ME 310 Outline and Topics

*This outline is to help you with key concepts that can be used towards your engineering
designs.
**This is a work in process and will be continually updated throughout the semester.
***Some advance Topics included.
****Warning, some pictures may seem a little goofy, but the content is real and actual.
*****All references used are in the back of the packet, and the sections they were used in are
labeled.
******The subjects here are limited to the ME310 design course and its competition projects, if
there are additional material(s) that you believe would help improve the course (and/or design
projects), please notify me and I will see about updating the document with more information.
Preface
I made this outline because engineering design for the ME310 Engineering Design:
Introduction course is rapidly expanding and requires knowledge on many topics such as
electronics, programming, control theory, statics, mechanics of material, dynamics, component/
machine design, and kinematics of machinery.
This outline cannot replace an entire textbook of course material, this outline is to provide the
key concepts in each field to help the reader understand and have simple math models to help
guide them in constructing their project.

1.

2.

3.

Table of Contents
Important Design Topics
1.1.
The 5 design positions and their responsibilities
1.2.
Design Flow Chart
1.3.
Problem Definition
1.4.
Information Gathering/ Background Research
1.5.
Time Management
1.5.1.
Gantt Chart
1.6.
Feasibility Studies/ Evaluation
1.6.1.
Design By Rule (Paper or Spreadsheets)
1.6.2.
Excel Tools and Programming
1.6.3.
Design By Software (Creo, SolidWorks, Comsol,
etc)
1.7.
Prototyping and Fabrication
1.7.1.
Additive
1.7.1.1.
3D Printer
1.7.1.2.
Casting
1.7.1.3.
Sintering
1.7.1.4.
Welding
1.7.1.5.
Composites
1.7.1.6.
Vacuum Molding
1.7.2.
Removal
1.7.2.1.
CNC Mill
1.7.2.2.
Lathe
1.7.2.3.
Water Jet
1.7.3.
Fasteners and Adhesives
1.8.
Communication
1.8.1.
Proposal
1.8.2.
Post- Mortem Report
1.8.3.
Presentations
1.9.
Ethics and Moral Obligations
1.9.1.
Plagiarism
Statics (Prerequisite for the course)
2.1.
Cartesian and Polar Coordinate Systems
2.2.
Free-Body Diagrams (FBD)
2.3.
Equations of Equilibrium with supports
2.4.
Moment about an axis
2.5.
Shear and Moment Diagrams
2.6.
Dry Friction
2.7.
Centroids and Moment of inertia (Composite shapes)
2.7.1.
Centroids
2.7.2.
First Moment of Inertia
2.7.3.
Second (Mass) Moment of Inertia
Mechanics of Materials (Adv. Topic, covered more in ME 304)
3.1.
Definition of stress
3.2.
Normal Stresses
3.2.1.
Determining Maximum bending stress along
different axis
3.3.
Shear Stresses

3.4.
3.5.
3.6.

4.

5.

6.

Stresses in a Pressurized Cylinder

Infinitesimal Cube
Strain
3.6.1.
Poissons Ratio
3.6.2.
Generalized Hookes Law
3.7.
Principal Stresses
3.8.
Axial Tension
3.9.
Pure Bending
3.9.1.
Transverse Shear Stress due to bending
3.10.
Deflection of Beams
3.11.
Pure Torsion
3.12.
Spring Rates
Dynamics (Prerequisite for the course)
4.1.
Rectilinear Motion
4.2.
Curvilinear Motion
4.3.
Rotational Motion about an axis
4.4.
Rotating axes for Rigid Bodies
4.5.
Force and Acceleration
4.5.1.
Translation
4.5.2.
Rotation about an axis
4.5.3.
General Plane
4.6.
Work and Energy
4.7.
Projectile Motion
4.8.
Impulse and Momentum
4.8.1.
Linear and Momentum
Kinematics of Mechanisms ( Covered in ME 310)
5.1.
Beams as Springs
5.2.
Four Bar Linkage
5.2.1.
Special: Crank and Slider
5.3.
Gearing
5.3.1.
Gearboxes ( Gear Sets/ Trains): External and
Internal Sets
5.3.2.
Terminology
5.3.3.
Involute Gear Tooth Form
5.3.4.
Standard Gear Teeth
5.3.5.
Interference, Undercutting, and Contact Ratio
5.3.6.
Different Types of Gear Trains
5.3.6.1.
Simple
5.3.6.2.
Compound
5.3.6.3.
Epicyclic (Planetary)
5.3.7.
Special: Rack
5.3.8.
Special: Bevel
5.3.8.1.
U-Joints
5.4.
Cam
5.5.
Hydraulics and Pneumatics
Mechanical Component Design (Adv. Topic, covered more in ME 314)
6.1.
Static Failure
6.1.1.
(Maximum Shear Theory) Tresca
6.1.2.
(Distortion-Energy Theory) Von Mises Effective
Stress ( or v)

6.1.3.
6.1.4.

