING

5.3.5

92
92

TECHNOLOGIES

LED roadmaps .......................................................................................... 122

5.4
123

Trends in

the future in

light s.o..u..r.c..e..s.........................................................

Electroluminescent light sources .............................................................. 123

Discharge lamps........................................................................................... 124
5.5

5.6

Luminaires................................................................................................................. 124
5.5.1

Introduction.................................................................................................. 124

5.5.2

Definition of a luminaire..................................................................... 125

5.5.3

Energy aspects .......................................................................................... 126

5.5.4

LED

Luminaires........................................................................................ 127

Network aspects ..................................................................................................... 128

Description of phenomena ........................................................................ 128
Risks and opportunities............................................................................. 131

5.7

Hybrid lighting ....................................................................................................... 132

5.7.1

Introduction.................................................................................................. 132

5.7.2
132

Energy savings, lighting quality an.d......c..o..s..t.s.....................................

5.7.3

Examples...................................................................................................... 133
Hybrid Solar Lighting (HSL) ................................................................. 133
Lightshelf systems ....................................................................................... 133
Lightpipes ....................................................................................................... 133

5.7.4

Summary ...................................................................................................... 134

References .............................................................................................................................. 134

Lighting technologies

5.1

Introduction

Artificial lighting is being used more

mwoorerld. in The usage is quite nonantdhe
homogeneous.
In developing countries, we can still
uwseidesopf fuel based lighting but
finrdeada
nowadays
situation is changing and the demand forasedelectlriigchtinbg is growing. Electric
lighting
consumes about 19% of the world total se.lectSrioc,ity should remember and consider th
weu
the improvement in energy efficient
wbi h
lightinlsgo
ell
countries. Every change in technologies, inrs cusctoonmsuemption behaviour, even in
lifestyle,
has influences on global energy consumptionirecatlnyd,
environment. Therefore, energy
oinnd
saving in lighting, and the methods of iaschigeov s
ainl g
(state, region, town, enterprise) and by nsaulpraonragtaionisations, too.
People stay in indoor environment for mostay. of Chtahreacterdistics of light in
indoor environment are much different than that oof utdnoaoturralenvironment. On the other
hand peopl do not stop activities after sunset. The ligahrtifnigcial has therefore impact on
their well-bein (see also the visual and non-visual aspet ctsin ofChalipgther 3). The needed
artificial light has be provided in energy efficient and environmcoennstcailolyus way. It is
important to search for
technological solutions which meet human
w
needtshe
operation, when most of the impacts take epnlavciero. nmTehnetal impacts also include
production
and disposal of lamps, and related materials.
Artificial

lighting

is

based

on

systems: llaasmtsp, s, stabratelrs, luminaires and controls.

Ballasts
are needed for discharge lamps to connecto thte l
he
mounted in the luminaire with the wiring
rleafmlepctorbs distribute and redirect the
asaens,d
light
emitted from the lamp and louvers shieldromthe
Cf ontrol systems interact with
glaursee.r building where they are installed. This
the net of interactions and
mtheeans spitdheart
impacts
related with the architecture of the builed,ing spa(csehap orientation etc. have influence
for daylight contribution), with the supply netwowrkith antdhe different equipment installed,
e.g. th
heating, ventilation, cooling or electronic . deLvais but not least, lighting systems r are made
cte, s
human beings who have individual needs
beUhsaevriou habits can be supported
andrs.
by
automatic controls (for example, occupancy h

, senbsuot rs)the user habits cannot be

overridden, poefrfecatll, ligthhting system
offering the bnest solutio

for every application does not exist.

teicnhcnluodl ing the more innovative and
Eveorgyy,
trendy
ones, has its own limitations and its l
pmoatei related to specific application field.
fulils nltyia
Furthermore, the best lamp, if used
luinminaire or ballast, loses most of
withcomppoaotribleor
i
advantages. Combining good lamp, ballast
luinmina wrong installation may not meet
anidre
user needs or provide lighting service cinientan wainye. ffiCombination of a good lighting
syste
in a well designed installation takes
f
stroagneg

lightin
system according to, for instance, on
avanaid occupancy. In the case
dalyalbigilhity
ne
buildings the integration of daylight is inimpoorr to reduce the energy consumption.
dtaenr t

of

To summarize, energy savings / efficiency main eacreonodependent on:

cds
Improvement of lighting technologies
Making better use of available cost-effectniveergyandefficeient
lighting technologies
Lighting design (identify needs, avoid
inpteroraction of
misupseers,
technologies, automatic controls, daylight inotne)gra
Building design (daylight integration and t
Knowledge dissemination to final users uarrec)hit
ect
Knowledge dissemination to operators
sedecision
(designlelresr,s, makers)
Reduction of resources by recycling and
sidzeisp reduction,
porsoapl,er using less aluminium, mercury, etc.
Life Cycle Cost Assessment LCCA
In this chapter an overview is given fot tetchhenolco of light sources, luminaries, and
r
ugrireesn
ballasts. Their potential is illustrated aenndds
trthe most promising ones are describe
theof
Integral lighting systems utilizing
towgei electrical lighting systems and its contr
daylighter are also presented.
tthh
5.2
5.2.1

Light sources
Overview

Following characteristics are to be consideredchowoshienng a lamp for an

application. a. Luminous efficacy
Luminous flux
Lamp power and ballast losses
b. Lamp life
Lumen depreciation during burning hours
Mortality
c. Quality of light
Spectrum
Correlated color temperature (CCT)
Color rendering index (CRI)
d. Effect of ambient circumstances
Voltage variations
Ambient temperature
Switching frequency
Burning position
Switch-on and restrike time
Vibration
e. Luminaire
Lamp size, weight and shape
Luminance
Auxiliaries needed (ballast, starter, etc.)
Total luminous flux
Directionality of the light, size of the

lemluemnitnous e f. Purchase and operation costs

Lamp price
Lamp life
Luminous efficacy

 Lamp replacement (relamping) costs

Electricity price and burning hours
an effect on operation costs.
The diagram below shows the main

are

naortactelarmistpics have
,ch but

lamp etyraples ligfohrtingg:en

Luminous

Efficacy

(Lumens

per

250

200

150

100

50

0
1920

1940

1960

1980

2000

2020

Year

High

Pressure

Sodium

Incandescent

Mercury

Tungsten-Halogen

Metal

Halides

Linear

Fluorescent

Compact

White

LED

White

OLED

Fluorescent

Figure 5-1T. he
2010)

development of luminous efficacies ofrcelsig.(hKtramseosu 2007, DOE

Table 5-1.
fields.

compares

the

main

lamp

types heand firsgtivesinditcation

application

of

possible

Table 5-1L. amp types and their typical characteristics.

Lamp

Luminous
type efficacy
(lm/W)

GLS

Lamp
life
h

5-15

Dimming
control

1000

prompt

excellent
Tungsten
halogen
Mercury
vapour

12-35

CFL

40-65

Fluorescent
lamp
Induction
lamp
Metal halide

High
pressure
sodium
(standard)
High
pressure
sodium
(colour
improved)
LEDs

5.2.2

20004000
excellent
12000
not
possible

40-60

6000- with
12000
special
lamps
10000- good
16000
60000- not
100000 possible

50-100
60-80

50-100

Characteristics
ReCRI
Cost of
strike
installation
time

6000-possible
12000
but not
practical

very low
good
prompt
very low
good
2-5 min
poomr oderate
to
good
prompt

good

low

Cost of
operation

very high
general
lighting
high
general
lighting
moderate
outdoor
lighting
low

prompt

good

low

low

prompt

5-10
min

good

good

high

high

low

low

2-5

min

fair

high

low

40-60

600010000

2-6

min

good

high

low

Lamps in

20000-excellent
100000

general
lighting

12000- possible
16000
but not
practical

20-120

general
lighting

80-100

possible
but not
practical

Applications

prompt

good

high

places where
access for
maintenance
is difficult
shopping
malls,
commercial
buildings
Outdoor,
streets
lighting,
warehouse
outdoor,
commercial
interior
lighting

low

all in near
future

use

Van Tichelenet al. (2004) have given estimation of the

inlamp2004 in European
toetsal
sal
member countries (EU-25). However, annual nsoatlesgi the total amount of light spots in
vdeo
For example, the lamp life of T8 lamps
o1n th0e00 avheorage and yearly burning
ursis
2
hours
office use can be 2500 hours. Thus,
uos l
theampasmouin t
fe
fivefold (12000/2500 = 4.8). Energy used
tch lbae calculated using the calculated
bpys
aen m
amount of light spots, the annual burningdh
average lamp power including ballast
lossesn

5-2, heasstimabteeed. The amount of light

produce annually can be calculated using e

not a kno
figure since it also depends on
powmepr, spectrum of the lamp.

the

oth t
fe

Table 5-2E. stimated total lamp sales in EU-25

c2u0l0a4tedanadmocuanlt of light spots, energy
on
connsudmption a
amount of light. NOTE: Figures are based ioonns oanssumlapmt p power, efficacy, lamp life
anhdourbs.urning
Lamp

Sales

Light spots Energy

type

S*(T/t)
Mpcs

Mpcs

LS*P*t

LS

1 22568 1 225 37

Halogen

143

T8
T5

TWh

Lamp

Glmh

Burning Luminous

power hours

LS*P* *t

GLS
T12

Quantity

Lamp

efficacy

life

lm/w

h
T

74

25

735

60

1 000

10

1 000

143

103

40

500

12

500

68

510

50

500

60

12

000

238 13 1 144 34

126

42

9 436 58

44

500

75

12

000

14
12

78

528

32

500

85

16

000

CFL

108

433

13

10

572

11

000

60

000

OtherFL

33

159

17

1 047

44

500

60

12

000

Mercury

24

13

667

140

000

50

12

000

HPS

11

33

23

1 845 11

175

000

80

12

000

MH

11

27

13

120

000

70

10

000

All

1 801400 3 333100

900

299 100 16 343100

GLS = General lighting service lamp

Sales,
mSillio[nMppcsie, ces] Halogen = Tungsten halogen lamp
Lamp power, P [W] T12, T8, T5 = Long fluorescent lamps
Burnting[h] hours, Other FL = other fluorescent lamps
Luminyo,us e[lfmfic/Wac] Mercury = mercury lamps
Lamp life, T [h]
HPS = High pressure sodium lamps
Light Ssxpots(,T/tL) S [M=pcs]
MH = Metal halide lamps
PxW tu= [TLWS h]
Energxy,
Quantity of light, Qx = = WxLS Px txu [Glmh]

The data of Table 5-2 is depicted in Foigurtehird5s-2. of Twthe lamps sold are
incandescen
lamps. Incandescent lamps cover about 37%ghtof
laind they use about 25% of
sptohtes
all
electricity used for lighting in EU-25
tHheoywevperoduce only 4% of the light.
arera,.
With
lamps the trend is opposite, their share 1s3a of34%the of the light spots, 42% of the
%les,
consumption, and they produce 58% of theordliingght. toAcTc able 5-2, electricity can be
save
by replacing incandescent lamps with more ficeineenrtgy lamefps. Other inefficient light
sources
are T12-lamps (3% of energy) and mercury oflamepnsergy(4).%

Sales 1.8 billion piecesLight spots 3.3 billion pieces

GLS
Halogen
T12
T8
T5
CFL
Other FL
Mercury
HPS
MH

Energy 299

TWh

Quantity of

light

16.3

Figure 5-2E. U-25 lamp sales on 2004. From the estimalaetsed thleamapmosunt of light spots in use, the
energy
lamps are using and the amount of
haa pbreen calculated. Assumptions orfagethelamapve
lighotducthinegy
res
power with ballast losses, annual burning mihnourss, eflfuicacy and lamp life has been made.

