Carrageenan

Carrageenans or carrageenins (/krinnz/ KARR-GHEE-nnz from Irish carraign, little rock) are a
family of linear sulphated polysaccharides that are extracted from red edible seaweeds. They are widely
used in the food industry, for their gelling, thickening, and stabilizing properties. Their main application
is in dairy and meat products, due to their strong binding to food proteins. There are three main varieties of
carrageenan, which dier in their degree of sulphation.
Kappa-carrageenan has one sulphate group per disaccharide. Iota-carrageenan has two sulphates per disaccharide. Lambda carrageenan has three sulphates per disaccharide.
Gelatinous extracts of the Chondrus crispus (Irish Moss)
seaweed have been used as food additives since approximately the 15th century.[1] Carrageenan is a vegetarian
and vegan alternative to gelatin in some applications or
may be used to replace gelatin in confectionery.

Properties

Carrageenans are large, highly exible molecules that curl

forming helical structures. This gives them the ability
to form a variety of dierent gels at room temperature.
They are widely used in the food and other industries as
thickening and stabilizing agents.

The molecular structures of dierent types of carrageenan

All carrageenans are high-molecular-weight polysaccharides made up of repeating galactose units and 3,6 anhydrogalactose (3,6-AG), both sulfated and nonsulfated.
The units are joined by alternating 1,3 and 1,4 strength gels, or contribute to gel inhibition (lambda carrageenan).
glycosidic linkages.
There are three main commercial classes of carrageenan: Many red algal species produce dierent types of carrageenans during their developmental history. For in Kappa forms strong, rigid gels in the presence of stance, the genus Gigartina produces mainly kappa carpotassium ions; it reacts with dairy proteins. It is rageenans during its gametophytic stage, and lambda carrageenans during its sporophytic stage.
sourced mainly from Kappaphycus alvarezii.[2]
Iota forms soft gels in the presence of calcium ions. All are soluble in hot water, but in cold water, only the
It is produced mainly from Eucheuma denticula- lambda form (and the sodium salts of the other two) are
soluble.
tum.[2]
When used in food products, carrageenan has the EU ad Lambda does not gel, and is used to thicken dairy
ditive E-number E407 or E407a when present as proproducts.
cessed eucheuma seaweed.[3] Technically carrageenan is
[4][5]
The primary dierences that inuence the properties of considered a dietary bre.
In parts of Scotland and Ireland, where it is known by
a variety of local and native names, Chondrus crispus
is boiled in milk and strained, before sugar and other
avourings such as vanilla, cinnamon, brandy, or whisky

kappa, iota, and lambda carrageenan are the number and

position of the ester sulfate groups on the repeating galactose units. Higher levels of ester sulfate lower the solubility temperature of the carrageenan and produce lower
1

PRODUCTION

are added. The end-product is a kind of jelly similar to lution (e.g., 58% potassium hydroxide), the cellulose
pannacotta, tapioca, or blancmange.
is removed from the carrageenan by centrifugation and
ltration. The resulting carrageenan solution is then concentrated by evaporation. It is dried and ground to specication.
2 Production
There are three types of industrial processing:

2.1 Semi-rened
This is only performed using E. cottonii or E. spinosum.
The raw weed is rst sorted and crude contaminants are
removed by hand. The weed is then washed to remove
salt and sand, and then cooked in hot alkali to increase
the gel strength. The cooked weed is washed, dried, and
milled. E. spinosum undergoes a much milder cooking
cycle, as it dissolves quite readily. The product is called
semi-rened carrageenan, Philippines natural grade or, in
the U.S., it simply falls under the common carrageenan
specication.[8]
cleaned and washed seaweed extraction coarse ltration seaweed residue ne ltration used lter
aids -------------- concentration -------------- preparation with KCl preparation with alcohol gel pressing
Although carrageenans were introduced on an industrial alcohol recovery drying drying milling milling
scale in the 1930s, they were rst used in China around blending blending gel rened carrageenan rened
600 B.C. (where Gigartina was used) and in Ireland carrageenan
around 400 A.D. Carrageen gelatin can be prepared
at home using the traditional recipe found in Diderots
Encyclopdie and used for centuries. 5oz rinsed Irish 2.2 Rened
moss is cooked with 8 quarts of water for 10 minutes,
stirred as it boils. Hard water should be mixed with 1/2 The essential dierence in the rening process is that the
oz of borax. Two quarts of cold water are rapidly added carrageenan is rst dissolved and ltered to remove cell
to the hot brew, and after the mixture has cooled it is wall debris. The carrageenan is then precipitated from
strained through a cloth. It is then cooled for 24 hours the clear solution either by isopropanol or by potassium
and becomes gelatinous.
chloride.[9]
As of 2011, global sales of carrageenan were estimated
at $640 million.[6] The largest producer of industrial carrageenan was the Philippines, where cultivated seaweed 2.3 Mixed processing
produces about 80% of the world supply,[7] while China
is the main exporter to global markets in the US and A hybrid technology in which seaweed is treated heteroEurope.[6] The most commonly used sources are E. cot- geneously as in the semirened process exists, but altonii (Kappaphycus alvarezii, K.striatum) and E. spinosum cohol or high salt levels are used to inhibit dissolution.
(Eucheuma denticulatum), which together provide about This process is often used on South American seaweeds
three-quarters of the world production. These grow from and gives some of the cost benets of semirened prothe sea surface to a depth of about 2 metres. The seaweed cessing, while allowing a wider range of seaweeds to be
is normally grown on nylon lines strung between bamboo processed, however, the naturally low cellulose levels in
oats, and it is harvested after three months or so, when some South American seaweeds allow them to be heterogeneously processed and still be sold under the EU rened
each plant weighs approximately 1 kg.
specication.
The E. cottonii variety has been reclassied as Kappaphycus cottonii by Maxwell Doty (1988), thereby introducing
the genus Kappaphycus, on the basis of the phycocolloids 2.4 Grades
produced (namely kappa carrageenan).
After harvest, the seaweed is dried, baled, and sent to See also: Food grading
Eucheuma denticulatum being farmed for iota-carrageenan in
an o-bottom cultivation in Tanzania.

the carrageenan manufacturer. There the seaweed is

ground, sifted to remove impurities such as sand, and There are two basic grades of carrageenan: rened carwashed thoroughly. After treatment with hot alkali so- rageenan (RC) and semi-rened carrageenan (SRC). In

3.2

Regulatory status

the United States both grades are labeled as carrageenan.

In the European Union, rened carrageenan is designated
by the E number E-407, and semi-rened carrageenan
as E-407a.[3] Rened carrageenan has a 2% maximum
for acid insoluble material and is produced through an
alcohol precipitation process or potassium chloride gel
press process. Semi-rened carrageenan contains a much
higher level of cellulosic content and is produced in a less
complex process. Indonesia, the Philippines, and Chile
are three main sources of raw material and extracted carrageenan.

3.2 Regulatory status

In the U.S., carrageenan is allowed under FDA

regulations[10] as a direct food additive and is considered safe[11] when used in the amount necessary as
an emulsier, stabilizer, or thickener in foods, except
those standardized foods that do not provide for such
use. FDA also reviewed carrageenan safety for infant
formula.[12] The National Organic Program (NOP) added
carrageenan to the National List;[13] reviewed and reauthorized in 2008[14] as critical to organic production
and handling operations.[15] The European Food Safety
Authority concluded there is no evidence of any adverse eects in humans from exposure to food-grade car3 Uses / applications
rageenan, or that exposure to degraded carrageenan from
use of food-grade carrageenan is occurring,[16] Further3.1 Food and other domestic uses
more, the Joint FAO/WHO expert committee on food additives stated in a July 2014 review of carrageenan that
Desserts, ice cream, cream, milkshakes, yogurts, the use of carrageenan in infant formula or formula for
salad dressings, sweetened condensed milks
special medical purposes at concentrations up to 1000
mg/L is not of concern.[17]
Sauces: used to increase viscosity
Beer: clarier to remove haze-causing proteins

