Nutmeg

For other uses, see Nutmeg (disambiguation).

Nutmeg (also known as pala in Indonesia) is one of the

Nutmeg fruit

from dierent parts of the plant. Several other commercial products are also produced from the trees, including
essential oils, extracted oleoresins, and nutmeg butter.
Nutmeg seeds showing veins

1 Botany and cultivation

Mace (red) within nutmeg fruit

two spices the other being mace derived from several species of tree in the genus Myristica.[1] The most
important commercial species is Myristica fragrans, an
evergreen tree indigenous to the Banda Islands in the
Moluccas (or Spice Islands) of Indonesia.

Myristica fragrans tree

The common or fragrant nutmeg, Myristica fragrans, is

native to the Banda Islands in the Moluccas, Indonesia.
It is also cultivated on Penang Island in Malaysia, in the
Caribbean, especially in Grenada, and in Kerala, a state
formerly known as Malabar in ancient writings as the hub
of spice trading, in southern India. Other species used
to adulterate the spice include Papuan nutmeg M. argentea from New Guinea, and M. malabarica from India.
In the 17th-century work Hortus Botanicus Malabaricus,
Hendrik van Rheede records that Indians learned the usage of nutmeg from the Indonesians through ancient trade
routes.

Nutmeg is the seed of the tree, roughly egg-shaped and

about 20 to 30 mm (0.8 to 1.2 in) long and 15 to 18 mm
(0.6 to 0.7 in) wide, and weighing between 5 and 10 g
(0.2 and 0.4 oz) dried, while mace is the dried lacy reddish covering or aril of the seed. The rst harvest of nutmeg trees takes place 79 years after planting, and the
trees reach full production after twenty years. Nutmeg is
usually used in powdered form. This is the only tropical
fruit that is the source of two dierent spices, obtained
1

2 CULINARY USES

Nutmeg trees are dioecious plants which are propagated

sexually and asexually, the latter being the standard. Sexual propagation by seedling yields 50% male seedlings,
which are unproductive. As there is no reliable method
of determining plant sex before owering in the sixth
to eighth year, and sexual propagation bears inconsistent yields, grafting is the preferred method of propagation. Epicotyl grafting, approach grafting, and patch
budding have proved successful, with epicotyl grafting
being the most widely adopted standard. Air-layering, or
marcotting, is an alternative though not preferred method
because of its low (35-40%) success rate.

as savoury, dishes (predominantly in Mughlai cuisine).

In Kerala Malabar region, it is considered medicinal and
the esh made into juice, pickles and chutney, while the
grated nutmeg is used in meat preparations and also sparingly added to desserts for the avour. It is also added in
small quantities as a medicine for infants. It may also be
used in small quantities in garam masala. Ground nutmeg is also smoked in India.[5]
In Middle Eastern cuisine, ground nutmeg is often used
as a spice for savoury dishes.

Culinary uses

Nutmeg and mace have similar sensory qualities, with

nutmeg having a slightly sweeter and mace a more delicate avour. Mace is often preferred in light dishes for
the bright orange, saron-like hue it imparts. Nutmeg
is used for avouring many dishes, usually in ground or
grated form, and is best grated fresh in a nutmeg grater.

Commercial jar of mace

Indonesian manisan pala (nutmeg sweets)

In traditional European cuisine, nutmeg and mace are

used especially in potato dishes and in processed meat
products; they are also used in soups, sauces, and baked
goods. It is also commonly used in rice pudding. In
Dutch cuisine, nutmeg is added to vegetables such as
Brussels sprouts, cauliower, and string beans. Nutmeg
is a traditional ingredient in mulled cider, mulled wine,
and eggnog. In Scotland, mace and nutmeg are usually
both ingredients in haggis.