T12-lamps and mercury lamps can be replace-dlampwsith high pressure sodium lamps,
andT8
respectively. In lighting renovation T12
be replaced with T5-luminaires. Also
lumisnhaoiurelds
new alternatives for the most energy constumsinogurcel,ighT8-lamp, has to be found.
Accordin to Table 5-2, the average luminous efficaacmy ps of witTh8-l ballast losses is 75
lm/W. At
moment T5-lamp with electronic ballast is cimen I
otr.e
efficient light source with the potential eflfuimcaicnyousreaching 200 lm/W.
5.2.3

Lamps

Incandescent lamp

In incandescent lamp, which is also calleLdighGtinegneraSlervice Lamp (GLS), light is

produced by leading current through a tungsten wirek.ingThetemwpeorrature of tungsten
filaments in incandescent lamps is about 2700 K. Thereafionre emthisesiomn occurs in the
infrared region. Th typical luminous efficacy of different typaensdesocfent inclamps is in the
range between 5 and lm/W.
Advantages of incandescent lamps:
inexpensive
easy to use, small and does not need
easy to dim by changing the voltage

excellent
color
rendering

properties
ipmaeunxt iliary equ
directly work at power supplies with fixed voltage
free of toxic components
instant switching
Disadvantages of incandescent lamps:

short lamp life (1000 h)

low luminous efficacy
heat generation is high
lamp life and other characteristics are
the
spteronndgenlyt odne voltage
the total costs are high due to high so. peration cost

The traditional incandescent lamps will beiveplyrog respslaced with more efficient
sources.
For example, in Europe the Regulation
tihs d process (EC 244/2009)
244r/i2v0in0g9
is
Chapter 4).

supply

light
(see

also

Tungsten halogen lamp

Tungsten halogen lamps are derived from int
Inside the bulb, halogen gas limi
canladmespcse.n
the evaporation of the filament, and redepeovsaitpsorattheed tungsten back to the filament
throug
the so called halogen . cyCcolme pared to incandescent lamp the
teims pehr igher,
operataintugre
and consequently the color temperature is era, lsowhihcihgh means that the light is whiter.
Co
rendering index is close to 100 as witht ilnacmanpds.escAenlso, lumen depreciation is
negligible.
Their lifetime spans from 2000 to 4000 umhoiun aenfdficalcy is 12-35 lm/W.
rosu,s
Halogen lamps are available in a wide
ranlsg,e double ended lamps), with or without
refelerectorasr.e

sohaf pesmod(ferom small capsules to

linear
Trheflectors designed to redirect
forward
only the visible light, allowing infrared rtaodiateisocnape from the back of the lamp.
Ther halogen lamps available for mains voltagesoltaogr es low(6-2v4V), the latter needing a
step-down
transformer. Low voltage lamps have better
a
luemffiicnaocuys
voltage lamps, but the transformer implicaytes loessneesrg in itself.
The latest progress in halogen lamps has
rienatcrohducing selective-IR-mirror-coatings
edbeebny
in the bulb. The infrared coating redirdectsradiinaftriaornes back to the filament. Thishe
increases
luminous efficacy by 4060% compared to nostheranddesliagmp life is up to 4000 hours.
Advantages of tungsten halogen lamps:
small size
directional light with some models (narrow beams)
low-voltage alternatives
easy to dim
instant switching and full light output
excellent color rendering properties

Disadvantages of tungsten halogen lamps

low luminous efficacy
surface temperature is high
lamp life and other characteristics are
spteronndgenlyt odne voltage
Tips
Consider the choice of a halogen lamp if you need:
instant switch on and instant full light
excellent color rendering
easy dimming
frequent switching and, or short on-period

the

supply

 directional light
compact size of the light

source.

Fluorescent lamps
A fluorescent lamp is a low-pressure gas
in which light is produced
predominantly by fluorescent powders
activateltdraviboylet u radiation generated by discharge
ligdhitschasroguerce,
in
mercury. The lamp, usually in the form bouf bluol wtiuth an electrode at each
lara
nbg en
contains mercury vapour at low pressure wl ithamoauntsmaolf inert gas for starting. The
majo of the emission (95%) takes place in tthe (UuVlt)raviroelgeion and the wavelengths
of the m
emission peaks are 254 nm and 185 nm.
iUs V converted into light by
Henrcaed,iatitohne
phosphor layer on the inside of the tubee. UVongenerates only one visible
Sphinocteon
photon,
65% of the initial photon energy is
asheadt.issiOpan the other hand, the final
lotsiot n
spec
distribution of emitted light can be
bycomdbiifnfations of phosphors. Correlated
vareireednt
color
temperatures (CCT) vary from 2700 K (warmd w6h5i Ka (daylight) up to 17 000 K
0t0e) n
color rendering indices (CRI) from 50 to
a
ila9b5le.
fluorescent lamp is up to 100 lm/W (withlooustsesb).allaDsitmming is possible down to
1% of normal luminous flux, and with special highpulsveoltacgiercuits down to 0.01%.
UV
radiation

light
phosphor
-

Hg

Electron

electrode

Figure 5-3O. peration principle of a

fluorescent lamp.

Fluorescent lamps display negative voltage-ccuhrarreanctteristics, requiring a device to

limit the
lamp current. Otherwise the ever-increasing
destroy the lamp. Pure magnetic
cwuroreunldt
(inductive) ballast needs an additional setamrteingt seulch as a glow switch. Electronic
contro gear incorporates all the equipment necessatrayrtingfor ansd operating a fluorescent
lamp.
Compared to conventional magnetic ballasts
laompps at a line frequency of 50
werhaitceh
Hz
60 Hz), electronic ballasts generate high frceuqrurenctsy, most commonly in the range
of 25
kHz. High frequency operation reduces
a
theossbesallaastnd l
effective. Other advantages of the
devices.
arbealla
electrosntsic opportunity of using dimming
that
100
1001

the

light

is

flicker-free

Advantages of

anthde

there

fluorescent lamps
inexpensive
good luminous efficacy
long lamp life, 10 000 16 000 h
large variety of CCT and CRI

Disadvantages of fluorescent lamps

ambient temperature affects the switch-on anodutpluigt ht
need of auxiliary ballast and starter or beallelcatsrtonic
light output depreciates with age
contain mercury
short burning cycles shorten lamp life

101
1011

The
linear
fluorescent
performance and efficacy

lamps
have
enhanced
their
with time. From ultk old, b
hey
T12, passing through T8, to the present tT5onlaymps
no
the diameter is reduced. The T5 has a ivneo good lu
ruys
efficacy
(100
lm/W),
the
same
lamp
surface
inanc
T12 ~ 38 mm
fluomr
different
lamp
powers
(some
lamps),
and
optimal
T8 ~ 26 mm
operating
point
at
higher
ambient
T5
l
T5 ~ 16 mm
temperataumrep. s
are shorter than the correspondent T8 lameyps, neaendd
th
electronic ballasts. Dedicated luminaries fomr psT5malya
reach a better light output ratio (LOR), pas the
be r
diameter is smaller thus allowing the
leigdhirtectteod
Figure 5-4C. omparison of tube diameter
in a more effective way.
of different fluorescent
lamps.
The
isto
best

performance

of

fluorescent

lamp

sethnesitivaembient temperature. T5 lamps

perform
at the ambient temperature of 35C, psandat T825Cla.m A temperature of 35C
inside
luminaire is more realistic for indoor sin.
are also amalgam lamps whose
stalTlahtei
oren
performance varies less with the temperature.
Tips
Ideal for general lighting
workinignclupdliancges
hospitals, open spaces, etc.),
The choice of the lamp
consider the correlated color

in

most

sh(ops,

but also indenstioaml e aprpelsications

is always relatedlicatioon. theAlwaapyps
temperature oaln trheendecring index.
odr
Halophosphate lamps have very poor light dqualwit abnecome
yill
obsolete. (Fluorescent lamps without integraltaesdt sbhaalll have a
color rendering index of at least 80 (EC 245/2009)
The five-phosphor lamps, with their excellent rencdoelroirng, are
particularly suitable in art galleries,
but have lower
shompuss,eumansd
luminous efficacy than the corresponding trriphloasmphpos.
By using lamps of different CCT in the resameand lumpirnoapier
dimming, it is possible to have dynamic e ligth cwol is selected
by the user by reproducing preset
het, hoerr
cyclensg
(ed.a duri
gy.)
Correct disposal of these light sources, waihnichmecrcounrty, is
very important

 As some T5 lamp types have the same luifmfeirneanntce

pofworers,d it is very easy to build "continuous lines".

Compact fluorescent lamps (CFL)

The CFL is a
flpu.oreTscheent

compact

variant

of

the

tubular discharge tube is often folded

ftiwngoe a
isnitxo
rostro
tungsten filament lamps, such compact
weiq internal ballasts and screw or
lampsippeadre
thu
bayonet caps. There are also pin base
awn hicehxternal ballast and starter for
CFeeLds,
operatio
The luminous efficacy of CFL is about
timth hthi at of incandescent lamps.
foguhrer
easn
Therefore, it is possible to save energyin anlidghticn b
CFLs.
ogsts
Today, CFLs are available with:
different shapes, with bare tubes
withal for incandescent lamp)

or

aennveelox (look
pteern

alike

Advantages of

different CCT (warm white, cool white)

instant ignition (some)
diminished sensitivity to rapid cycles
dimmable (some)

compact fluorescent lamps

good luminous efficacy
long lamp life (6000-12 000 h)
the reduced cooling loads when replacing ent inclamndpessc

Disadvantages of compact fluorescent lamps

expensive
E-27 based are not dimmable (apart from eslsp)ecial mod
light output depreciates with age
short burning cycles shorten lamp life
the current waveform of CFLs with
beallelcatsrton is
internical
distorted
contain mercury

Figure 5-5D. ifferent types of Compact fluorescent

lamps.

Tips
The advantage of pin base lamps is thbalet isreplpao the burnt
itto lamp while keeping the ballast in place
csesi
A physical limit of the CFLs is that na rieganlliytion
incompatible with long life
t
insitsa
CFLs are ideal for situations in which lontigmesburanrieng expected
Care should be taken in the choice of mitnhaeire.proIpter is lu very
easy
to unscrew a traditional incandescent
rewpilth a
lampaceandit
screw
based CFL, but the result may be
how the
unsatisfyising.becTauhsies
light is distributed around the CFL is nvtery
to
traditional incandescent lamps.
comdipfaferered

High Intensity Discharge lamps (High Pressure)

Without any temperature limitations (e.g. moeinl tingof p tungsten) it is possible to
use
discharges (plasmas) to generate optical
thermal solid sources with continuous
radUiantiloikne.
spectral emission, radiation from the gas doisccchuarrsge predominantly in form of single
spectr
lines. These lines may be used directly
acftoenrversspion by phosphors for
ectorral
emission of
light. Discharge lamps generate light of codloifrfereqnutality, according to how the spectral
line are distributed in the visible range. Tonawpraeyvencturrreunt and ensure stable
operation from constant voltage supply, the negative currgeent-vcohlataracteristics of gas
discharge lamps must b
counterbalanced by a circuit element such tiaosnal conmvaegnnetic or electronic ballasts.
In all
cases, higher voltages are needed for igdnisictihnagrget.he
The

power

conversion

per

unit

volume

in rehigharc prdeissscuharge
1000 ti
higher than that of low pressure lamps,
c
whtioch discharge tube walls. The wall
temperaturesin mtahye

lamps

is

100

to

of 1000C. The discharge tube

alumina:2O3A The arc discharge is
are typically made of quartz or PCA
(peolyscirnytsetraeldlin
).l
provided with electrical power via
eIn most cases the main constituent of
tungstecntrodpeisn.
le
plasma is mercury. To reach operating pr1ethe vaporization of filling materials
s1s0uresbaros,f
requires a warm-up time of up to 5
Faoftrer stiagrting high pressure lamps
mnintiuotne.s
(except
mercury lamps) superimposed pulses of some
ignition circuits or internal
kVesxternfraolm
ferroelectric capacitors are
used. An immestdairatte afrte-r short power break demands
voltages o more than 20 kV. Many types of high prgreessulraempdsiscchaan not be
dimmed, others only i power range of 50% to 100%.
Mercury Lamps
In

mercury

lamp

light

is

produced

with reenltectrpicas through mercury vapour. An arc

sincugr
discharge in mercury vapour at a
obfars aboeumtits five strong spectral lines
pressure2 visible wavelengths at 404.7 nm,
in
435.8 nm,,
557476.1 nmnm and 579 nm. The red-gap is
fill
by a phosphor-layer at the outer bulb. eTsypio thvea l
cfal
sleu
lm/W, CRI between 40 and 60 and CCT 40p00
isThe12 lam000 h.
lifKe .
Mercury lamps will be banned from Europeafnter
m2a0rk1e5t.

a(EC

245/2009)

Metal halide lamps

To

increase

the

luminous

efficacy

and

CRIy ofhighmerpcruerssure lamps, it is useful

to
thtuebe. These additives emit their
own
andiveersnity of light color. For
sufficient
m(ectoaml
with iodine or bromine) instead of

mixtures of metal components to the

filldinisgchaorgfe
line spectra in the arc discharge,
leadinogrmotous
vapour pressure, it is better to use
pohuanliddses
elemental metals. When the vapour enters emthpeerah rtegion
tuigreh
dissociate, metal atoms are excited and sradeimatitotend. i

of

the

discharge,

The applications of metal halide lamps realecchtricfromtorchees (10 W

variants) to
diverse purposes in indoor and outdoor
u
litgtahgtiensg
with luminous efficacy typically from 50 Wt 1C0C lmv/alue from 3000
o, 0T
from 70 to over 90. The lamp life is 6ty0p0i0 tforom12 000 h.
callhy

molecules

miniature

to

6000

and

Advantages of metal halide lamps

Good luminous efficacy

 Alternatives with good color rendering available

Different color temperatures available.
Disadvantages of metal halide lamps
Expensive
Starting and re-starting time 2-5 min
Differences in CCT between individual lamps
ngeasnd during burning hours. These differences
areducmeduch wirthe metal halide lamps.