7.
prereq)
8.

Modified-Mohr Effective Stress (~ or M)

Factor of Safety (N FOS or N)
6.1.4.1.
MAX. Shear Stress (Tresca)
6.1.4.2.
Ductile
6.1.4.3.
Brittle
6.2.
Stress Concentration Factors
6.2.1.
Re-apply to Von Mises
6.3.
Fracture Mechanics
6.3.1.
Fracture Mechanics Theory
6.3.2.
Modes of Crack Displacement
6.3.3.
Stress Intensity Factor K
6.4.
Fatigue Failure
6.4.1.
3 Modes of Stress Loading: Fully Reversed,
Repeated and Fluctuating
6.4.2.
Endurance Strength for Steel and Fatigue Strength
for Aluminum
6.5.
Surface Failure
Computer-Aided Design (CAD) (Adv. Topic, covered more in ME 102; kidding
7.1.
Finite Element Analysis (FEA)
7.2.
Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM)
Electronics (Adv. Topic, covered more in EE 204 and ME 202)
8.1.
Definitions
8.2.
Analog and Components
8.2.1.
Commonly Used Components: Power Sources,
Switches, Resistors, Potentiometers, Capacitors, Relays, Diodes, LEDs,
Transistors (BJTs and FETs), and Operational Amplifiers (Op Amps).
8.2.1.1.
Sample Data Sheets
8.2.2.
Most Important Circuit: Voltage Divider
8.2.2.1.1.
Two Resistors in
series
8.2.2.1.2.
Potentiometer
8.2.2.2.
Wheatstone Bridge
8.2.3.
Most Commonly used Op Amp configurations
8.2.3.1.
Differential Op Amp
8.2.3.2.
Voltage Follower/ Buffer
8.2.3.3.
Non-Inverting Gain Op Amp
8.2.3.4.
Inverting Gain Op Amp (Analog
Proportional Controller)
8.2.3.5.
Summing Op Amp
8.2.3.6.
Difference Op Amp
8.2.3.7.
Instrumentation Op Amp
8.2.3.8.
Active Low Pass Op Amp (Analog
Integral Controller)
8.2.3.9.
Active High Pass Op Amp
8.2.3.10.
Analog PID Configuration
8.2.4.
Sensors
8.2.4.1.
Rotational Sensors: Potentiometers
and Encoders (Abs or Incr)

8.2.4.2.
Linear Sensors: Potentiometers,
Light Distance Sensors (or LDR)
8.2.4.3.
Strain Gage and Force Transducers
8.2.4.4.
Pressure Sensors
8.2.4.5.
Temp Sensors: Thermocouples,
Thermopiles, Thermistors, and RTDs

8.2.5.

Actuators
8.2.5.1.
8.2.5.2.
8.2.5.3.

DC Brushed Motor
DC Brushless Motor
Servo
8.2.5.3.1.
Analog Servo
8.2.5.3.2.
Digital Servo
8.2.5.3.3.
Continuous Servo
8.2.5.4.
Stepper
8.2.5.5.
Linear Actuator
8.2.5.6.
Solenoids
8.3.
Digital (Covered Primarily in ME 202)
8.3.1.
Micro-Controller: Arduino
8.3.1.1.
Quick explanation of some functions
8.3.1.2.
Sample Codes
8.3.1.2.1.
Simple dt code (for
sampling time and PID control)
8.3.1.2.2.
RPM Counter
(Counting Pulses, used for angular velocity)
8.3.1.2.3.
Another RPM
Counter
8.3.1.2.4.
Before motor driving
circuits: Competing Voltage Sources
8.3.1.2.5.
Before motor driving
circuits: Common Ground
8.3.1.2.6.
Uni-directional Code
for Class A (analog) or digital unidirectional (also analog &
continuous Servo)
8.3.1.2.7.
Driving a Digital
Servo
8.3.1.2.8.
Bi-directional Code
for H - Bridge
8.3.1.2.9.
Code controlling
multiple motors at once
8.3.1.2.10.
Circuit layout for high
current motors
8.3.1.2.11.
Sample PID (position)
- 1 motor bidirectionally
8.3.1.2.12.
Sample PID (RPMs) 1 motor unidirectionally
8.3.2.
Quick Matlab Codes
8.4.
Motor Driving Circuit
8.4.1.
Analog - Unidirectional Motor Controller Circuit
(Class A amplifier)
4

9.