4 Health research

Pts and processed meats (e.g., ham): substitute for

fat, increase water retention, and increase volume, or
4.1
improve sliceability

Controversy

Toothpaste: stabilizer to prevent constituents sepa- Carrageenan has undergone long-term dietary studies unrating
der dened regulatory conditions en route to its current
global regulatory status. It has been the subject of many
Fruit Gushers: ingredient in the encapsulated gel
peer-reviewed journal articles and has undergone scrutiny
by independent food safety agencies and international re Fire ghting foam: thickener to cause foam to beview panels. While some indicate that carrageenan safely
come sticky
passes through rat GI tracts without adverse eect when
it is a dietary ingredient,[18] other animal dietary studies
Shampoo and cosmetic creams: thickener
have disputed its safety.[19]
Air freshener gels
In the most recent review by an independent panel, the
Marbling: the ancient art of paper and fabric mar- Joint Expert Committee of the Food and Agriculture Orbling uses a carrageenan mixture on which to oat ganization of the United Nations and World Health Orgapaints or inks; the paper or fabric is then laid on it, nization on Food Additives (JECFA) released a technical
report in 2015 on the use of carrageenan in infant formula
absorbing the colours
and found that the additive was not of concern in infant
formula as food for special medical purposes at concen Shoe polish: gel to increase viscosity
trations up to 1000 milligrams per liter.[20]
Biotechnology: gel to immobilize cells/enzymes
The use of carrageenan in infant formula, organic or oth Pharmaceuticals: used as an inactive excipient in erwise, is prohibited in the EU for precautionary reasons,
but is permitted in other food items.[21] In the US, it is
pills/tablets
permitted in organic and non-organic foods, including
Soy milk and other plant milks: used to thicken, in juices, chocolate milk, and organic infant formula.
an attempt to emulate the consistency of whole milk
Diet sodas: to enhance texture and suspend avours 4.2
Pet food
Personal lubricants
Vegetarian hot dogs

Animal studies

Some animal studies indicate tumor promotion or initiation by carrageenan.[22][23][24][25] In an industry-funded

study, Cohen & Ito discuss methodological problems with
four such studies, along with several evaluations of geno-

4
toxic activity, and state that there is no credible evidence
that carrageenan contributes to tumor promotion or colon
cancer.[26] In contrast, Tobacmans review of 45 publicly funded studies concludes that the potential role of
carrageenan in the development of gastrointestinal malignancy and inammatory bowel disease requires careful reconsideration of the advisability of its continued
use as a food additive.[19] As of 2011, Kanneganti et
al. note that the role of both CGN [carrageenan] and
dCGN [degraded carrageenan] as carcinogens still remains controversial.[27]

5 See also
Agar
List of food additives
Pectin

6 References

Carrageenans function as a food additive relates to its [1]

large molecular weight (200,000800,000 Da) and tight
binding to food protein but also inuences carrageenans
[2]
fate as it passes through the GI tract. Oral feeding
studies with laboratory animals indicate dietary car- [3]
rageenan is excreted quantitatively [28][29] and is not accumulated in body organs such as the liver or colon;[30]
studies disagree with respect to whether it triggers gastrointestinal tract inammation or contributes to tumor [4]
promotion.[19][31] Long-term oral feeding studies found
no adverse eects on male or female infant baboons [5]
reared from birth to 112 days of age on infant formula
containing carrageenan at ve times the concentration
typically present in human infant formula as their only
diet[32] but did observe histopathologic changes in rhe- [6]
sus monkey colon after drinking a solution containing
1% undegraded carrageenan.[33] Similarly, while no ad[7]
verse eects were observed for multi-generations of rats
fed up to 5% dietary carrageenan,[34][35] or on hamsters
and rats fed for a lifetime diets containing up to 5%
carrageenan,[36][37] administration of carrageenan to ro- [8]
dents in drinking water has resulted in some observations
of GI-tract eects.[38][39][40] Tight binding of carrageenan
to ingested food proteins is considered less available than
[9]
in drinking water for interaction with the absorptive cells
of the GI tract, although some studies have linked foodgrade carrageenan to gastrointestinal disease in laboratory animals, including ulcerative colitis-like disease, in- [10]
testinal lesions, and ulcerations.[41][42][43][44][45]
Carrageenan is inert to hydrolysis by intestinal enzymes
in both humans and monogastric animals.[46][47] Many
older studies and a few recent studies have been based
on the use of degraded carrageenan, a fraction of lowmolecular weight segments of the carrageenan molecular backbone called "poligeenan". To resolve this within
the scientic community, the US Adopted Names Council assigned the name poligeenan to the fragments with
molecular weight of 10,000 to 20,000 Da.[48][49] Approximately 8% of the fragments of food-grade carrageenan
are of molecular mass less than 50,000 Da, in excess of
the recommended minimum of 5% set by the European
Scientic Committee on Food to ensure that the presence
of poligeenan is kept to a minimum. The proportion of
this 8% that consists of poligeenan is unknown.