Figure 5-6M. etal halide lamps, nominal power from

l4e0ft0

1W50,
7W5,

ofchaCCT
ceramic

W and 70 W.

High pressure sodium lamps

In

a high pressure sodium lamp

light is

sporoddiuumced vabpyour, the gas pressure being

about
spectrum atoppliweside parts of the visible area. The

kPa. The golden-yellowish emission

C
low ( 20), but the luminous efficacy is higho.
mapopslticatcion today is in street
mmThoen
and
road lighting. Luminous efficacy of the llmis/W8, 0 and lamp life is 12 000 h
a1m00ps
(16
The CCT is 2000 K.
An improvement of the CRI is possible baytionpuloser eolpeevrated pressure but this
reduces th
luminous efficacy. Color improved high
lasmodps have CRI of about 65 and
presiusumre
w
high pressure sodium lamps of more than C8T0. isTh2e2ir00 C and 2700, respectively.

Advantages of high pressure sodium lamp

very good luminous efficacy
long lamp life (12 000 h or 16 000 h)
high luminous flux from one unit for
satreelitghtaindg

are

Disadvantages of high pressure sodium lamp

low CCT, about 2200 K
low CRI, about 20 (color improved 65, white 80)
starting and re-starting time 2-5 min

Figure 5-7H. igh pressure sodium lamps, elliptical bulbnd 102050

WW,a sodium 100 W.

Electrodeless lamps
The burning time of discharge lamps is nitoerdmablly alibmrasion of electrodes. It is
possible avoid this by feeding electrical power icnhtoargetheindduicstively or capacitively.
Although the principles of electrodeless lamp have beenodunfdoerrstoover a hundred years,
electrodeless lamp
were not introduced into the commercial ml
pua decades. The main reasons were
artkheet
nstti
lack of reliable and low cost electronicds,ancaend ofavoeilectromagnetic interferences. With
the
great development in electronics and
of electronic ballasts, the electrodeconsenqturoednutlcytioni
less lamp has become ready to be introduecrecdial tomacrokmetm for the general purpose
lighting.
Induction lamp
The induction electrode-less fluorescent lampndamisentafluly different from the
traditional
discharge lamps, which employ electrodes
seoluercctreo. The operating frequency of
ans
induction
lamp is usually in the range of hundredtsens of of kHMz Hzto. A special generator or
ballast
needed to provide high frequency power.
eelneergy coupling coils are needed
Wctirtohdoeust,
for
the energy coupling into the plasma. A felongandlamgp l
oodli
with these lamps because of the absence es.of Theelectfrioldling of the discharge vessel
consists
mercury (amalgam) and low pressure krypton. flLuiokresceint lamps, the primary emission

(in
UV-region) is transformed with a phosphor
radiation. Typical parameters are:
ntocoatvinisgiblei
lamp wattages 55-165 W, luminous efficacy s of 60s-8y0stemlm/W, CCT 2700-4000 K,
CRI 8
The long lamp life of even 100 000
infor inaccessible locations (road
happilsicatuiosenfsul tunnels, factory halls).
Compact fluorescent lamps (electrodeless)
Some models
switching and

of CFLs are electrodeless

good
performance with
lamapdsv.antaTgheesir
overswitchsin. g cycle

common

CFLs

are

instant

5.2.4

Auxiliaries

Energy efficiency of the lighting system dtepeonndlys the luminous efficacy of lamps
ntoo
also on the efficiency of the auxiliary Tehqisuipmeqeunitp.ment include ballasts, starters,
and transformers.
dimmers
Ballasts
Ballast
thies

providing

controlled

current

to

lighting system. The amount of energy

ctah bbe reduced considerably by
loasltlastisn
ne
using
efficient ballasts. European Directive
d
2000/5i5v/iEdCes
Table 5-3. Several types of ballasts areromexcltuhdeed dirfective:
ballasts integrated in lamps,
ballasts designed specifically for luminaries mtountbeed in furniture
and which form a non-replaceable part of rieth anludminwa hich
se
cannot be tested separately from the luminaries,
ballasts to be exported from the
eistihnegrle component
Communaisty, a or incorporated in luminaries.
Table 5-3B. allast Categories. (EC 55/2000)
Category
1
2
3
4
5
6

Description
Ballast
Ballast
Ballast
Ballast
Ballast
Ballast

for
for
for
for
for
for

linear lamp
compact 2
compact 4
compact 4
compact 6
compact 2

type
tubes lamp typ e
tubes flat lamp type
tubes lamp typ e
tubes lamp typ e
D lamp type

The purpose of the directive is to

coesnte-ergffy savings in fluorescent
acheiecvtieve
lighting,
which would not otherwise be achieved witahsureosth. erThmerefore, the maximum input
powers
of ballast-lamp circuits are given in
b
Anthneex of ballasts are responsible for
establishinwger

Manufacturers thceonspuomption of each ballastsa

procedures specified in the European Standa2rd94 E(NEN 501998).

Table 5-4E. xamples of the maximum input power of baclilracsutiltasmp(phase t(wEoC).

Ballast
category
1
2
5
6

The

Directive

2000/55/EC

Lamp power
50 Hz
HF
15 W
13,5 W
70 W
60 W
18 W
16 W
36 W
32 W
18 W
16 W
26 W
24 W
10 W
9 W
38 W
34 W

aims

at

Maximum input
of ballast-lamp
23 W
80 W
26 W
43 W
26 W
34 W
16 W
45 W

55/2000)
pow er

reducing y theconesnuemrgption of ballasts for

fluorescent
from theent lesbsallaesftfsici towards more efficient

lamps by moving gradually away

ones.
The
ballast, however, is only one part of
ecqouation. The energy efficiency of
thnesumepnteiorgny
fluorescent lamps lighting systems depends oomnbintaht of the ballast and the lamp. As
eion c
consequence, the
Federation
of
National
ManrsufactAusresociations for
Luminaries
and
Electrotechnical Components for Luminaries
EUnion (CELMA) has found it
inuroptheean
necessary to develop a ballast classificatmion
on this combination (CELMA 2007)
bassyesdte
The European Ballasts manufacturers, representedCELiMn A, have adopted the scheme
of
classification of ballasts defined by CELMA999s.
1a consequence, all ballasts falling
incAe s
under the scope of the 2000/55/EC
awreith mathre pertinent Energy Efficiency
Directikveed
Index sinheets.
EEI (voluntary) printed in the label ohr e
stdaatetad
There are seven classes of efficiency.
by a limiting value of the total
Eivserydefcinlaesds
power related to the corresponding ballast ctolurmeBn (1.00 for high frequency operated
LFfa
ballasts and 0.95 for magnetic ballasts). esThaere clalisssted bellow:
Class D: magnetic ballasts with very
(dsince
higihsconlotisnsueesd
2002)
Class C: magnetic ballasts with moderate scloonstsiensued(di since
2005)
Class B2: magnetic ballasts with low losses
Class B1: magnetic ballasts with very low losses
Class A3: electronic ballasts
Class A2: electronic ballasts with reduced losses
Class A1: dimmable electronic ballasts

Dimmable ballasts are classified as A1 iil tthheey foflulolfwing requirements:

f
At 100% light output setting the ballast lefuaslftils demands
belonging to A3
theat
At 25% light output the total input potwoer leesqsualthan 50%
oris the power at the 100% light output
of
The ballast must be able to reduce the tloight10%out less of the
maximum light output
pourt
Electronic ballasts complying with CELMA
e
einceiregnycy
major power savers. They can even reduce
of ballast-lamp circuits to less
cotnhseumptoiwoner
than the rated power of the lamp at 5a0uHsezd. thie i
Tbhyis
s
frequencies (>20 kHz), leading to about 1o0n orfedulacmti p power and a decrease of
%
the b
losses.

The

European

Standard

1998)e dmefeinaesu methods for the total input

s rintgh
power of the ballast-lamp system. On thheis basstaisndaordf tCELMA has defined energy
classes and limit values for the ballast-lamp comfbintahteion moost common fluorescent
lamps (details
are given in annexes to the CELMA guide ()CEL
2
MAan
Table 5-5. The EEI system comprises the amfopllotwyipnegs: l
Tubular fluorescent lamps T8
Compact fluorescent lamps TC-L
Compact fluorescent lamps TC-D
Compact fluorescent lamps TC-T
Compact fluorescent lamps TC-DD
Table 5-5A. n
description
Lamp
type
T8

at

EN

50294

(EN

example of the EEI class

Lamp power
50Hz
15 W
70 W

HF
13,5 W
60 W

rs.y(CstEemLMApow2e007)
Class

A1
9 W
36 W

A2
16 W
68 W

A3
18 W
72 W

B1
21W
77 W

B2
23 W
80 W

C
25 W
83 W

D
>25 W
>83 W

25% light output

Comparison of the electro-magnetic-ballasts catnrdonicele ballasts

Electro-magnetic ballast produces a number ivo sniedgea-et ffects, such as:

ef
They operate at the 50 or 60Hz frequencvyoltaogfe. thTehisACmeans
that each lamp switches on and off 100
12se0contdim, esresulting
oprer
in a possibly perceptible flicker and a hunmo,ticeable
Operating at 50 or 60 Hz may cause a
ffescttrobowsictohpicrotaeting machinery at speeds that are a
multiplersequoefncitehso,se f
They can give off excessive EMF (Electro-Mieladgsn).etic F
Advantages of the electronic ballasts:
They operate at about 25 kHz. High frequioency eliompienraattes
flicker and hum, removing any associated cheernaslt.h con
They are lightweight
They generate very little heat
They have better energy efficiency using 2s 5-3e0n%ergy.les
They can be built dimmable, enabling
litgo adljeuvsels to
userts personal needs resulting in energy savings. ht
The positive features of electromagnetic
a they are very robust and have l
braellastthsat lifetime. The material recovery from
isen relatively easy and valuable metals
them d-oinf-liftehe
can be recycled, while electronic ballasts adriefficumltoreto recycle.
Transformers

r
supply from either 110 V AC or 230 V e AClampmsa. insTratnosforthmers are generally
available
with power ratings from 50 to 300 W. Tr
l
heusetrdansifnormae
be either electronic or magnetiecl.ectTrohneic transformer ET represents an alternative
means o
power conversion to the more standard
caon hbeuavy transformer operating at
irolkny
red, 50/60
Hz. The advantages of the electronic transmfopramreedr cwoith the classical
solution are