10.

11.

8.4.2.
Digital - Unidirectional Motor Controller Circuit
(Class A amplifier)
8.4.3.
Analog - Bidirectional Motor Controller Circuit (HBridge)
8.4.4.
Analog - Bidirectional Motor Controller Circuit
(Class B amplifier)
8.4.5.
Digital - Bidirectional Motor Controller Circuit ( H Bridge)
8.5.
Troubleshooting a circuit
8.5.1.
Tools for troubleshooting circuits
8.5.2.
Open or Short
8.5.3.
Misbehaving Op Amps
8.5.4.
Transistors that are about to Meltdown
8.5.5.
Other Precautions to be aware of
Control Theory (Adv. Topic, covered more in ME 330)
9.1.
Open Loop versus Closed Loop Control
9.2.
PID Explained, Prof. Tom Johnston explanation
9.3.
Frequency example (open loop)
9.3.1.
Frequency Response via Excel
9.3.2.
Frequency Response via Matlab
9.3.3.
Frequency Response via Simulink
9.3.3.1.
Simulink tutorial
9.3.4.
Frequency Response via Vissim
9.4.
Radar Dish Example
9.4.1.
Using Analog Circuitry
9.4.2.
Using Digital Circuitry
Case Studies - ME 310 Final Project Fall 2015 - Disaster Relief Robot
10.1.
Project 1 - Electronically Controlled Four bar linkage
10.2.
Project 2 - Valve Closing Mechanism
10.3.
Project 2 - Projectile Launcher
10.4.
Project 3 - Vehicle Design
Appendices
11.1.
Common Geometric Theorems
11.1.1.
Bisection angles
11.1.2.
Triangles
11.1.2.1.
Right Triangles (SOH, CAH, TOA)
11.1.2.2.
Non-Right Triangles
11.1.2.2.1.
Law of Sine
11.1.2.2.2.
Law of Cosine
11.1.2.3.
Similar Triangles
11.1.2.4.
Angles
11.2.
First Moment of Inertia (Geometry)
11.3.
Second Moment of Inertia (Mass)
11.4.
Vector Relationships
11.5.
Partial Fraction Expansion
11.6.
Common Integrals & U- Substitution
11.7.
Ordinary Linear Differential Equation (Covered more in AE 280)
11.7.1.
Commonly Used Techniques
11.7.2.
Differential Equations for Components
11.8.
Laplace Tools

11.9.
11.10.

Simple Linear Algebra Techniques

Step by Step guides (For Spreadsheet programs)
11.10.1.
Setting up a matrix to solve for multiple reaction

forces
11.10.2.
11.10.3.

Creating a chart for different moments of inertia

Applying Singullarity Functions to a spreadsheet

program
11.10.4.
Statice Failure Block
11.10.5.
Fatigue Failure Block
11.11.
Commonly Used Materials
References: Books and Software used

11.12.
1.
Important Design Topics
These are a selective Design Topics. There are more, but these topics should be good
foundation to start any of your design work.
1.1.
The 5 positions and their responsibilities
In most projects and groups, there is no one man that does it all and alone (at least not
effectively). I speak of this from experience, I have been on groups where it was only a small
portion of a group that did the actual work. This will not fly; and I need to hold people
accountable for specific aspects of the project.
Having worked on many group projects that involve building an electro-mechanical system,
there are generally 5 positions: Project Manager, Electronics, Fabricator, Math Modeler, and
Programmer. Granted when you go into the workforce (or other involved builds) there will be
other or more positions; but these are pretty much the general 5 positions. In this course, these
5 positions will help me keep people accountable for a specific task of the project; however, this
doesn't mean they can't still work together on other parts of the project. Keep in mind of your will
be on your group and the task that youre willing to do.
The five accountable positions on a group are listed below and their tentative tasks:
Project/ Product Manager
Overall design (CAD model, work with fabricator), keeping his
group members working, organizes presentations (w/help), helps other students
as necessary, in charge of report(s), in charge of interacting with other groups,
etc
Should either be most knowledgeable or willing to
do clerical work
Works with everybody on the overall design (CAD)
model, solves disputes
Electronics
Design of the electrical systems for the project
Work with math guy for motor selection
Work with programmer for Arduino and PID control
Fabricator
In charge of CAD model, building the parts, assembling the
projects, and material selection
Work with Product Manager
Work with Electronics
Mathematical Modeler
In charge of generating the necessary mathematical models that
describe the system (or its responses)
Must also generate Excel diagrams of the system
Programmer
In charge of programming the Arduino to drive motors and
incorporating feedback signals for PID controller
Must work with electronics guy on Arduino, circuit
layout, and PID control
7