In Indonesian cuisine, nutmeg is used in various dishes,[2]

mainly in many spicy soups, such as some variant of soto,
konro,[3] oxtail soup, sup iga (ribs soup), bakso and sup
kambing. It is also used in gravy for meat dishes, such as
semur beef stew, ribs with tomato, to European derived
dishes such as bistik (beef steak), rolade (minced meat
roll) and bistik lidah (beef tongue steak).[4] Sliced nutmeg
fruit esh could be made as manisan (sweets), either wet, In Italian cuisine, nutmeg is almost uniquely used as part
of the stung for many regional meat-lled dumplings
which is seasoned in sugary syrup liquid, or dry coated
like tortellini, as well as for the traditional meatloaf.
with sugar.
In Penang cuisine, dried, shredded nutmeg rind with Japanese varieties of curry powder include nutmeg as an
sugar coating is used as toppings on the uniquely Penang ingredient.
ais kacang. Nutmeg rind is also blended (creating a fresh,
green, tangy taste and white colour juice) or boiled (resulting in a much sweeter and brown juice) to make iced
nutmeg juice.

In the Caribbean, nutmeg is often used in drinks such

as the Bushwacker, Painkiller, and Barbados rum punch.
Typically, it is just a sprinkle on the top of the drink.

The pericarp (fruit/pod) is used in Grenada and also in

In Indian cuisine, nutmeg is used in many sweet, as well Indonesia to make jam, or is nely sliced, cooked with

3
sugar, and crystallised to make a fragrant candy.

smells of nutmeg. About 75% (by weight) of nutmeg butIn the US, nutmeg is known as the main pumpkin pie ter is trimyristin, which can be turned into myristic acid,
spice and often shows up in simple recipes for other a 14-carbon fatty acid, which can be used as a replacement for cocoa butter, can be mixed with other fats like
winter squashes such as baked acorn squash.
cottonseed oil or palm oil, and has applications as an industrial lubricant.

Essential oils
5 History

The essential oil obtained by steam distillation of

ground nutmeg is used widely in the perfumery and
pharmaceutical industries. This volatile fraction typically contains 60-80% d-camphene by weight, as well as
quantities of d-pinene, limonene, d-borneol, l-terpineol,
geraniol, safrol, and myristicin.[6] In its pure form, myristicin is a toxin, and consumption of excessive amounts
of nutmeg can result in myristicin poisoning.[7] The oil
is colourless or light yellow, and smells and tastes of
nutmeg. It contains numerous components of interest
to the oleochemical industry, and is used as a natural
food avouring in baked goods, syrups, beverages, and
sweets. It is used to replace ground nutmeg, as it leaves
no particles in the food. The essential oil is also used in
the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries, for instance,
in toothpaste, and as a major ingredient in some cough
syrups. In traditional medicine, nutmeg and nutmeg oil
were used for disorders related to the nervous and diges- Map of the Banda Islands
tive systems.
After extraction of the essential oil, the remaining seed,
containing much less avour, is called spent. Spent is
often mixed in industrial mills with pure nutmeg to facilitate the milling process, as nutmeg is not easy to mill due
to the high percentage of oil in the pure seed. Ground
nutmeg with a variable percentage of spent (around 10%
w/w) is also less likely to clot. To obtain a better running powder, a small percentage of rice our also can be
added.

Nutmeg butter

Until the mid-19th century, the small island group of the

Banda Islands, which are also known under the name
'Spice Islands, was the only location of the production
of the spices nutmeg and mace in the world. The Banda
Islands are situated in the eastern part of the Indonesia,
in the province Maluku. It consists of eleven small volcanic islands, called Neira, Gunung Api, Banda Besar,
Rhun, Ai, Hatta, Syahrir, Karaka, Manukan, Nailaka and
Batu Kapal, with an total approximate land area of 8,150
hectares.[8]
Nutmeg is known to have been a prized and costly spice
in European medieval cuisine as a avouring, medicinal,
and preservative agent. Saint Theodore the Studite (c.
758 826) allowed his monks to sprinkle nutmeg on their
pease pudding when required to eat it. In Elizabethan
times, because nutmeg was believed to ward o the
plague, demand increased and its price skyrocketed.[8]
Nutmeg was known as a valuable commodity by Muslim sailors from the port of Basra (including the ctional
character Sinbad the Sailor in the One Thousand and One
Nights). Nutmeg was traded by Arabs during the Middle
Ages and sold to the Venetians for high prices, but the
traders did not divulge the exact location of their source
in the protable Indian Ocean trade, and no European
was able to deduce its location.