(Radiolocman 2007):
The output power from the electronic transfotrhme er lamtop can
be varied, thus dimming control can be added.
It is possible to include protection agaicnirsct uit
the lamp
shoorft filament.
Weight can be reduced and the constructione mcoamdepacmt. or
Acoustic noise (mains hum) is eliminated.
The

topology

realised

using

circuit

siis thealf-bcrliadsge.
c
be
operatinyg f
),

The

control

circuit

could

is a more
economical
solutio

of the transformer
an IC (fixing the
(Radiolocman 2007, Fichera and Scollo 1999)onswishtsichof c a self-oscillating circuit where
the two transistors are driven in opposing phdabsaeck byfromfee the output circuit. As the
capacitor the input of the circuit is relatively smisall,littlteheredeformation of the input
curmre.nt wavefo
However, this type of circuit generates maouncet rtaoinf ealectro-magnetic interference, due
to the
high frequency source that feeds the resornka.nt Thnuestw, o a suitable filter must be
inserted in circuit before the rectifier bridge to previnetnetrfertehnisce being fed back to
the mains. Anot
solution (Lianget al. 2006) might be piezoelectric ceramic
a new kind of
traTnhsfisormiesr.
electronic transformer which has low electrcomaginntetriference, high power density,
high
transfer efficiency. It is small in
awndeighlitghtand makes no noise.
sizien
The

disadvantage

of

these

transformers

isr t

shape, leadin
to generation of high electromagnetic
tirnacnsformer core losses. The
noisereasaendd
new
constructions solve these problems. An
soolfutiosn is an electronic transformer
examucphle
using
class-D zero-voltage-switching (ZVS) inverter sere(Jeiarma ornkul et al. 2003) giving near
sinusoidal lamp current. The experimental rormesu 5f 0 W/12 V prototype show that
ltas
efficie
is greater than 92% with unity power
thMe oredoimv ming possibility and
facetro,r.
controlled
starting current can be achieved by
tihnecreasswi itching frequency without
simpnlgy
increasing
the switching losses. The wattage rating 8()Faroinf
e
t2h0e0
magnetic transformer should always be equarleatetor tohran g the total wattage of the
lightin
system, but if a conventional EI
tr(atnrasnfosrfmormer with a magnetic core
magneticer
shaped
like the letters E and I) is used, then wthaettagmeaxiomf umthe lighting system may
be equa
but not greater than 80% of the wattahge
EI magnetic transformer.
craotninvegntiofnal t
Transformers usually have a minimum wattag2e008()Fariwn hich they must power before
they work. For example, it is not uncommon feocrtroanic 60tranWsformeler to require
there to be
least 10 W of lighting load and if
isof onlliyghti5ng load connected, the
thweraetts
lighting
system will not work. Low voltage lightinrgequisryestetmhiscker wires due to higher
currents. Fo
example, a 300 W lighting system operatinugses 125 V
at a
the transformer, whereas this same
p
transformbeer line voltage side of the
transformer.
An AC (alternating current) electronic transshfoourmlder not be placed further than 3
m (10 from the lighting system in order to avoltiadgeslow(veor ltavgoe drop) and
consequently lower
luminous flux. Also, the longer the
AfCrom eletctronic transformer to the
distahnece
lighting
system, the greater the chance that it
crferaetqeuency interference (RFI) with
mirgahdtio
other
electronic components in the area. A DCren(td)ireecltectcrounr ic transformer may be placed
up t about 16 m (50 feet) from the lighting DCsystoemut.putThseignificantly reduces radio
frequency
interference (RFI) and virtually eliminates sibthileity poosf voltage drop (the
avoltage
drop in long circuit).
ov

Starters
Starters

are

used

in

several

types

of afmluposr.esce voltage is applied to the fluoresce

Wnthenl
timed swciutcrhre)nt alltowsflow through the filaments at

lamp, the starter (which is a

the e
of the tube. The current causes the
choen up and open, thus interrupting the
sctatsrtert'so
atta
of current. The lamp is then switched on. arcSincdeischtahrege has low resistance (in
fa
negative voltage-current characteristics), theast baslelrves as a current limiter.
f
Preheatt
lamps use a combination of filament/cathode eant eaoc the lamp in conjunction with
d
fh
mechanical or automatic switch that
cthoennefilaments in series with the ballast
initialcltys
thereby preheat the filaments prior to
T
strikairnc.g
countries with voltage level of 230 V
w
(rainesd

110
1101

up
about 30 watts), and generally use a
used with these electromagnetic ballasts.

gElloewctronstiacrters.tarters

are

also

sometimes

The automatic glow starter consists of

gatusb- e, containing neon and/or argon
adisscmhaarlgl e
and
fitted with a bi-metallic electrode. Whenthestarltaimngp, a glow discharge will appear
over
electrodes of the starter. This glow
wthi g
dischahrgeeat
lel
metallic electrode to bend towards the otdhe Welhe the electrodes touch, the two filamen
e.r
ecntr
of the fluorescent lamp and the ballastivewlyill beeffescwt itched in series to the supply
volta
This causes the filaments to glow and esmitintoelectthreon gas column. In the starter's
tube,
touching electrodes have stopped the glow ,
the gas to cool down again.
dicscahuasi
rngge
starter additionally has a capacitor
into paitrs gas-discharge tube, in order theto
wiredlel
al
prolong
electrode life. While all starters are pnhtyesrcichaalnlygeabi le, the wattage rating of
the starter should be matched to the wattage ratingresocfent thetubeflsuo for reliable operation
and long life
The tube strike is reliable in these
g
sylsotwems,starbteurts
letting the tube stay lit, which causes ufnladsehsinragbleduring starting.

If the tube fails to strike or strikes ingbuuitshesth, entheextstarting sequence is repeated.

With automated starters such as glow starters, atubefailwinigll cycle endlessly, flashing as
the la
quickly goes out because emission is
thte lamp current high enough to
inosuffkiceieepnt
keep
glow starter open. This causes flickering,
b
athned
more advanced starters time out in this
attempt repeated starts until power
ndsitudaotionnot a
reset. In some cases, a high voltage iesctlya.pplIinedstandt ir start fluorescent tubes simply
use
high enough voltage to break down the
acnodlummn ercaund thereby start arc
garsy
conduction.
These tubes can be identified by a
pein aot e
singcleh
nd
f
integrated electronic ballast use this mode iteverneduicfes lamps life. The rapid start
bal
designs provide filament power windings wibtahlilnast. theThey rapidly and continuously
warm
the filaments/cathodes using low-voltage AC.
invdoltage spike is produced for
ucNtivoe
starting,
so the lamps must be mounted near a gerodu) ndreedflec(teoarrth to allow the glow
discharge t
propagate through the tube and initiate ct heargea.rc Indis some lamsptsartinag aid strip of
grounded metal is attached to the
ogflastsh.e la
outsimdep
111
1111

Dimming
Dimmers are devices used to vary the luomfinoiunscanfdleusxcent lamps. By adjusting
the root mean square (RMS) voltage and hence the mtoean thepowlaemr p it is
possible to vary
intensity of the light output. Small
ardeimmgeenerally manually controlled,
domesrstic remote control systems are available. although

Modern dimmers are built from siliconr(eSCR) instead of potentiometers or

contcrtoiflliedrs
variable resistors because they have highnecry. effAicievariable resistor would dissipate power
b

112
1121

heat (efficiency as low as 0.5). Theorelitcicoanl-lycontarollseid rectifier

heat up,
but by switching on and off 100/120 timesit ais s

dimmer

does

not

to 25%,
of b
CFLs in

reduces

electricity

dimmer

circuit

turning on and off of

can

consumption

onlyecau2s0e%, t

cause

problems wfohrichCF not

aLrse,
a switch 100/120contdim. es per se

designed

for

this

addition

Fluorescent lamp luminaires cannot be connthecetedsamtoe dimmer switch used for

incandescent
lamps. There are two reasons for this,
fitrhset iwsaveform of the voltage of a
tthheat
sta
phase-control dimmer interacts badly with
tybpaellast, and the second is that it
msanyof
bec
difficult to sustain an arc in the fluoreastcenltowtubpeower levels. Dimming installations
requir
4-pin fluorescent lamps and compatible dimmasitnsg. Tbhalelse systems keep the cathodes
of th
fluorescent tube fully heated even though
airs recduced. There are CFLs available
urrtehnet
c th
work also in a dimmer circuit. These
inhavtehe 4 lampip base.
CFnLss
5.3
5.3.1

Solid-state lighting
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs)

Solid-state lighting (SSL) is commonly

referrilnigghtintgo
organic light-emitting diodes (OLED) and
there
still no official definition for solidstantge,
semiconductor crystal where charge
carriersons(eleacntdr
(i.e., light) after radiative recombinations.

with

light-emitting

ltiignhgt-empoitlymers
ltihge expression
hti
h

(LEP).

At

solid-state

diodes
the
refers

(LED),
moment
to

the

Operation principle and light generation

An LED ips-n a junction semiconductor which emits
usplyontadnireeoctly from an
light
external
electric field (electroluminescence effect). LoErkDs simwilarly to a semiconductor diode,
allowing
current flow in one direction only. The tudrieod strfuocrmed by bripn-gingandn-type
eis
semiconductor materials together in order top-nforjmunctaion. P-type material is obtained
by
doping an intrinsic semiconductor material ewpit aimccpurities resulting in an excess
tohr
of
positive charges (holes). To produce an Nc-otynpdeuctosre,mi donor impurities are used to
create an excess of negative charges (electronps). anTdnhe materials will naturally form a
depletion region at the junction, which is composed aocfcepitoonrisze in p-tshiede and
ionized donors in
the n-side forming a potential barrier at theThejunacptipolnie. d external electric field
across the junction will allow electrons in the conddu,ctiownhichbanare more mobile

carriers than holes,

gain enough energy

to

emitting a photon as a
(radiative recombination).

cross
result

the
of

gap

and ithrecohmob on t
leisne
w
the edregcyreasfe thee c
romin
n

Although radiative transitions can also ocdciurerct inbanindgap semiconductors, their

probability is significantly lower than in direct bandognadpuctosresm. ic Radiative
recombinations are characteristic for direct bandgap semiconduchteoresf.oreT, direct
bandgap semiconductor alloys
are commonly used in optoelectronic devices
as where the highest radiative
sLuEchDs,
recombination rates are a desirable featuree. Eoxfampdlirect bandgap semiconductors that
s
have
bandgap energies within the visible
araelloy c
spectrunmary
bsi
III and V of the periodic table (e.g., nNIn, P,
AlN). The present high-brightness
GaGNa,Asa, ndI
LED-industry is based on ternary and quaotyersnarcyontalilning a mixture of aluminum
(Al),
gallium (Ga), and/or indium (In) cations
eiothf er arsenic (As), phosphorus (P), or
anodne
nitro
(N) anions. The three main relevant
fosrysteLmEDs are AlGaAs, AlGaInP,
matersial
and
AlInGaN. For each of these systems
enisginueeser d during the epitaxial growth
bandgaipng
of

semiconductor wafers to create heterostructutresaretharequired for high levels

inject and efficient radiative recombination. (ukaSuhsukras, et al. 2002)

of

carrier

Theoretically, it is possible that all

inejleec into the active region of recombine
fnrese
ctterdo
create a photon. This suggests the high cieennceyrgypoetefnfitial of LEDs. This energy
efficiency
potential is referred to as radiant or fwicaielln- e
cpylug e,
total emitted radiated power and the
drthe power source. The radiant or
totaalwnpowfreorm
w
plug efficiency of an LED depends on saelvermalechinanteirsnms regulating light
generation and
emission processes in the semiconductor and kaLgE Tphaecse mechanisms are commonly
e.D
characterised by their efficiencies,
retofer as feeding efficif,enceyxternal quantum
commonrleyd
efficiency ext, injection efficienciynj, radiative efficiency or internal
erfafdicieannd
quantumcy optical efficiency or light-extraction efficioeptn. cy(ukauskas, Shur
et al. 2002).
e = ext
f
=
h/qV
f
2
ext = inj
Luminous

(5-1)
(5rad

opt

efficacy

(5-3)
is

obtained

by

multiplying

coefficient Km.
=e
4

the

radiant weitfhficie
nthcey

luminous

Km

The best red AlInGaP LED and blue

veLEDinsterncaaln
almost 100% and 50%, respectively
(Steigerwtalde,t
efficiencies of such magnitudes, the
lighotn

(5-

InGaN

qhuantum
Bah 2002).
l.a

To

efficiencies

achieve

reaching

external

quantu

main challe
faced by the industry to allow the
moreescpahpoetonfsromto
absorbed by the surrounding structure
(i.et.i,on
Radcliffe Advisors et al. 2009).

the
exetrfaficciency)

LED

chip

(Navigant

without

getting

Consulting

The history of commercially available

stthaertedearly 1960`s with the first red
LEDisn
LED
peak emission at 650 nm (Holonyak,
1s9e6m2)i.conductor material utilised
BevacqTuhae
was
GaAsP (Gallium Arsenide Phosphide). The typeircalconpsouwmption of these red LEDs
would b
typically around 0.1 W, emitting 0.01 lmin re0s.u1ltinglm/W luminous efficacy
(Humphreys
2008). The price was 260 $ and price
l2u6m a
pnerd
0e0n0
developed fast over the past four decades.EDMocdoemrnponLents cover peak wavelength
regions
from the ultraviolet to the infrared
arAe lIntGodaay the chosen semiconductor
regioPn.
material
system to realise LEDs with spectral
t
emisrseidon
AlInGaN materials usually cover the wavelenognth bertewgei en green and ultraviolet.
Colored
LEDs are characterised by narrow spectral preomfiilsessi.on This characteristic is defined
by the
full spectral bandwidth at half magnitude (FuWallHyM)arousnd 15 nm to 60 nm
(ukauska
Shur et al. 2002).
White

LEDs

can

be

realised

by

mixing

thfe deimffeisr c
seinotn
LEDs
b

of phosphors. Phosphor-converted white

allayre
white light results from the combination
maorfy

Inc.,

partiall
downward-converted emission created by
the
semiconductor chip. (Kim, Jeon et al.
2004a,,
Depending on the properties of the
phosphror

specifsipchorpholayer

or

layers

located

NFaskoalmu1r 997)
lalyae
yresr

uotilised,
different

white

light

of

over

qualities can be realised. The typical specptrhuomsphofor-rconverted

and
at CCTs of 3000K and 7000K,
warm- respectively in arethe shFowignure 58.
1.0

val

LEDs

Warm-white
WarmCCT
3000K
white
Cool-white
CRI

0.8

Normalized

cool-white

89

Cool-white

CCT 7000K
CRI 70

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
350

400

450

500

550

600

Wavelength

650

700

750

800

[nm]

Figure 5-8T. ypical spectral power distribution

curves

pfhoorr-cpohnovserted warm- and cool-white LEDs at

3000K
and 7000K CCT, respectively.