Must help mathematical modeler with generating

excel diagrams
1.2.
Design Flow Chart
Below is a design process flow chart to help you design products; just be wary that design work
is an iterative process and is highly unlikely that you will design and finish a product in one go.

1.3.
Problem Definition
To start off, it is key to define:
What is this mechanism accomplishing?
State your goals explicitly.
What are my input(s) and what are my output(s)?
What is the process in which the mechanism doing work/ motion?
(i.e. linkage, gear, cam, etc)
These are the key questions to ask, and maybe more than one solution may be used in order to
accomplish the same task. Asking those questions, and writing them down, will help alleviate
any anxiety and confusion that may arise when coming up with a design for your product.
1.4.
Information Gathering/ Background Research/ Customer
Specifications
Information gathering is just as important as the Problem Defining step. This is also known as
the Customer Specifications, meaning the customer/consumer, or some inspecting agency,
may have specific guidelines for the product. This also includes what resources may be
available to you for building the product (i.e. supplied motors, controllers, materials, etc).

Additionally, its your job as the designing engineer to research and list all the specifications and
determine if you can meet all expectations. In some cases, the customer may have
unreasonable amount of expectations. If this is the case, it is your job as the engineer to come
up with multiple variations that you as the engineer can fulfill.
For example, if youre tasked with designing a gasoline engine, that has an
output torque of 300 horsepower, with an efficiency of 60%, and runs on 1 gallon of
gasoline per hour at peak efficiency. After analyzing the system, you determine:
Yes, given all the specifications, it is possible to design the motor.
No, but I can meet all specifications except the 1 gallon of
gasoline per hour.
No, but I can meet all specifications except the motor will require
diesel instead of gasoline (diesel has higher efficiencies than gasoline), etc.
No, but I can meet most specifications if we can reduce the
horsepower output to 200.
Lastly, the environment is another important factor since not all materials act the same. If the
environment contains reactive materials such as salt, water, acids, etc; than this can cause the
materials to fail under weaker loads, this also goes for environments with higher temperatures.
1.5.
Time Management
Time is the one thing we wish we could have more of, but there simply not enough. With that
said, project classes require massive amounts of time in order to properly design and prototype
your product.
1.5.1.
Gantt Chart
A Gantt chart , which is shown below in fig. 1.1, is a simple time table chart which shows
approximately how long each task will take and the people responsible for that task. The tasks
and deadlines are totally up to you.

Figure 1.1 - Simplified Gantt Chart

1.6.
Feasibility Studies/ Analysis
When brainstorming for a project, you will come up with hundreds of different designs; some
may involve magical elves to make things happen. However, being an engineer you will have to
limit your designs to ones that use the basic laws of physics and mathematics.
1.6.1.

Design By Rule (Paper or Spreadsheets) (aka

Synthesis)
One design methodology is called Design By Rule (DBR). This involves determining basic
mathematical models of your product or system and then apply them to either a spreadsheet
program (like google sheets, Openoffice, or microsoft excel) or a math program like matlab, as
shown in figure 1.2 below. It is highly advised to use spreadsheet programs instead
mathematical programs since spreadsheet programs are more common and easily accessible.
However, if you need to find an exact solution that requires only one solution, you can use
mathematical programs with a Newton-Raphson iterative program to solve for a solution.
However, an iterative solution may be found using graphs through the use of a spreadsheet
program.

10

Figure 1.2 - Mathematical model of a four bar linkage in its initial and final positions.
1.6.2.
Excel Tools and Programming
Below are some useful spreadsheet functions that you can use for the DBR methods.

1.6.3.
Graphical Analysis)

Design By Software, (also known as DBS or

11

The other design method uses the software available (i.e. Creo, SolidWorks, Comsol, etc) to
give an educated guess of a system. Usually, the designer first analyzes a problem using the
DBR method first. Once the approximate solution is found via DBR, then you can find the exact
solution using Design by software (DBS); as shown in figure 1.3.

Figure 1.3 - Design By Software of a four bar linkage project.