The Banda Islands became the scene of the earliest European ventures in Asia, in order to get a grip on the
Nutmeg butter is obtained from the nut by expression. spice trade. In August 1511, Afonso de Albuquerque
It is semisolid, reddish-brown in colour, and tastes and conquered Malacca, which at the time was the hub of
Mature mace of nutmeg, size about 38 mm (1.5 in)

4
Asian trade, on behalf of the king of Portugal. In November of the same year, after having secured Malacca and
learning of Bandas location, Albuquerque sent an expedition of three ships led by his friend Antnio de Abreu
to nd it. Malay pilots, either recruited or forcibly conscripted, guided them via Java, the Lesser Sundas, and
Ambon to the Banda Islands, arriving in early 1512.[9]
The rst Europeans to reach the Banda Islands, the expedition remained for about a month, buying and lling their
ships with Bandas nutmeg and mace, and with cloves in
which Banda had a thriving entrept trade.[10] An early
account of Banda is in Suma Oriental, a book written by
the Portuguese apothecary Tom Pires, based in Malacca
from 1512 to 1515. Full control of this trade by the Portuguese was not possible, and they remained participants
without a foothold in the islands.
In order to obtain a monopoly on the production and
trade of nutmeg, the Dutch East India Company (VOC)
waged a bloody battle with the Bandanese in 1621. Historian Willard Hanna estimated that before this struggle the islands were populated by approximately 15,000
people, and only 1,000 were left (the Bandanese were
killed, starved while eeing, exiled or sold as slaves).[9]
The Company constructed a comprehensive nutmeg plantation system on the islands during the 17th century. It included the nutmeg plantations for spice production, several forts for the defense of the spices, and a colonial town
for trading and governance. The Dutch were not the only
occupants of this region, however. The British skillfully
negotiated with the village leaders on the island Rhun to
protect them from the Dutch in exchange for a monopoly
on their nutmeg. The village leader of Rhun accepted
King James I of England as their sovereign, and it became
the rst overseas English colony. Control of the Banda Islands continued to be contested until 1667 when, in the
Treaty of Breda, the British ceded Rhun to the Dutch in
exchange for the island of Manhattan and its city New
Amsterdam (later New York) in North America.

8 PSYCHOACTIVITY AND TOXICITY

6 World production
World production of nutmeg is estimated to average between 10,000 and 12,000 tonnes per year, with annual
world demand estimated at 9,000 tonnes; production of
mace is estimated at 1,500 to 2,000 tonnes. Indonesia and
Grenada dominate production and exports of both products, with world market shares of 75% and 20%, respectively. Other producers include India, Malaysia (especially Penang, where the trees grow wild within untamed
areas), Papua New Guinea, Sri Lanka, and Caribbean islands, such as St. Vincent. The principal import markets
are the European Community, the United States, Japan,
and India. Singapore and the Netherlands are major reexporters.