Color-mixing

by

combining

white light.
atore
high color

Usually only two

rendering

the

emission
colored

properties,

Yellow

least ortehdree LEcDols

5-9
create t.white ligh White

White
light

phosphor
phosphor

Blue

cdoiflfoe L
rreednt
LEDeds
p

at

represents the main approaches to

White
White
light
light

of

RGB
RGB

LED

Phosphor

usually

required.

Figure

White
light
light

phosphor
phosphor

UV

conversion

are

LED

Red
LED

Green
LED

Blue
LED

Color-mixing

Figure 5-9S.chematic representation of the two main apptoroa chreas te white light using
LEDs.

LED characterization
Optoelectronic devices such as LEDs are comarmacotenrliysedch by
thermal parameters as schematically shown in Figure 5-10.

optical,

electrical

and

VF

SPD

IF

CRI
CCT
RthJ-C
Tj(max)

Lifetime

Ambient
temperature

Figure 5-10S.chematic representation of the main parameteirnsteracntdions, which characterise the opearation
of
LED.

Electrically,

an

LED

is

characterised

by dits curfroernwtaFr) (I and forward

(DVue to
voltagF)e.
their typical I-V curve, representing the urfroernwt c
ardas
are called current-controlled devices. Alonghe wiIt- t curve, LED manufacturers provide the
hV
nominal and maximum forward currents and f votlhtaegesdevoices in their datasheets.
Several parameters are used to characterise
Tohpe main parameters depending on
ticLalElyD. s
the tphoewerspedctistribution (SPD), spatial
LED type (i.e., colored or white LED)
light
arrael
distribution, viewing angle, color rendering(CRinId),ex correlated color temperature (CCT),
peak wavelength, dominant wavelength, luminous fluinxo, uslumintensity and luminous
efficacy. The
electrical and optical performance of an eLrrEeDl winitth its thermal characteristics. Due
atedis
to
the inefficiencies resulting from the imperfeicntionthse semiconductor and in the LED
pack
structure heat losses are generated.
b
Theseavelosstoes
keep thep-n junction operation temperature below the
vaalue and avoid
mlaloxwimeudm
premature or catastrophic failure of the edevhic Tlohsses are firstly conducted to the
eea.t
exte
of the LED package throughout an included.
s
Nheeaxtt,
throughout convention and radiation. In somaetionsappltihce utilisation of an exterior
cooling system such as a heatsink is required tothe facreillietasteed of the heat to the
ambient. Thu main parameter characterising the thermal pceerforomf anan LED is the
thermal resistance betw the p-n junction and the soldering-point. The vapr-iantionjuncotfion
temperature of the LED influences the optical and electrical properties.

Other important parameters characterising LEDtionopearrae the temperature coefficient of

the forward voltage and the dominant wavelengthturetemcpoeerfaficient, given respectively bCy
mV/
and nmC/ . These coefficients show the
obpetwical, thermal and electrical
interdependeenecne
parameters. These parameters are responsible
ano spectral dissimilarities between
ticafol r
dp
different LED types. AlInGaP LEDs (e.g., reda,nd amybeellrow) are more sensitive to
junctio
temperature variations than InGaN-based LEDs bl(uee. cyan, green and phosphor-converted
g, .,
white). These thermal behaviour dissimilaritiersepraerseented in Figure 5-11.

1.0

Thermal 160
Management
Control and
140 reliability

Relative Light

Dissimilar Characteristics of
120
AlInGaP and InGaN LEDs
100

Blue
Cyan
Green
Amber

Royal Blue
White
Red

spectral

80
60

0.6

0.4

0.2

20
0
-20

High TJ temperature

Relative
distrib

40

-40

Low TJ temperature
power

Output

0.0

20
40
60
80
JunctionTemperature
temperature [oC]
C[]
Junction

100

120

400

450

500

550

600

W aveleng th

650

700

[nm]

Figure 5-11I.nfluence of the junction temperaJt)ureon (Tthe light output and spectral
powoenr and InGaN-based LEDs.

odfistrAilbIuntGi aP

The operation temperature opf-n thejunction influences the optical and elercatcrtiecrailsticcsha
of
an LED. Therefore thermal management is
aismpepcotrtanto be taken into account at
atn
an
design stage of LED engines. An LED is doftoe mciroc board which is attached to
n
uunite
heatsink. The simplified thermal model
m
cirtchueit
where RthJA, RthJS, RthSP, RthPA represent the thermal resistances bpe-ntweejunnction and the
ambient, p-n junction and soldering point, soldering pplaoti palantde and ambient, respectively,
en, t
An LED luminaire will need, also,
aoptidcrsivera.
externadl

RthJS

TJ (p-n junction)
LED

TS (Soldering

RthSP
RthPA

TJ = AT+ (Rth
PD )
JA
RthJA = RtJhS + RtShP +
RtPhA

efficiencies
black

body

of

incandescent oreasncdentflulamps

radiator

substrate

TP (Plate)
Cooling

system

TA (Ambient)

Figure 5-12S.implified thermal model circuit of a

LED

The conversion
laws
of physics. A

PCB

point)

with

aplaPceCdB. on

are

limited

by

fundamental

ea
K radiates most of its energy
otefmp2e8r0at
0ur
infrared part of the spectrum. Therefore, t on5ly aobfou the radiation of an incandescent
%
lam
emitted in the visible spectrum. Mercury o

at a U
wavelength

of

254

nm.

When

UV-radiation

di icnotonverlitgeht with fluorescent powder,

s more
than a half of the energy is lost. Ampflucoarnescecnotnvelart approximately 25% of the
electric energy into radiant energy in the visible spectrum.
LED technology on the other hand does
hath ftuondafmental laws of physics
niogtht
vee in
similar fashion as the phosphor conversionescei fluamorps. Theoretically, it can achieve
nt
a
conversion efficiency of 100%. The
o
luminouys
wavelengths and color rendering index (CRI)k.as Zetukaauls.
have calculated the optimal
boundaries for white light
using two, thnrdee, fivfeourLEaDs:
(2002)

430
366
332

lm/W and
CRI 3 using two LEDs
lm/W and CRI 85 using three LEDs
lm/W and CRI 98 using four LEDs


Luminous efficacy
reachabelee

of

324 lm/W and CRI 99

400

lm/W

is

using five LEDs

re
under 50.
al. (2008) have also shown that using phosepdhor-wchointveertLEDs
Zukauskeat s
good
color rendering can be attained at differteenmt percaotulorer s, while maintaining
luminous efficacies relatively high (i.e., 250 to 280 Futlumr/eW).lighting systems will
require more
intelligent features. In this regard LEDs
btaisnegd

t
their easy controllability. Intelligent
with the inherent high
featumrebsinedco
potential of LEDs will be an unbeatable coimn binaatiwonide range of
applications. Advantages of

energy-saving

LEDs:

Small size (heat sink can be large)

Physically robust
Long lifetime expectancy (with proper thermeaml enmt)anag
Switching has no effect on life, very msehort rise ti
Contains no mercury
Excellent low ambient temperature operation
High luminous efficacy (LEDs are
ftahs anrange
developingd luminous efficacies is wide)
etir
New luminaire design possibilities
Possibility to change colors
No optical heat on radiation

Disadvantages of

LEDs:

High
Low
CRI
Risk
Need
Lack

price
luminous flux / package
can be low
of glare due to high output with zesmall lamp
for thermal management
of standardisation

si

of

Figure 5-13E. xamples of LEDs and LED modules.

5.3.2

OLEDs - Organic light-emitting diodes

Similarly to inorganic light-emitting diode,

loigrht-emitting diode (OLED) promises
gantihce highly efficient large area light sources.
Recent developments have reported luminous eseffiocfaci 90 lm/W at luminances
1000 cd
2
of
with improved OLED structure combining a chcoarsefnullyemitter layer with highrefractiveindex substrates and outcoupling structure ,(ReLininedkneer et al. 2009). This efficacy
level
already very close to that of fluorescent
twh c
chlamarpes
ehi
high quality white light sources used inghtignegn. eral li
Hermetic

encapsulation

Reflecting
Organic

cathode

emissive

Transparent
Transparent

layer

anode
substrate

Light
emission

Figure 5-14G. eneric structure representation of an OLED.

The

basic

materials

of

OLEDs

are

products cohfemicsatrbyo. n Typically an OLED is

composed
by one or several organic emissive
sabnedtwei en two metal contacts (cathode
matericahlesd
and
anode) as shown in Figure 5-14. One of ts
cto ntabce transparent while the other
thehsaes
reflective properties. Multi-layer-structures eapreositedd onto transparent substrates like glass
or
polycarbonate. Another essential difference isthethactonduction properties of the materials
do depend on doping as inorganic LEDs, but arienheriennsteadcharacteristics of the
organic
molecule. White OLEDs have been made by e pitlhi l
ning
blue light respectively. The special charsacteorfistiOc LEDs are:
Light emission from large areas
Simplicity of processing techniques
2
Limited luminances (e.g. 1000 ) cd/m
Applications range from lighting to flatplaanyesl
(TOLEDs) may be integrated into car
windssihmieiladrs display functions.

wdiistph high resolution. Transparent

variants
eoqruipment to combine window

and

OLEDs are extremely thin with no restricetionssize onor thshape. The main advantages of
OL
technology are the simplicity of
a
processingues,tecthhneiq
luminescent materials and emitted colors,
pof producing large and flexible
anodssibitlhitey
surfaces. OLED technology has three speciftiecristcichsa:ractransparency, flexibility and
white- light emission.
The energy efficiency potential of OLEDs
ishigehquaalsly
technologies share similar problems such
asativethlye

lro
external quantum efficiency.
ew
l
Theoretically, internal quantum efficiencies toclos1e00% are achievable by using
phosphors.
However, to produce highly efficient devicxetse,rnatlhe queantum efficiency has to be
increased by helping a larger fraction of the intuecrendally phoptroonds to escape to
the exterior of device.
5.3.3

LED drivers

LEDs are making their entrance into theeldliguhst fmi odern high-efficiency semiconductor
ing
material compounds and structures. Solidlig(hSSL), offers new possibilities and
statieng
advantages for the end-user. By using aprpivroeprsr,iatecondtrol strategy and LEDs, the
qualitative and quantitative aspects of the light cancontbroelledf.ullyElectronic drivers are

indispensable
components for most LED systems and
insAtasllatLioEnDs.
for new and more intelligent products
indcermeaasned drivers.

technology
thfoer
LE

more

evolves,

specific

the

features

possibilities
from

the

The LED chip has a maximum current

ntoh bseho exceeded to avoid
denusiltdy
tat premature
failure. The cheapest and most basic
ids
L
wayEDtso
rivteo
and a resistor in series with the LEDcurtroent
through it. The selected resistance
limfliotwinthge
depends on the magnitude of the
th(e value of the LEDs forward volt
voltageIN),souornce
V
and the forward current of the LED.
tlhiemiti r
Howeeveor,f
nugs
applications where reliability, accurate condtrol eleacntrical efficiency are desired features.
In
applications presenting small variations in stuhpeplyDCvoltage, the LED current will
vary
considerably resulting in some cases in
fthe device.
parielumreaturoef
Linear power supply (LPS) is an
economicaanl,d based on either integrated
(IC) llianteoarr

s
circuit

transistors operating in the linear

inope the linear region is comparable to
region.ratiTohne
voltage-current characteristic of a resistori.mpTlehset lsinear voltage regulator can be made
from
Zener diode operating in its breakdown
c
recgailon.DCT/DypCi
current regulators are based on a commelracbialelly 3-atverami inal adjustable ICs. LPSs
are known
for their very low electromagnetic
T(hEeMrefore, they do not require
interfereIn)c. e
additional
filters. The low output ripple, excellent
r
loalidne
important features. The main drawback is osths mhaeia l
e
ntly
regulator and the resistors used in the idveorltagneetwdoirvk. Off-line AC/DC linear
power
supplies generally use transformers at theageinpfuotllowsted by the rectification and
filtering
stages. The final stage includes a linear wrheigcuh the key component in this type of
latoisr
supplies. Typical efficiency values range
5
frotom bulky structure in most of the cases.
Switched-mode power supplies (SMPS) lack
dof linear power supplies and
threawbmacakins therefore the main solution to drive
are
LEDsL. EDBsecaaursee
DC components, just DC/DC and
AC/DC
SMPS
types
are
considered
here.
(btetween
60
and
95%),
Effyicpiecnacllyy
controllability, small size and low weighrt maraein thaedi vantages over the linear power
supplie
An SMPS can provide, if necessary, high .g.c,
(
urrmenotrse
3V). Equivalent LPSs would be bulkier anTdhe
hemavaiienr.