1.7.

Prototyping and Fabrication

1.7.1.
Additive Manufacturing
Additive manufacturing is a process by which a part is built into existence. 3D printing is the
most common type of additive manufacturing.
1.7.1.1.
3D Printing
An additive method of manufacturing in which one layer of material is deposited at a time until
the part is finished.

12

Figure - 3D Printer
1.7.1.2.
Casting
Liquid material is deposited into a mold or negative of the desired part. Once the part has
cured then the part is removed from the mold and the process repeats.
1.7.1.3.
Sintering
Similar to Casting. The material is usual a powder that is put into the mold, then under high
pressure and temperature. The material bonds together at the atomic level and then cooled.
It should be noted that the part may warp as the part cools to a lower temperature.
1.7.1.4.
Welding
Welding is the process of combining 2+ parts together by bonding them at the atomic level with
heat or electricity and filler material.

13

1.7.1.5.
Composites
A composite is any material that is composed of multiple components. Most commonly used
composites are fiberglass or carbon fiber. These materials are cloth like, making them easy to
cut and set up. Then resin and a hardener are mixed in a specific amount, and then poured
onto the material. After that, the resin/hardener mix is spread across the material, letting the
mix soak into the material. When the material is completely impregnated with the mix, it is left
to harden.
1.7.1.6.
Vacuum Molding
A manufacturing technique that uses a manufactured part, that then has a composite material
prepared on top of it. After that, a bag is placed around the part and composite, which is then
sealed. This bag is then hooked up to a vacuum pump, which sucks out the air, forcing the
composite to form to the manufactured part. Then the part is cooked which cures the resin in
the composite.
1.7.2.
Removal Manufacturing
This is the most traditional type of manufacturing. This is where you take a block (or sheet) of
material and you remove material in order to create a part.
1.7.2.1.
CNC Mill
A block of material is inserted into the machine and various types of end mills remove material
until the part emerges.

1.7.2.2.
Lathe
Lathes are used for cylindrical parts. They are inserted into the chuck and rotated at various
RPMs, which are due to material and precision of the part.

14

1.7.2.3.
Water Jet
Water Jet cutting uses high pressure water mixed with an abrasive substance (usually a fine grit
sand) to cut through the material. A part may be cut and then bent into 3D shape. These parts
tend to be sheet metal parts.

1.7.2.4.
Grinder
Grinders are large- rough disks that spin at higher RPMs to and use the abrasive surface to
remove material. The grinder disks are material specific. Do not use aluminum on a grinding
wheel that has used steel or vice versa, the grinding wheel can explode due to the different
expansion rates.
1.7.2.5.
Saws

15

Remove material using devices with notched grooves called teeth. The images below are the
ones specifically for metal cutting saws.

1.7.3.
Fasteners and Adhesives
Screws, Bolts, and adhesives (epoxy)
1.8.
Communication
1.8.1.
Proposal
Cover Page
Group Names (Last Name, First Name)
Date
Project # - TITLE
Description of the project (1-2 lines)
Purpose/ Introduction (Paragraph)
What is this project supposed to be doing.
Rough CAD Model
First show the whole system
Then show the subassemblies or specific mechanisms (if any)
Bill of Materials (BOM)
Drawings (Dimensions, Geometric tolerancing, component name)
If too large, attach as an appendix and refer to
appendix
Mechanisms Involved (How are they achieving their goal)
Provide Sketches or CAD models with labels
Mathematical Models
Prove that your mathematical model reflects how the machine
should operate.
Processes/ Manufacturing Involved (Which machines are going to be used)
For each of the non-Purchased part, list the material and type of
manufacturing
Cost & estimated time
Materials and Manufacturing time for each part (time is money)
Conclusion
Sell it! Why is this design going to be better than everyone else's.