REFERENCES

FAO Agar and Carrageenan Manual. Fao.org (1965-0101). Retrieved on 2011-12-10.

, FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 441
Current EU approved additives and their E Numbers.
Food Standards Agency. 26 November 2010. Retrieved
12 August 2014.
http://www.marine-science.co.jp/english/goods/carra.
html, Marine Science Co. Ltd.
DeSilver, Drew (April 1993). Answering Machine:
Carra-what?". Vegetarian Times: 28. Retrieved 12 August 2014.
Carrageenan Industry Report 2012 Contents (PDF) (Report). CyberColloids Ltd. 2012. Retrieved 6 April 2014.
Pareo, Roel (14 September 2011). DA: Phl to regain
leadership in seaweed production. The Philippine Star.
Retrieved 6 April 2014.
CyberColloids: E407 Specication Carrageenan, CyberColloids, Hydrocolloids research and development webpage.
CyberColloids: E407a Specication Processed Eucheuma Seaweed, Hydrocolloids research and development webpage.
21 Code of Federal Regulations 172.620

[11] Generally Recognized As Safe 21 CRF 182.7255 GRAS

ID Code 9000-07-1 (1973)
[12] Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act 21 U.S.C. 350(a)
412
[13] 68 FR 61993 (2003)
[14] 65 FR 80548
[15] 73 FR 59481
[16] Opinion of the Scientic Committee on Food on Carrageenan (2003) p. 5
[17] Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives.
Who.int. Retrieved on 2014-8-11.
[18] Weiner ML, Nuber D, Blakemore WR et al., (2007) A
90-day dietary study of kappa carrageenan with emphasis
on the gastrointestinal tract. Fd Chem Toxicol 45:98-106

[19] Tobacman JK (2001). Review of harmful gastrointestinal eects of carrageenan in animal experiments
(PDF). Environ Health Perspect. 109 (10): 983984.
doi:10.1289/ehp.01109983. PMC 1242073 . PMID
11675262.

[33] Mankes; Abraham (1975). Review of harmful gastrointestinal eects of carrageenan in animal experiments
(PDF). Environ Health Perspect. 109 (10): 983984.
doi:10.1289/ehp.01109983. PMC 1242073 . PMID
11675262.

[20] Safety Evaluation of Certain Food Additives, 3 (PDF).

Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives, WHO Food
Additive Series: 70. 2015.

[34] Collins TFX, Black TN, Prew JH (1977a) Long-term effects of calcium carrageenan in rats. 1. Eects on reproduction. Fd Cosmet Toxicol 15:533-538

[21] Opinion of the Scientic Committee on Food on

Carrageenan (PDF). European Commission, Scientic
Committee on Food. 2003.

[35] Collins, TFX; Black, TN; Prew, JH (1977b). Longterm eects of calcium carrageenan in rats. II. Eects
on fetal development. Fd Cosmet Toxicol. 15: 539545.
doi:10.1016/0015-6264(77)90068-2.

[22] Watanabe, K.; Reddy, B. S.; Wong, C. Q.; Weisburger, J. H. (1978). Eect of dietary undergraded carrageenan on colon carcinogenesis in F344 rats treated with
azoxymethane or methylnitrosourea (PDF). Cancer Research. 38 (12): 44274430.
[23] Tach, S; Peier, G; Millet, A-S; Corpet, DE (2000).
Carrageenan gel and aberrant crypt foci in the colon of
conventional and human ora-associated rats. Nutr Cancer. 37: 7580.
[24] Oohashi, Yasuyuki; Ishioka, Tomonori; Wakabayashi,
Kazuo; Kuwabara, Noriyuki (1981). A study on
carcinogenesis induced by degraded carrageenan arising from squamous metaplasia of the rat colorectum.
Cancer Letters. 14 (3): 267272. doi:10.1016/03043835(81)90153-1.
[25] Corpet, DE; Tach, S; Prclaire, M (1997b). Carrageenan given as a jelly, does not initiate, but promotes
the growth of aberrant crypt foci in the rat colon. Cancer
Lett. 114: 5355. doi:10.1016/s0304-3835(97)04624-7.
[26] Cohen, S; Ito, N (2002). A critical review of the toxicological eects of carrageenan and processed eucheuma
seaweed on the gastrointestinal tract. Crit Rev in Toxicol.
32 (5): 413444. doi:10.1080/20024091064282.
[27] Kanneganti, M., Mino-Kenudson, M., & Mizoguchi, E.
(2011). Animal models of colitis-associated carcinogenesis. BioMed Research International, 2011.
[28] Uno, Y; Omoto, T; Goto, Y; et al. ", (2001) Molecular
weight and fecal excreted quantity of carrageenan administered to rats in blended feed. Japanese Journal of Food
Chemistry. 45 (1): 98106.
[29] Weiner ML (1988) Intestinal transport of some macromolecules in food. Fd Chem Toxicol 26:867-880
[30] Pittman, KA; Golberg, L; Coulston, F (1976). Carrageenan: the eect of molecular weight and polymer
type on its uptake, excretion and degradation in animals.
Fd Cosmet Toxicol. 14: 8593. doi:10.1016/s00156264(76)80249-0.
[31] Weiner, ML; Nuber, D; Blakemore, WR; et al. (2007).
A 90-day dietary study of kappa carrageenan with emphasis on the gastrointestinal tract. Fd Chem Toxicol. 45:
98106. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2006.07.033.
[32] McGill HC,Jr., McMahan CA, Wigodsky HS, Sprinz H.
(1977) Carrageenan in formula and infant baboon development. Gastroenterology 73:512-517