an SMPS is the po
switch. The power switch is basically athattransisistour sed as an on/off switch.
Typically, power switch should have low internal resrisntgancethe duconduction time (i.e.,
on-time) and
high switching speed capability. The maine lodsus toar s
during the on-time.
ees
In applications where the load voltage
htihgeher supthply voltage, Boost DC/DC
iasn
converters
offer a simple and effective solution. Booivsetrs
dorften required when a string of
LEaDre
sev
series-connected LEDs are driven. In
thceonfibguration provides greater efficiency
generoaols, t
because of smaller duty cycle for a givletange.outAplusto, vothe conduction losses in the
inducto and other components are smaller. Buck, BuckC-uBkoosta, nd Boost, are
probably the mo
common topologies found in SMTP LED
that allow isolated operation
drivteorps.ologOitehser
such as Flyback and SEPIC (Single-Ended
ICnodnverter) are also used.
Purcimtaanrcye

DC/DC Buck converters can provide

laonwd ecasy control. However, Bucksimpliciotys,t
Boost
can be a more versatile solution when tahg inrapn vovl erlaps the required output
ee ugt e voltage.
SEPIC and Flyback topologies are useful iion apwphli t
ns ecraet
minimum and maximum input voltage. Additioenyallyp,rovtihde full isolation between the
input and output stages. Though SEPIC topology os utpaenrfoermquivalent Flyback topology
in terms o efficiency and EMI, Flyback topology contienuetshe tomobst commonly used. One
of the reas
for this is the larger coupled-inductor esid b
ze

operation i
continuous-current mode (CCM) at

light loads.

The selection of the most appropriate

LtEoDs depends on the application
toporliovgey
d
requirements (e.g., operation environment cosn,ditsioynstem input voltage, LEDs forward
voltage, number of LEDs and circuit array), standaercdisficaatinodns. spLED drivers intended
for use in commercial aircrafts or cars will have to ed be accdoersdiignng to specific
standards and requirements. To respond to the demanding onappfleicaatutires and
requirements, practical implementations make use of ICs or Appliciafitcion-ISnptecgrated
Circuits (ASIC) as switch regulators or controllers.

5.3.4
LEDs

120
1201

LED dimming and control

allow

spectral,

spatial

and

temporal f c

bee
unobtainable with conventional light
sources.queCnotlnys, e
important benefits to the lighting

the

emerging

applications

are

field. yA ofmajtohreiste applications require

control
intelligent baotrteriedsrivers. Intelligent drivers are

bringing
special

features just achievable with

usuoanlly
based
ASICs switching microcontrollers which includraemmparobgle flash memory (EEPROMs),
several
on-chip Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM)
(Aanalogue-to-digital converter) and
controlDleCrss, DACs (digital-to-analogue converter)
channels.
Microcontroller-based LED drivers bring addibtieonneaflits such as operational
flexibility,
efficiency, reliability, controllability and
to the system. Microcontroller ICs provide
igeintceell
long list of useful features such as sbtuairltt,-inmuslotif-tc-hannel from 8- to 64-bit
DAC/ADC,
programmable input startup voltage, programmatpbulet courrent range, shutdown mode,
wide- input-voltage range and short-circuit protechteion.feaTtures also include thermal
shutdown, multi- PWM channels, possibility of synchronizationxtewrniathl celock, built-in
switches, RAM, ROM,
and programmable flash memory (EEPROM)
USsART (Universal Serial
throuegrihaol ut
Asynchronous Receiver-Transmitter). In programmabmleicrocontroller-based LED drivers the
processing speed is probably one of the
asipmep to be considered. The
manotst
cotsrt
microcontroller speed can limit the
swspiet and data acquisition in applications
maximumng
cehdi
processing information in real-time. The
isto the full-cycle analyses of
rreealsaotend
instructions
and the reading of variables. The
isMillion of Instructions per Second
readinggivesnpeedby
(MIPS) is a value provided in the datasheet.
In many LED applications, accurate and
vmermsaintigle
applications such as LCD backlighting,
dimmiidnegs
Dimming ratio or resolution is of
paramounncte,
the human eye perceives very small
variaetionlsightin
device whose light output and brightness t

odf t
i
pbrroigvhtness
imesppoerctaially
where
o

and
at

low

contrast

adjustment.

brightness

121
1211

levels

Therefore, the tw
most
common
ways
of
dimming
LEDs
utilize
DCcoOne
of
the
easiest
cnutrrorel.nt
implementations makes use of a variable rescisotnotrrol to the LEDs forward current.
This
technique is commonly known as analogue
vHolotage variations, power waste
dimwmevienrg,.
on
the variable resistor and color shift, malkoeguethedimamnaing method not suitable for
more demanding applications.
An alternative
dimmintagl

122
1221

solution

to

analogue

forwar
current.

Dimming

reduces tlsyigntihfiecan color shift associated with

analogue
dimming. Moreover, a LED achieves its
wefhfeicniendriven at typical forward current
bceyst
lev
specified by the manufacturer. Another advantPaWgeM ofdimming over analogue dimming is
th a wider dimming range is possible. IdeallyM, wdiitmh miPnWg the LED current
always stays
nominal value during the on-time defined yb cytchl dButy changing the duty cycle of
y ee.
PWM signal, the average LED current changioensallyp.ropTohrte selected PWM frequency
should
be high enough to reduce or completely ererimngo.ve Swflitcckhing frequencies below 20
kHz
might result in acoustic noise, and below e 10li0kelyHz to ar cause visible flicker.
Therefore,
special care has to be taken during
ths elecotipoenratioonal switching frequency.
thfe
However, a
trade-off has to be established between thrieppleo, utptuhte PWM resolution, the
switching frequency and the size of the inductor opitnimiozredertheto overall operational
performance of a
LED driver. High switching frequency will
i
rsemquailrle
will stay low. Low PWM resolution
alcocwur and high output ripple.
resultnstroiln
accyo
In general, SMPS
codnuticntuioonus

LED

for

digitally

LEDs

operate

in

mcoodne

(CCM)

avoiding

discontinuous

123
1231

conduction mode (DCM). The transition

mthoed defines the minimum duty cycle
betwweeon
est
value. The minimum duty cycle is a criinticatlermaspecotf dimming resolution. Lighting
control
protocols such as Digital Addressable
In(DteALI) and DMX512 use 256Lighrtfinacge
step
dimming resolution. Such dimming resolution acchainev with an 8-bit microcontroller. In
edbe
applications requiring high-dimming resolution a

an
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) -based televis0i0ons,dim4m0ing steps or more are
required. I RGB LED displays sophisticated LED driversiredare to reqpurovide a high number
of brightnes
levels. The number of reproducible
tihs p
colorsspliany
e
levels available for each of the RGB LEDsup
sminagkle pixel in the overall display.
thaat
For instance, in a 12-bit microcontroller-dBrivenLEDR,G one pixel is capable of
reproducing 6 billion colors. High-dimming resolution is reeqsupierecdially at low
brightness levels where th
drivers output current is low. In order
a
CMto

us
That way the output ripple, the electrincal thsetre sswitcoh and the low efficiency
associated w
DCM can be avoided. Ideally the PWM
cshhoosueln low enough to ensure
freqduenbcey
that
current regulation circuit has enough
dusrtia the PWM on-time. The maximum
timelizeto
nbgi
PWM frequency depends on the power-supply ndstarteusponsae times. Last but not least,
th
current linearity with duty cycle
sthaok i
variatiobne frequency.
uelnd
The manufacturers of LED systems want tousemakoef
tfhuell
offered by LEDs. Thus, the optimization aol t
fl

great

potential

and

characteristics

aspect t
be considered.
Electronic drivers are immppoortnaenntts coin a majority of LED-based
systems.
Relatively small improvements on the
e
drivenrcy
system level efficiency. In order not to moifsusethe ongereat advantages of LEDs, their
h
potential efficiency, the drivers should
In applications involving power LEDs,
pecrofrodrimnglya.c
the best efficiency performance is
awcihthieveSMPS. SMPS are an ideal
normallyd
solution w
small size, light weight and efficient dreivqeurisred.areThe most appropriate topologies
are selected based on the type of LED clusitveerns taond beon drtheir operational
requirements. IC switching regulators, microcontrollers or progbrlaemmma icrocontrollers are
often being used in LED drivers. Microcontroller-based LED drivecrosmmaorenly used in
applications where optical
or thermal control feedback loops are needset d.
mtohis also requires a high level
caIsnes,
integration by combining optoelectronics witohllerconatnrd driver circuitry. This can result in
c
savings and reduction of the size of
spormodeuctc. aseIs this might also result in
thne
a
complex design affecting other properties
praosduct lifetime. With adequate thermal
shuech
management of LEDs, it is possible to ereacehxpelcitfaenticmies close to 100000 hours
equivalent
to 11 years of continuous operation.
o
Ideaarldly,

ma
the lifetime performance of LEDs.
coSnMtroPlS are and will be
Digitallyled
indispensable
components of intelligent LED systems. Howevuerti,lisathtieon of digitally managed SMPS
for
LED driving have some limitations that
towithb Admong them are the
neeadlt
.e
processing
speed, inductor size, dimming resolution, cotmiomnuniccaapability with other lighting
industry
standards and driving capability for
anodu/t L
multiptsle
opru
limiting factor when ICs with internal ssweidt.ch are u
In conclusion, the inconveniences associatedhe wiuthtilizat tion of electronic drivers are
mainly related to the reduction of system reliraebaisliety, inincEMI, introduction of
inefficiencies and
increase of size. The utilization of AC
mth pardevious limitations at system
LdErDesss
aey level
and ease the adoption of SSL. Besides rseydsutecming drtihveing complexity, AC LEDs
may also minimize the complexities associated with DtC cocnutrrroeln. Additionally, system
cost reductions
are also likely. The current and future hdiegmh f
-aenndd

competition between LED OEM and systems mras.nufaTchtuere current and future trend
is t include power conversion, control and inteplrloigpeenrctiees within a small number of
chips usin
the lowest number of external components. tClyo,nseqt required PCB size is reduced,
hueen
resulting in better reliability and
efcficient and low-cost power supplies.
allowingompmacotr,e
fsrewqiut encies due to smaller physical
Compact designs are usually possible with
size
chhiniggh
of inductors and capacitors required. Becauasine tahdevanmtages of LEDs over conventional
light sources should not be misused, digitally mwaenragesduppplioes may be the best
solution to driv
broad range of LED systems both now
in the futu
anred.
5.3.5

LED roadmaps

thoene maoin drivers for the fast

technologic
The high energy-efficiency potential has
befen
development of LEDs during the last threeCurdreenctaldye, s. the main R&D trends in
the LE
technology have been the improvement of nth eafnfdicie increase of light output.
cey The
acceptance of solid-state lighting in nichetionsapplsiuccah as horticultural lighting depends
on future improvements in conversion efficiencyght anodutplui t per package. The trend in
LED li
output and light cost is continuing to afiotzllosw latwhe, aHccording to which the
evolution of
LEDs in terms of light output increase obf y
p
factor of 10 (Haitz, Kish et al. 1999). 20a

1.E+04
1.E+03
1.E+02

Cost/Lumen

Flux/Package

lm

&

1.E+01
1.E+00
1.E-01
1.E-02

+20x/Decade

-10x/Decade

1.E-03
1.E-04
1965

1975

1985

1995

2005

2015

Year

Figure 5-15E. volution of the light output per LED

(left); and white light LED package
pacpkearge,lumcoenst
efficacy targets (right). (DOE 2010, Haitz, alK. ish199e9t)

The luminous efficacy projections shown

w
aboovle
80 at CCT located between 4746K and
efficacy for phosphor
7040Km.umTheexpemcatexdi
converted cool-white LEDs with these charsacteirsistiecxpected to clear surpass 200lm/W
by
year 2015. The luminous efficacy
fowr
LEDs white expect values above
projectionrsm
hitewa
180lm/W. (DOE 2010)

Figure 5-16T. argeted luminaire efficiencies at steady-straatetionopeof LED luminaires composed of

phosphor- converted white LED (left) and color LE(DNsavi(graignht t).Consulting Inc., Radcliffe Adviso.
rs 20e0t9) al

The main future developments at LED

luminaiarree
efficiency of the LED device followed

lexveplected to be on external
quantu
by tismproofvemleunminaire and optics
efficiency.
Producing white light using color-mixing ghiivgehsesttheenergy-efficiency potential at a
system level in comparison to luminaires using phnovseprtheodr-cowhite LEDs. An RGB
LED luminaire will be able to convert 55% of its inputradpiaonwt er poiwnteor while a
luminaire using whit
LEDs will only convert 41% (Navigant Con.s,
Advisors et al. 2009).
ultRinagdcliIfnfec
5.4

Trends in

the future in light sources

Currently there is a global trend to phfaicsieent oultighitnefsources from the market

through legislation and voluntary measures. CommissiolnatioRnsegu(EC) No 244/2009 and No
245/2009 of 18 March 2009 implementing Directive 20(E05co/3d2e/sEigCn of Energy-using
Products) of the
European Parliament and of the Council
rfeoqr non-directional household lamps
huaivremesnetts
and for fluorescent lamps without
f
integratte,d

fo
ballasts and luminaires able to operate
remove incandescent lamps, mercury lamps
from the
European market (Commission Regulation

suchThelsaempsr.egulations will
and certiacinent ineflfuforescent

effectively
and HID

lamps

(EC) 20n0. 24C4o/ mmission Regulation (EC)

9,
actions are carried out around

245/2009, Council Directive 2005/32/EC).