16

1.8.2.
Post- Mortem Report
Cover Page
Purpose/ Introduction
CAD Model of your system
First Show the whole system
Then Show the subassemblies or specific mechanisms (if any)
Mechanisms involved (How are mechanisms achieving their goals)
Provide Sketches or CAD models with labels
Mathematical Models
Did they reflect your original math models?
If not, what could possibly be the difference between the two?
Processes/ Manufacturing Involved (Which machines were used)
Cost and Estimated Time
Materials and Manufacturing time for each part (time is money)
Did the system Fail or Succeed?
If failed, where did the system go wrong?
Improvements?
For Fail and Successful, What can you improve on your system?
References (any and all references must be stated, even if you dont know how)
1.8.3.
Presentations
Your team must be able to present your project in a manner as if you were selling the project as
a product to another company.
Must include (but not limited to) the following slides:
I.
Intro - Team Number, Team Name, Members (include group picture),
II.
Problem Statement/ Definition - State Clearly
III.
CAD model of your system - Clearly show the vehicle (exploded view in case its
cluttered)
A. Multiple CAD pictures if necessary
IV.
Simple mathematical model of your project (Design By Rule)
A. For Motion Analysis (mandatory) and for FEA Analysis (optional)
V.
Design by Software (only on necessary components)
A. Either FEA analysis or Motion analysis, or both
B. Provide one for each Main component of the project
VI.
Indicate your manufacturing process(es) & Material selection(s)
A. For fabricated parts only
VII.
Show your circuitry layout for all motors
A. For complex parts like the arduino, use simplified blocks, or
indicate if used another method.
B. Indicate the code you used for all arduino controlled motors.
VIII.
Showing pictures (or videos) of final product
IX.
How can your system be updated, or improved? (always room for improvement)
X.
Credits (give credit where it is due) and References (no plagiarism)
1.9.
Ethics and Moral obligations
There exists a list of Ethics and Moral Obligations that graduating and graduated engineers
must follow, but the simple breakdown is:
1) Dont put anyones lives in danger by inferior products, inferior calculations, or
materials.
a) Peoples lives are in you hands

17

2) Dont accept money that is not earned from doing your job properly.
a) i.e. dont accept money outside your company, dont accept
money to let things slide, and dont accept money in return for using products
that are inferior to the design specifications.
3) Use your new skills and responsibilities for good and the betterment of humanity.
1.9.1.
Plagiarism
Plagiarism is a serious offense, although admittedly its very hazy around certain borders.
Therefore I have attached the schools (San Diego State University) definition of plagiarism, as
stated by students affairs (http://studentaffairs.sdsu.edu/srr/cheating-plagiarism.html ):
Plagiarism is defined as the act of incorporating ideas, words, or specific substance of another,
whether purchased, borrowed, or otherwise obtained, and submitting same to the university as
one's own work to fulfill academic requirements without giving credit to the appropriate source.
Plagiarism shall include but not be limited to:
A. submitting work, either in part or in whole, completed by another;
B. omitting footnotes for ideas, statements, facts, or conclusions that belong to
another;
C. omitting quotation marks when quoting directly from another, whether it be a
paragraph, sentence, or part thereof;
D. close and lengthy paraphrasing of the writings of another;
E. submitting another person's artistic works, such as musical compositions,
photographs, paintings, drawings, or sculptures
F. submitting as one's own work papers purchased from research companies.
...
The San Diego State University Library also has a tutorial on plagiarism as well, for those
whore interested on the subject. (http://library.sdsu.edu/guides/tutorial.php?id=28 )

18

2.
Statics
One of the easiest analysis to perform is a static analysis. This is because the robot will be nonmoving and we can apply some of the simplest equations to determine the loading on the
system.
2.1.
Cartesian and Polar Coordinate Systems
There are multiple ways of describing a point in 2D dimensional space. The most traditional way
of describing the system is using the cartesian form (eqn 2.1); the j symbol is an imaginary
number, but for this case were using it to denote the other axis. However, to simplify some
higher end equations, you can also use the Polar (or Euler form, eqn 2.2) which also describes
the same point in 2D space. Also, these two identities are equal to each other as well.
Cartesian
Rcos() Rsin() j
(equation 2.1)
j
Polar
(equation 2.2)
Re

Figure 2.1 - Polar and Cartesian Coordinate Example

2.2.
Free-Body Diagrams (FBD)
Free-Body Diagrams (FBDs) are the most important techniques an engineer has at his/ her
disposal. It requires analyzing all the external forces acting on a system/body and simplifying
the body and forces to determine how these interact with a given system/body. Although it may
seem remedial and easy, this is a task that many employers actually wish their future
employees can master. It will also come in handy for more advanced dynamic or component
design topics.