[36] Rustia, M; Shubik, P; Patil, K (1980). Lifespan carcinogenicity test with native carrageenan in rats and hamsters. Cancer Letters. 11 (1): 110. doi:10.1016/03043835(80)90122-6.
[37] Abraham, R; Benitz, KF; Mankes, R; Rosenblum, I
(1985). Chronic and subchronic eects of various forms
of carrageenan in rats. Ecotoxicology and Environmental
Safety. 10: 173183. doi:10.1016/0147-6513(85)900636.
[38] Wilcox DK, Higgins J and Bertram TA (1992) Colonic
epithelial cell proliferation in a rat model of nongenotoxininduced colonic neoplasia Lab Invest 67(3):405-411
[39] Calvert, RJ; Satchithanandam, S (1992). Eects of
graded levels of high-molecular-weight carrageenan on
colonic mucosal thymidine kinase activity. Nutrition. 8
(4): 252257.
[40] Calvert, RJ; Reicks, M (1988). Alterations in colonic
thymidine kinase enzyme activity induced by consumption of various dietary bers. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med.
189 (1): 4551. doi:10.3181/00379727-189-42778.
[41] Watt J and Marcus R (1969) Ulcerative colitis in the
guinea-pig caused by seaweed extract. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology 21:187S188S
[42] Grasso, P; Sharratt, M; Carpanini, FMB; Gangolli, SD
(1973). Studies on carrageenan and large-bowel ulceration in mammals. Food and Cosmetics Toxicology. 11:
555564. doi:10.1016/s0015-6264(73)80326-8.
[43] Engster M and Abraham R (1976) Cecal response to
dierent molecular weights and types of carrageenan in
the guinea pig. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology
38:265282
[44] Watanabe, K; Reddy, BS; Wong, CQ; Weisburger, JH
(1978). Eect of dietary undegraded carrageenan
on colon carcinogenesis in F344 rats treated with
azoxymethane or methylnitrosourea. Cancer Research.
38: 44274430.
[45] Review of harmful gastrointestinal eects of carrageenan
in animal experiments J. K. Tobacman (2001)
[46] Harmuth-Hoene AE and Schwerdtfeger E (1979) Eects
of indigestible polysaccharides on protein digestibility and
nitrogen retention in growing rats. Nutr Metab 23:399407

[47] Cummings, JH; Jenkins, DJA; Wiggins, HS (1976).

Measurement of the mean transit time of dietary
residue through the human gut. Gut. 17: 216218.
doi:10.1136/gut.17.3.210.
[48] United States Adopted Names Council (1988)
[49] CAS Number 53973-98-1

Further reading
McHugh, Dennis J. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 288 - Production and Utilization of Products
from Commercial Seaweeds, Chapter 3 - Production, Properties and Uses of Carrageenan, Food and
Agriculture Organization, Rome, 1987
Guiry, Michael D.R. Carrageenans, The Seaweed
Site: information on marine algae.

External links
Food Additives: Gums and Hydrocolloids at DMOZ

EXTERNAL LINKS

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