Simgislalartivele
world: Australia has banned the import ofent
f
inclanmdpessc
enacted the Energy Independence and Security
t
20A07ct
2012-2014. Also other countries and regions
areb on
nnehda,ve considering banning inefficient light sources. a

their

way

to

ban,

n.
the

or

Electroluminescent light sources

Further technological developments on electroslcuemntine light sources are forecasted.
These developments involve improvements in the diecvieicnecy, efflight output and cost of
lumens pe package. The referred developments will enlargpeossitbhielities of
electroluminescent light sources being utilized in applications domitnilatednowun by
conventional lighting technologies such as high-intensity discharge lamps. Improvoenmenext
ternal quantum of inorganic LEDs is
of the main technological development goaleslecotrfoniocptoand lighting industry.
Additionally,
semiconductor material structures have to bed iminprovorder to address the effects
known
droop andgreen hole. These limitations are related with
delicgrhetaseoutput at
theof
high
currents and the low efficiency of LEDs
region. Nowadays the applications
etmheittinggreenin
involving LEDs are innumerable and the avpaprliiectaietison impose a clear demand on
design o controllable LED drivers. At luminaire levoell,ers coanntrd drivers are becoming
indispensable components. As the LED technology continuesve, to theevopl ossibilities for
new and more

intelligent

products

or

systems

based

on t

expected

to

grow

OLEDs bring new and different

i
illuminationitiespostshibainl
due to the large emitting surface and sliDmue prtoofilet.he fact that OLEDs are
relatively
recent technology than inorganic LEDs,
efpfeicriformance still lags behind. Similarly
theenicr y
to
inorganic LEDs, improvements on internal
efand light extraction are required in
qufainciteunmcy
the future. Especially efforts have to be thpelaceidmproonvement of the efficiency of blue
OL
emitter. Before a significant market penetnratiotanke caplace, the lifetime of OLEDs is
anot important aspect to be improved.
Future developments in
trend
towards the increasing

the

solid-state

and

gradual

all

discharge

ligldhtingare fiedifficult

to

adoption teocfhnotlhoigsy
light
sources, like the transistor replaced thethevalpvaest. in

predict.
to

However,

replace

the

conventional

Discharge lamps
A

special

concern

of

lamps thworkpihnogsphowris (fluorescent lamps,

barrier
conversion
to long-wavelength radiation. One

discharge lamps etc.) is the

fwroamvelenshgothrtUV-photon generates at most one visible pilhottoond,ay.untFor example, the photon energy
in
middle range of the visible spectrum
50l % of the photon energy of the
acceosusntsthafnor
Hg-resonant-line (254 nm) and only 30%
r
ofximtehre
that luminescent materials will be able tone cosnhvoerrtt-wavelength photon into two
long- wavelength photons inside the visible specotrnu.m regi
Another

lamps, xwceitphtionth low pressure sodium and barrier

e of e
lamps, is the use of mercury. From thew pofint ploasfmaviephysics, Hg is the ideal
buffer
but on the other hand, a perfidious
enPtarlactict able countermeasures are the
envoirxoinm.
systematic disposal of discarded lamps
s
orutioan
free alternatives to current HID including lidme etalal using zinc iodide as a substitute
mphsa
mercury, and mercury-free high-pressure sodiums (lUamNpEP 2008). OSRAM has
recently
introduced mercury free HID-headlamp system rfworimtha comparable to xenon lamps
containing mercury (OSRAM 2009).
ncpee
A

problem

disadvantage

of

of

warming-up period.

most

high

discharge

pressure

By special

discharge pelacmi
alplsy,
electronic
b

feosr
long

indoor

applications,

is

the

bwoosted power starting phase and modifie

lamp fillings, it is possible to considereanbly thishorttime. Such systems have already
bee realized for 35 W gas-discharge car headlaUmNp-sE. CETheregulation No. 99 (UN-ECE
2009) demands these lamps to reach 80% of thoeus finfalul x luimn in4 s after ignition.
5.5
5.5.1

Luminaires
Introduction

The discussions on phasing out the incandestycpenet

light on human well-being and health have t
lamps, luminaires are important elements
ign

laGmLpSs and
effects

new

findings on

the

th ilnigsthatlilnations, and their quality defines t

visual and ecological quality of the whole in
part. During the last two decades,
liglhatrigneg
development of lighting engineering has been bydrivcoenmputerization of research and design
o
both luminaires and lighting systems, by fwidelectursoe in products and control systems,
nicso
and by application of new structural andatelriigahlst.ing m
Nowadays,
ar

one

of

the

main

future

trends

inindulsitgrhytingis

to

offer

products

which

adaptable to the changing needs of the h

same time. These luminaires have to be

ecological at th n inttehgeratebduildiing
m
control systems). Undoubtedly, the strongest in trenludminaire industry is towards LEDluminaires. New manufacturing and material gtieecshnolilkoe high98%) reflectors
reflective >(
and complex surface techniques allow completellyuminneawire concepts. Additionally, LED
is
revolutionizing the whole lighting industry gibn c
high tech electronic industry.
yg

industry t
5.5.2

Definition of a luminaire

A luminaire is a device forming a completuenit,lighwtihnigch comprises of a light

source
electric operating devices (transformer,
i
bagllnaistto,r,
positioning and protecting the lamp/s
w
(caseinr,g,
power supply, and the parts for distribugthint g
The function of luminaire (if not
(otphteics)l.i
pure decorative fitment) is to direct
tolocatdioesnis, creating the required
ligrhetd
visual
environment without causing glare or
Clhuminaires that efficiently provide
discomofoosritn. g
appropriate luminance patterns for the appislicaatinon important part of energy efficient
lightin design.
Different lamp technologies require differentairelumcionnstruction principles and features.
For
example, a metal halide lamp HCI 150 W h
dheingsity, very small, luminance
(epxotrwemere
20
2
Mcd/m , bulb temperature ca. 600C) compared troescaent T8lamfpluo HO35W (diameter
16mm,
2
1.5m length, surface temperature 35C,
cd2/0m ) require completely different
lumin0a0n0ce luminaire types.

Figure 5-17E. xample of a

technical luminaire (circularent,fluosreecsocndary radiation technique, high

quality shielding).

Luminaires can be classified by their

dtiuffrersentsucfhea

as:

Lamp type (incandescent, tungsten halogen, FLH, IDC,eFtLc.,)

Application (general lighting, downlight, walrl,washacecent
light, spotlight,etc.)
Function (technical, decorative or effect lsu)minaire
Protection class (e.g. ingress protection IP-code)
Installation (suspended, recessed or surface-md,ounfrtee standing,
wall mounted, etc.)
Type of construction (open, closed, with
raenflde/cotrorsrefractors, high-specular louvers, secondary
optics, pro, jecettocr.s).

Figure 5-18.Technical luminaire

Technical

luminaires

are

louver grid.

optimized

for

distribution according to the task,

preventliaorne, designed with the focus on
aesthetical aspects.
5.5.3
The

Figure 5-1.9Decorative luminaire.

a nccetiro (ef.ug. a
tanin
oeftc.) whereas
,g

special
decorative

luminous

intensity

luminaires

are

Energy aspects
luminaire

is

an

important

part

of tyth chain (lamp including ballast,

leumienlaenctc
reici
luminaire, room). It is decisive for the iciencerygy ofeffthe lighting installation. The
energy efficiency of a luminaiLruemina(ire) is characterized by the light output
ratwiohich(LOiRs ), given
by the ratio between the total luminous
ofwhetn installed on the luLmumiinniarei)re
fllaumxp
he
(
and the lamps aloLnaemp).(

Figure 5-20H. istorical development of linear

fluorescentumlianmaipres l

regarding energy consumption.

The efficiency of a luminaire depends mainly

tyhpee, control gear and
lamopn
optical
components (defining the optical efficiency).ew Thgeenenration of linear fluorescent lamps,
the
T5 (diameter 16mm), together with high frellqausetsn,cy allboaws us to increase energy
efficiency
and decrease the costs at the same timeo, ctohme
agnetic ballasts and T12 and
paoreld mt
technologies. New generations of lamp of CpFreLs,surehighs-odium, metal halide and
IRC
incandescent lamp types, have been
Twoi the appropriate luminaire technology
introductehde.r
gthe
and lighting controls they can reduce enerpgtyion coonfsumlighting significantly.
The development of high reflective
ors diffuse reflectance) for lighting
surfacespecu(hlairgh
purposes, of complex surface calculation
annew manufacturing technologies (e.g.
medthodosf
injection molded plastics with Al-coating)
imth efficiency (light output ratio) of
hoavsed
per
luminaires reaching 80% or more. The develowill also continue this trend.
tpeicnhgnoloLgEyD
Thus, the technical potential for energy htsianvgingsolluigtions is already available.
Adospting it
only a matter of time and application. 80%the cu9r0r o
%ent
20 years. The replacement of these
inlsitgahllations with energy efficient
inefftiicniegnt
components (lamps, control gears and
pa huge energy saving potential. With
luminoaviirdees)s
r
this strategy, in parallel, the lighting ulqduali icmoproved.
btey
5.5.4

LED Luminaires

LEDs will revolutionise the lumininaire prnadcticmesarkaet in the near future. The long
lifeti color mixing possibility (flexible color teempefT)r,atusrpectrum (no infrared), design
flexibility
and small size, easy control and
othf LbEeDs. These features allow
dimmingnefaitrse
e luminire
manufacturers to develop new type of lumidneirseisgnerasnd to adopt totally new
lighting
practices. Further benefits include safety odwul operation, ruggedness, and a high
evolttaoge
efficacy (lm/W) compared to incandescent lampsto.
low prices and high lumen out
Dthuee
fluorescent lamps are the most economic anudsed wildaemlyps. Today, more than 60%
of th
artificial light is generated by this
2ty0p (
lamAp
0e6)

ar
expensive (costs/lumen output) and offers tuocdhay
loawerm
The gap between conventional light sources
anisd
In residential lighting incandescent and
tuanloggsteenn
spite of their very low luminous efficacy
alternative to incandescent and tungsten
hamlopgse. n market has been mainly
focuasrecdhiteocntural lightin.g

light output per one unit.

dLeEcDresasing but
mom lhamps are the
lamps
laifnedtimeshor(t<4000h).
economic
Ulp t
a

still exists at the

most widely used
LEDs

are

an

Figure 5-21L. ED
Downlight.