19

2.3.
Equations of Equilibrium with supports
One of the most important tools Statics has to offer us, are the Equations of Equilibrium. This
allows to say We have all these forces acting on our system, but the net Forces (or Moments)
are zero. Therefore we can set the Sum of the forces (or Moments) acting in any which way to
zero and solve for any unknown.
For Planar (2D) :
FX= 0
Equation 2.3
FY=0
Equation 2.4
Mabout a point = 0
Equation 2.5
Notice for a planar analysis, there are only three equations; this means that we can only solve
for three variables. Any more, and the problem is statically indeterminate; too few means there
is also something wrong with your analysis. If there are more variables than equations available,
try making other equations to relate 1 or more variable, such as internal forces or such.
Look at the example problem below in figure 2.2. You should notice that it is a simply supported
beam that has a pin joint on the left and a rocker on the right. If you do not recall from statics,
the pin joint has 2 reactive forces and the rocker only has one and it will always be parallel to
the surface it is in contact with. In this particular problem, it is assumed that the input forces and
the angle in which the second input angle is known; what are unknown are the reactive forces
due to the supports. To solve for these, we apply the Equations of Equilibrium, equations 2.3 - 5.
These will generate the equations as shown in figure 2.4; also shown in figure 2.4 is how to
solve the problems simultaneously using some easy linear algebra tricks (which you should
have been exposed to during Pre-Calculus, called Systems of Equations).

20

The unknown variables are placed in what is called a vector (a vector is a nx1 matrix),the
unknown variables are Ax, Ay, and Cy. Next is to setup the coefficient matrix A, this is in
conjunction with the unknown variables and the equations of equilibrium. If you noticed when
you took the sum of the forces in the X- direction, only Ax was used. Therefore in the first row of
matrix A, it only has a 1 in it (which is associated with the Ax variable). This is because if the first
row of the coefficient matrix multiplies the unknown variable vector: 1*AX, 0*AY, and 0*CY.
If you look at the second row of coefficient matrix, the variables are directly related to the sum of
the forces in the Y-direction. Therefore the ones in the coefficient matrix correlate to the AY and
CY variable; if we multiply the second row by the variable vector it becomes: 0*AX, 1*AY, and
1*CY.
Lastly, the third row of the coefficient matrix correlates to the sum of the moments equation. In
the sum of the moments equation, the only variable the plays a role is the CY and it is multiplied
by the distance X1+X2. That is why it appears in the coefficient matrix. To finish things up, all the
other known variables in each of the equations that are transferred to the other side of the equal
sign.

21

Figure 2.4 - Solution to the FBD in Figure 2.3

The solution is then the inverse of the coefficient matrix, multiplied by the constant vector. This
is arduous to perform by hand, but it can be easily done either using a graphing calculator, a
spreadsheet program, or a mathematical program like MatLab. Its recommended to use a
spreadsheet program like excel since the program will auto-update and can be used among
many company, see figure 2.5. It should also be noted that most spreadsheet programs use
radians, not degrees. Therefore if you use a spreadsheet program, you must convert degrees
into radians.

22

Figure 2.5 - Solution through use of a Spreadsheet program

2.4.
Moment about an axis
There will be some cases in which you will need to determine the moment about an axis for
either bending stresses or torsional shear stresses.

Figure 2.6 Moment about an axis Definition

23

Figure 2.7 - Solution through use of a Spreadsheet program

2.5.
Shear and Moment Diagrams
Another set of important topics are the Shear and Moment Diagrams, these deal with the
internal shearing forces (think of taking a pair of scissors to a thing of string cheese) and internal
moments (bending about centroid along the length of the beam) that the beam member is
seeing. Essentially, the example starts the same as all statics problems, first you need to first
determine the external reaction forces. Next, split up the beam (or part) into separate sections
(especially before and after any point loads), as shown in figure 2.7.

24

The first thing we need to do after we split the part/ beam up, we need to apply the same tools
we used for the reaction forces; using Equations of Equilibrium, apply sum of forces in the y
direction and the sum of the moments about a pin joint/ point.
Using the sum of the forces in the Y-direction, determine the shear force as a function of
distance, V(x); keep in mind the units for the shear force, either a newton or pound. One more
thing, check the shear diagrams when they cross over the longitudinal axis; if they cross
anywhere other than a point load; this maybe an inflection point and may have the largest
bending moment at that location. Next, using the sum of the moments about some point,
determine the internal moment as a function of distance, M(x). Make sure to keep in mind of the
units for the internal moment, Newton*meter, pound*in, or pound*feet; this units are
multiplicatives, not divisive.