7 Medical research

Mace

Nutmeg has been used in medicine since at least the seventh century. In the 19th century, it was used as an
abortifacient, which led to numerous recorded cases of
nutmeg poisoning. Although used as a folk treatment
for other ailments, unprocessed nutmeg has no proven
[13]
As a result of the Dutch interregnum during the medicinal value today.
Napoleonic Wars, the British took temporary control of One study has shown that the compound macelignan isothe Banda Islands from the Dutch and transplanted nut- lated from M. fragrans (Myristicaceae) may exert antimimeg trees, complete with soil, to Sri Lanka, Penang, crobial activity against Streptococcus mutans,[14] and anBencoolen, and Singapore.[10] (There is evidence that other that a methanolic extract from the same plant inhibthe tree existed in Sri Lanka even before this.)[11] From ited Jurkat cell activity in human leukemia,[15] but these
these locations they were transplanted to their other colo- are not currently used treatments.
nial holdings elsewhere, notably Zanzibar and Grenada.
The national ag of Grenada, adopted in 1974, shows a
stylised split-open nutmeg fruit. The Dutch retained con- 8 Psychoactivity and toxicity
trol of the Spice Islands until World War II.
Connecticut received its nickname (the Nutmeg State,
"Nutmegger") from the claim that some unscrupulous
Connecticut traders would whittle nutmeg out of wood,
creating a wooden nutmeg, a term which later came to
mean any type of fraud.[12]

8.1 Eects
In low doses, nutmeg produces no noticeable physiological or neurological response, but in large doses, raw
nutmeg has psychoactive eects. In its freshly ground
form (from whole nutmegs), nutmeg contains myristicin,
a monoamine oxidase inhibitor and psychoactive substance. Myristicin poisoning can induce convulsions,

8.3

Toxicity during pregnancy

palpitations, nausea, eventual dehydration, and generalized body pain.[16] For these reasons, whole or ground
nutmeg cannot be imported into Saudi Arabia except in
spice mixtures where it comprises less than 20%.[17][18]
It is also reputed to be a strong deliriant.

8.3 Toxicity during pregnancy

Nutmeg was once considered an abortifacient, but may

be safe for culinary use during pregnancy. However,
it inhibits prostaglandin production and contains hallucinogens
that may aect the fetus if consumed in large
Fatal myristicin poisonings in humans are very rare, but
[33]
quantities.
three have been reported, including one in an 8-year-old
child[19] and another in a 55-year-old adult, with the latter
case attributed to a combination with unitrazepam.[20]

8.4 Toxicity to dogs

In case reports, raw nutmeg produced anticholinergiclike symptoms,

attributed to myristicin and Nutmeg is highly neurotoxic to dogs and causes seizures,
elemicin.[19][21][22]
tremors, and nervous system disorders which can be faIntoxications with nutmeg had eects that varied from tal. Nutmegs rich, spicy scent is attractive to dogs which
person to person, but were often reported to be an excited can result in a dog ingesting a lethal amount of this spice.
which contain nutand confused state with headaches, nausea, dizziness, dry Eggnog and other food preparations
[34][35][36]
meg
should
not
be
given
to
dogs.
mouth, bloodshot eyes, and memory disturbances. Nutmeg was also reported to induce hallucinogenic eects,
such as visual distortions and paranoid ideation. Intoxication took several hours before the maximum eect
was reached. Eects and aftereects lasted up to several
days.[16][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31]
Myristicin poisoning is potentially deadly to some pets
and livestock, and may be caused by culinary quantities
of nutmeg harmless to humans. For this reason it is recommended not to feed eggnog to dogs.[32]

9 References
[1] Nutmeg. Encyclopedia Britannica Online.
[2] Arthur L. Meyer; Jon M. Vann (2008). The Appetizer Atlas: A World of Small Bites. Houghton Miin Harcourt.
p. 196. ISBN 0-544-17738-X.
[3] Sup Konro Rumahan.
[4] Pala. Suka Masak.