Other barriers for mainstream applications

LtEh missing industrial standards (holders,
oafre
De s
controls and ballasts, platines, etc.),
srepqeuciarel electronic equipment (drivers,
thde
controls),

short innovation cycles of LEDs, and reqauliredoptiscpsecidifferent from the conventional

metal fabrication. The spectral distribution and y intoefnsitthe LED radiation depends
strongly on
temperature, LEDs being much more sensitive cotondithi than conventional lamps. It is
oenast
therefore essential to care for an optimnaspl
trkaeep
pL-EnDsjunction temperature
ortheato as low as possible.
the
LEDs of nominally the same type may haveead a inwidtheeir sprradiation
(production
tolerances). They are therefore grouped ind s

features

differen
classes regarding luminous flux, dominated
voltage. For applications with high
wthavealenndg
demands on color stability, it is
acnodmpcontrol these production and
necessaernysatteo
operating
tolerances by micro controllers to reach precdoelofirnedfeatures (spectra). All these
features an
requirements make the development of an
alumhiingahily demanding task. Following
LEreD
the
actual LED performance forecast, white LED wl igllhtinsgoon outperform some traditional
lamps
with superior lifetime, decreasing prices, e

opens the way fo

LEDs in a broad field of applications.
t
Donuteinuotous
perfect lamp for replacing incandescent and lahmalposg.en LEDs need to be equipped with
spe
electronics and optics and this will create
winhdoulestry for LED luminaires. One
neaw
of
challenges will be the maintenance of
luminaire
LEDs.
New

findings

regarding

biological

effects a(teo. m
gn.in

influence o
light on health (e.g. shift working) gencerreaatseingan deimn and for innovative lighting
gives better control over the spectrum, distributioin,tenasintdy of light. This creates
demands for L
applications in general lighting and for mluamnuifnaacitruerers.
5.6

that

Network aspects

Description of phenomena
Contemporary

electric

lighting

systems

are osfoursceevseral electro-magnetic phenomena,

which
network asothwerell eleocntric energy users and cannot

exert influence on the supplying

thus
neglected. The most important are:
harmoniwcs
(Armstrong 2006, Henderson 1999):

ar

Lighting systems due to the discharge plasma.

Saturation of transformers in low voltage systems.
Electronic dimmers and voltage reduction circuits.
Ballasts inhigh-frequency fluorescent lamps (actually
dc switch mode power converters).
Low
voltage
halogen
lighting
powered
by
ctarlolendic e transformers (Armstrong 2006).

single-phase

ac-

sole-

The current waveform of a compact fluorescen(Ct FLla)mpasnd its spectrum (Figure 522), th
current waveform of an AC supplied LED slamsppecwtruitmh i(tFigure 5-23) and the
current
waveform of ealnectronic transformer supplying a halogen lamp (Figure 5- e
below.
24)

Figure 5-22C. urrent of a

lasmppectraunmd.

20W CFL FLE20TBX/827 (GE)

Figure 5-23C. urrent waveform of a

0,9 W AC driven LdiEoDdes)lamapnd (2i0ts spectrum.

Figure 5-24P. rimary current waveform of an electronic ertransusfpoprlmying a

lamp.

In Figure 5-25, for comparison, the

curremnt

its

50W halogen

owf avaenfor incandescent lamp is

presented.

Figure 5-25C. urrent waveform of the 20W incandescent (stlanmdpa.rd)

From the figures presented above, it canat bethe seecnurretnhts supplying lamps with
electronic
elements (ballasts, suppliers, and controllersn)ot aresinusoidal and that their
includes
spectrum l
odd harmonics. The power factor (PF) of
l
thiesse
(Figure 5-22) PF is equal to 0.64 and ppfolired thLe EDAC lamsup (Figure 5-23) it is
0.26.
Single phase converters emit significant
hoafrmonics, which
ltehviredls
nuisance
because they are added linearly in
caonnddu zero-phase
neutrarls
citno
additional heating of cables. Total neutral (icnurrmenotdern offices)
1.7
greater then the highest phase current, uwihldi thneeutbrals are not
lieng 2006).
In

the

domestic

sector,

particular

transformer
can

be

flux
as

causing

much

as

fused (Armstrong

do gne thhrea p
ot eve
do not occur.
thmeustutilbie designed for such
circumstances,
in a given district instly preddisocmhainrgae lamps lighting.

mentioned problems
Howevert,y
the estimated load
design of th
utility in an electric

most

are

houses

The

reticulation shsoyust r
ledm
Diversity Maximum Demand (ADMD) value for e.each hous
When

electric

water

domestic

heaters

and

stoves da,r reiqnustiarilnleg high currents, the lighting

e loads wi
effect of harme
system will be small (Henderson

be relatively low and the

onriectsiculoantionth
1999). Harmonic currents may contribute to offailurpeoswer system
common failures are (Henderson 1999):
most
Overheating of the power capacitor due
torrenhtisghefrlowciung at higher frequencies.
Power converters failure induced by
130
1301

equipment.

The

alfunction of the unit.

swani causing the

tdc
Failure of transformers and motors caused abtiy ovtheerhe windings
ng
due to harmonic currents and higher eddny cthuerrenirtson i core.
Higher voltage drops because of additional n lostsh siupply
ees
conductors due to the skin effect of thenicsh.igh harmo
In communication systems, the cross-talk tehfefectaudinible range and
in the data link systems.
Effects on metering if the harmonics are d exmtraeyme caaunse
relays to malfunction.
Malfunction of the remote control system sie (teh. hhoaurmonics
n eg.
have been known to cause the television geset chtaonneclshanor the
garage door to open).

131
1311

In

the

heating,
hingh

houses
the

that

lighting

run
load

on

non

will

electric esenefro csoooukricng,

gry
centr
be a
o

heating

water

and

for

th
introduction of CFLs in those situations
c
tihce the effect of the harmonic currents on
mtehres

Theref tmraunsstforbe calculated using the

f
rating where the harmonic distortion levelhser arethanhig5%. For
with
large number of CFLs on a small
erthewoturld have
transfaonrsmfoerm,
88%
its full load current or its rated kVA. rTehdeucticounrrenutsing
incandescent
lamps is a 80% reduction of load (e.g.
to100 W2 GW
fLroSm
a
0
must
adjusted back by 12%. The saving on the wtroaunlsdf 0.88 x
ormbeer
reduction in load. The transformer would be
3
supapbllye
incandescent lamps, which must translate incutolat rectost saving
1999).
ioan
(Henderson
Stroboscopic effect occurs when
ogf
samples, and the moving object
rate. This effect
The
stroboscopic effect

is
can

observed
be

the

typical
to

be

installation
de-rated

to

CFLs

instead

of

CFL),

which

now

0.8

to

the

0.72

per

unit,

utility

view

oabjecmt
r
ovisn
is in orothtaetrionc motion at a rate close to the sam
ayl cliocr
when fluorescenwt ithlammp agnetic ballasts are installed.

eliminated

by

susinwgithlamelpectronic ballasts
change
2

which

the frequency of the power from the

stafnrdeaqrudencmy aintos
electronic equipment in buildings generates
fields. The health aspects
maeglnecetrico
electro-magnetic fields are discussed in C7h
st3a.ndards and recommendations
apntder
with electric and electromagnetic aspects iabr dienscrchapter 4.3.7.
eed

usually

related

to

connected

Risks and opportunities

The

harmonics

of e CsFliLgsh out of phase, and then the t

tlyar
network harmonics can be smaller if a vaLrsiety
insCtaFlled in the community.
areof
The
cancelling effect is small and it is adiffuicti fot control (Henderson 1999, IAEEL 1995
ulilty
or
Henderson has given the measurements of
maand phase angle of some
hagrmniotundices
CFLs.
(Henderson 1999)
Modern

of

appliances

different

have

good

manufacturers

designs

or tofipltertshe toharsmonics going back into the

networ
Filters are usually network of inductors
cthaaptaci resonant at the harmonic
atonrds
current
frequency and, accordingly, reduce the
ohfarmonic currents. The filters
magnitutdhee effective, however when they are
are nharmonic generated elsewhere on
connectedetwtoork, thea
the
system will find the filter. The result t wtihl bceorretchtaing filters of another user may
le
fi

harmonics generated by a different user.

smCFa u
Trhee
lLl s
naturally be small. When these are
styostema d(system with harmonic
conneicrtteyd
currents),
they will try to filter the harmonics ferrosm anodth, erconusequently overheat, causing th. e
failure
And therefore, CFL failures have to be
t
motnhietoreudtilitbyy is the cause of failure (Henderson
1999).
The total harmonics distortion (THD) of
buit s
CFh,Ls
s
appliances. The use of filters in the CFLe exmcaeyssivceauslamp failures because the
s
filters
would attempt to reduce the harmonics
eqbuyipmoetnt. The LEDs must be
crehaetred
supplied
with appropriate current. This can involvesistsohrus nt orre regulated power supplies. Some
LEDs
can be operated with an AC voltage, bumt it thleigyht
w
wiolnl lye
LED to flicker at the frequency of the hAis casuuspepsly. difTferent solutions of LED
C
drivers
and diodes configurations which provide tocelisneglf-chanarmonics within the single LED
lamp
(Freepatentsonline 2004)
The

best

way

to

reduce

electromagnetic ofuienldisng is allgr lighting

profitability

equipment.

The

of the special networks

computehresr considered for
appolficatDioCn
main transformer instead
individualmertsransffoorr
power factor compensation
electric installation and its
5.7
5.7.1

for lamps,
buildings. For
of

aanpdplianoctes should be
example, individually networks might simplify
suppliers (one
e

the

and harmonics
appliances.

readnudctioinn,crease

efficiency

of

the

whole

lighting

is

called

Hybrid lighting
Introduction

An integrated lighting
hyb lighting system.

system

Daylighting
Daylighting
system
system

utilizing

Electrical
Hybrid
Hybrid

bohtht

lighting

adnadyligelectrical

system

luminaire
luminaire

here

Control
Control
system

Figure 5-26H. ybrid (integral) lighting system overview.

A hybrid (integral) lighting system

usuallsy

ocfonst
hiset

following major

elements (Figure 5-26

A daylighting system (provides natural light htyobridthe lighting

system)
An electrical lighting system (provides lairgthifti,ciailf it is required)
A lighting control system (enhance the ernfeorrgmeatincce)pe
A hybrid luminaire (integrated lighting desltievmery both daylight
fosry and electrical lighting)
Transportation modules (in special cases)
5.7.2

Energy savings, lighting quality and costs

Daylight is a free and sustainable

otfhe ligshutpply of daylight is typicallyest at its
souracned
hi
during the hours with peak electrical energUysualollayd, s. there is enough daylight to
meet
demand for lighting of a building during e mwosotrkinogf thhours. Daylight is, however,
also
associated with negative factors such as ignlcarreeasedand cooling loads. The challenge
is to
control daylight in a way that the lidght wiitshouut tiligzleare, and the heat is kept
out.

have

shown

that

motivation of the
Figueiro al. 2002).
Costs

can

be

benefits

of

occupants

reduced

by

daylighting yare
onsal vings but also improved
enneorgt y satisfaction,
and productivitywoorfkersthe (Hartleb and Leslie 1991,

integrating

transportation and delivery of

ancdal
combining the control systems
cost-

the acnodmpountielniztisng the

capturing,
daylight
e
for

daylightinlegctricand ligheting.

In

same

order

materials

to

for

achieve

effectiveness over its lifecycle, a

functioindal
inexpensive actuation system. Its design
hascomtopatibblee techniques.
5.7.3

syhsyt
bemr

n
with

standard

construction

Examples

Hybrid Solar Lighting (HSL)

Daylight is collected by a heliostat (sunlightracckoinllgector). A transportation system
(here:
optical fibers) is used to distribute the sucnollilgehct edthroughout the building interiors.

Figure 5-27H. ybrid Solar Lighting. Illustrations from OakNaRtioidngael Laboratry.

Lightshelf systems
Daylight
thbey

is

collected

and

distributed

to g

ceailinreflector
positioned

(lightshelf)

part of the window, completed by an inttreicgratleidghtienlge.c

Figure 528A.

prototype of the Daylight Luminaire. Upcwteadrd surnelfilgeht as well as electrical can be se

lighetn
on the wall to the left of the luminaire.

Lightpipes
Sunlight is collected by fixed mirrors
oarckinbgy
building through lightpipes which can
centrally located electrical light source.

msuinrr (heliostats) and transportede into th

ortsr
alsot taranndspodristribute the electrical lighting
from

Figure 5-29P. ictures from an Arthelio project

inTheB heliostat on the roof supplies pipthee light
installaetriloin.
with concentrated sunlight (left). An elegchttricaslourlcie supplies the light pipes lieglhetctriwcahlen needed
with
(right).

5.7.4

Summary

Hybrid (integral) lighting systems (not tosedbe wcitohnfudaylight systems) are niche
applications,
their market penetration is too small
pinlay
a
toe
ligahtinrgol
thus they are important signs increasing eth oafwareennergy and daylighting.
sse
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