8.2

History of use

Peter Staord's Psychedelics Encyclopedia quotes an 1883

report from Mumbai noting that the Hindus of West India take nutmeg as an intoxicant", and records that the
spice has been used for centuries as a form of snu in rural eastern Indonesia and India, later seeing the ground
seed mixed with betel and other kinds of snu. In
1829, the Czech physiologist Jan Evangelista Purkinje
ingested three ground nutmegs with a glass of wine and
recorded headaches, nausea, hallucinations, and a sense
of euphoria that lasted for several days.[13]

[5] Pat Chapman (2007). India Food and Cooking: The Ultimate Book on Indian Cuisine. New Holland Publishers.
p. 16. ISBN 978-1-84537-619-2.
[6] The Merck Index (1996). 12th edition
[7] Utilization of Tropical Foods: Sugars, Spices and Stimulants: Compendium on Technological and Nutritional Aspects of Processing and Utilization of Tropical Foods, Both
Animal and Plant, for Purposes of Training and Field Reference. Food & Agriculture Org. 1989. p. 35. ISBN
978-92-5-102837-7.
[8] Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. The Historic and
Marine Landscape of the Banda Islands - UNESCO
World Heritage Centre. whc.unesco.org. Retrieved
2016-03-04.

Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann, who discovered LSD,

and Harvard ethnobotanist Richard Evans Schultes documented reports of nutmegs use as an intoxicant by stu- [9]
dents, prisoners, sailors, alcoholics, and marijuana smokers. In his autobiography, Malcolm X writes about taking nutmeg and other semi-drugs while serving time in
[10]
prison.[13]

Hanna, Willard (1991). Indonesian Banda: Colonialism

and Its Aftermath in the Nutmeg Islands. Moluccas, East
Indonesia: Yayasan Warisan dan Budaya Banda Neira.
Giles Milton, Nathaniels Nutmeg, 1999, London: Hodder
and Stoughton, ISBN 0-340-69675-3

The Angewandte Chemie International Edition records the

use of nutmeg as an intoxicant in the United States in [11] 'Nutmeg', Department of Export Agriculture website
the post-World War II period, notably among young peo[12] Connecticut State Library: Nicknames for Connecticut.
ple, bohemians, and prisoners. A 1966 New York Times
Cslib.org. Retrieved 2016-01-23.
piece named it along with morning glory seeds, diet aids,
cleaning uids, cough medicine, and other substances as [13] Shafer, Jack (2010-12-14) Stupid drug story of the week:
"alternative highs" on college campuses.[13]
The nutmeg scare, Slate.com

10 FURTHER READING

[14] Devi, P. B.; Ramasubramaniaraja, R. (2009). Dental

Caries and Medicinal Plants An Overview. Journal of
Pharmacy Research. 2 (11): 16691675. ISSN 09746943.

[27] Venables, G. S.; Evered, D.; Hall, R. (1976). Letter:

Nutmeg Poisoning (pdf). British Medical Journal.
1 (6001): 96. doi:10.1136/bmj.1.6001.96-c. PMC
1638356 . PMID 942686.

[15] Chirathaworn, C.; Kongcharoensuntorn, W.; Dechdoungchan, T.; Lowanitchapat, A.; Sa-Nguanmoo, P.;
Poovorawan, Y. (2007). Myristica fragrans Houtt.
Methanolic extract induces apoptosis in a human leukemia
cell line through SIRT1 mRNA downregulation. Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand = Chotmaihet
thangphaet. 90 (11): 24222428. PMID 18181330.

[28] Panayotopoulos, D. J.; Chisholm, D. D. (1970).

Correspondence: Hallucinogenic Eect of Nutmeg
(pdf).
British Medical Journal.
1 (5698): 754.
doi:10.1136/bmj.1.5698.754-b. PMC 1699804 . PMID
5440555.

[16] Demetriades, A. K.; Wallman, P. D.; McGuiness, A.;

Gavalas, M. C. (2005). Low Cost, High Risk: Accidental
Nutmeg Intoxication (pdf). Emergency Medicine Journal. 22 (3): 223225. doi:10.1136/emj.2002.004168.
PMC 1726685 . PMID 15735280.
[17] Ken Albala. Food Cultures of the World Encyclopedia. 1.
p. 220.
[18] The Flavors of Arabia. Retrieved 2015-02-23.
[19] Weil, Andrew (1966). The Use of Nutmeg as a Psychotropic Agent. Bulletin on Narcotics. UNODC. 1966
(4): 1523.
[20] Stein, U.; Greyer, H.; Hentschel, H. (2001). Nutmeg (myristicin) poisoning--report on a fatal case and
a series of cases recorded by a poison information centre. Forensic Science International. 118 (1): 8790.
doi:10.1016/S0379-0738(00)00369-8. PMID 11343860.

[29] Williams, E. Y.; West, F. (1968). The Use of Nutmeg as

a Psychotropic Drug. Report of two Cases (pdf). Journal
of the National Medical Association. 60 (4): 289290.
PMC 2611568 . PMID 5661198.
[30] Dale, H. H. (1909). Note on Nutmeg-Poisoning (pdf).
Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine. 2 (Therapeutical and Pharmacological Section): 6974. PMC
2046458 . PMID 19974070.
[31] Cushny, A. R. (1908). Nutmeg Poisoning (pdf). Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine. 1 (Therapeutical and Pharmacological Section): 3944. PMC
2045778 . PMID 19973353.
[32] Don't Feed Your Dog Toxic Foods.
[33] Herb and drug safety chart Herb and drug safety chart
from BabyCentre UK
[34] , Toxic Food Guide for Pets
[35] , Nutmeg and Cinnamon Toxicity in Dogs

[21] Shulgin, A. T.; Sargent, T.; Naranjo, C. (1967). The

Chemistry and Psychopharmacology of Nutmeg and of
Several Related Phenylisopropylamines (pdf). Psychopharmacology Bulletin. 4 (3): 13. PMID 5615546.
[22] McKenna, A.; Nordt, S. P.; Ryan, J. (2004).
Acute Nutmeg Poisoning.
European Journal of Emergency Medicine.
11 (4): 240241.
doi:10.1097/01.mej.0000127649.69328.a5.
PMID
15249817.
[23] Burroughs, William S. (1957). Letter from a Master Addict to Dangerous Drugs. British Journal of Addiction to Alcohol & Other Drugs. 53 (2): 119132.
doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.1957.tb05093.x.
[24] Quin, G. I.; Fanning, N. F.; Plunkett, P. K. (1998).
Letter: Nutmeg Intoxication (pdf). Journal of Accident & Emergency Medicine.
15 (4): 287288.
doi:10.1136/emj.15.4.287-d. PMC 1343156 . PMID
9681323.
[25] Brenner, N.; Frank, O. S.; Knight, E. (1993). Chronic
Nutmeg Psychosis (pdf). Journal of the Royal Society of
Medicine. 86 (3): 179180. PMC 1293919 . PMID
8459391.
[26] Scholeeld, J. H. (1986). Letter: Nutmeg--an Unusual
Overdose (pdf). Archives of Emergency Medicine. 3 (2):
154155. doi:10.1136/emj.3.2.154. PMC 1285340 .
PMID 3730084.

[36] , Can I Give My Dog Nutmeg

10 Further reading
Milton, Giles (1999), Nathaniels Nutmeg: How One
Mans Courage Changed the Course of History
Burroughs, William S. (1959). Naked Lunch. Paris:
Olympia Press. p. 228.
Gable, R. S. (2006). The toxicity of recreational
drugs. American Scientist 94: 206208
Devereux, P. (1996). Re-Visioning the Earth: A
Guide to Opening the Healing Channels Between
Mind and Nature. New York: Fireside. pp. 261
262.
Brierley, J.H. Spices: The Story of Indonesias Spice
Trade. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994.
Burnet, Ian. (2011) Spice Islands. NSW (Aus):
Rosenberg Publishing.
Hanna, Willard. 1991. Indonesian Banda: Colonialism and Its Aftermath in the Nutmeg Islands.
Moluccas, East Indonesia: Yayasan Warisan dan
Budaya Banda Neira

11

External links

Georgetown Ocial Website

12

12
12.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

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