25

26

Figure 2.7 - An example of Shear and Moment diagrams

27

Figure 2.8 - Using Microsoft Excel to create a Shear and Moment Diagram of a Problem
2.6.
Dry Friction - Does the system Tip or slip?
Next important topic is the topic whether a system will slip or tip due to friction. This is important
since the real world often has frictional components that must be accounted for. Additionally, at
this level were only concerned with dry friction, which is some constant. Whereas wet or
viscous friction is relative to the speed of the object.
To start off, let us define friction. Realistically, there are very few surfaces that are perfectly flat;
therefore all surfaces have some degree of surface roughness. The interaction between the two
types of surfaces are the frictional forces. There are two types of frictional forces: Static and
Kinetic. Static friction is the frictional force that is developed but the part does not move. Kinetic
friction is the frictional force that is developed but the part is moving.

28

This friction can cause the system to move in two different ways: Slide along a surface or Tip
about some point. However the process is still the same as before: Create a Free Body Diagram
of the forces and distances, then write the equations of equilibrium for the system (as shown in
Figure 2.9).

29

Figure 2.9 - The FBD and equations that go along with the cart system
However, using the same linear algebra techniques that were shown in section 2.3. We can
simply convert the equations of equilibrium from figure 2.9 into the proper for: A*X=B (as shown
in figure 2.10). Then by multiplying the inverse of A coefficient matrix and the B constant vector , we then get
our solution. The solutions will tell us either the amount of force P will cause the system to both
slip and tip, we then have to make a judgement call based on the results if the system will slip or
tip.

Figure 2.10 - Using Spreadsheet program to determine the amount of force to slip or tip the cart

2.7.

Centroids and Moment of inertia (Composite shapes)

2.7.1.
Centroids
The location of the centroid is the center of mass/ geometry of the object. This will be used later
on for determining stresses and torques. If need be, break up an object into its smaller
components such as circles, rectangles, and triangles.
To find the centroid it is

y=

^yA=

{(independent centroids)(areaof centroids) }

{area of centroids}

for composites

30

Figure 2.11 - Using spreadsheet to determine the centroid of an object.

2.7.2.
First Moment of Inertia (geometry)
First Moment of Inertia is used when there is a linearly proportional changing force acting on a
cross-sectional area. This will be applied to systems that have bending and/or torsional
stresses.
Parallel Axis Theorem - Is used when centroid of the composite is not in-line with the bending
axis. The units are in either in distance to the fourth power, i.e. inches4 or mm4.

distance of axis
d centroid
I composite+ Area( 2 )

I axis =

31

Figure 2.12 - Moment of Inertia of a T- cross sectional area

2.7.3.
Second Moment of Inertia (mass)
The second Moment of Inertia is used for dynamic response of a system. The units are in terms
of mass*distance2, i.e. kg*mm2 or lbm*in2.

Mass moment of Inertia

I = r dm= r 2dV
2

Parallel-Axis Theorem

I =I Body +md2

Radius of Gyration

I =mk k=

32

33

3.

Mechanics of Materials
3.1.
Definition of stress
The amount of force acting through a cross sectional area, should have the same units of
pressure, i.e. psi, Pa, or N/m2.
These forces can also vary along the cross-sectional face (i.e. bending stresses). As
long as theyre acting along the longitudinal axes of the part. Or they can act parallel to the
cross-sectional face, these stresses are known as Shear Stresses.
It should also be noted that when stress acts on a given area, that it will cause the area to
deform based on the materials properties, which is known as Strain (which is covered later on).
If the material is linearly elastic, then the relationship between can easily be calculated using
Hookes Law:
Hookes Law:
= E*
(1 - Dimensional)
As mentioned before, this simple law can only be applied to a part that can linearly deform.
Luckily, most materials have a linearly deforming region known as the elastic region. Using the
illustration below, we can see that if the part is stressed beyond the elastic region, then the part
enters the plastic region, this is the region where the part will start to permanently deform.
However the behaviour may differ from material to material, they generally follow the same
pattern. More brittle like materials will allow massive amounts of stress but will deform
minimally; additionally, the have a very narrow plastic region. Whereas very ductile or elastic
materials can not handle that much stress but then they can deform tremendously.

34

3.2.
Normal Stresses
Normal Stresses ( ) - act perpendicular (i.e. normal) to the face of the cube and tend to
either pull the element out (tensile normal stress) or push the element in (compressive normal
stress).

Figure 3.1 - Examples of Normal Stresses

3.2.1.

Determining Maximum Bending Stress on different

axis

35

3.3.
Shear Stresses
Shear Stresses ( )- act parallel to the faces of the cubes, in pairs (couples) on opposite
faces, which tends to distort the cube into a rhomboidal shape.

Figure 3.2 - Example of Shear Stresses (major ones)

3.4.
Stresses in Pressurized Cylinders
Pressurized Cylinders are a special device that have a unique set of stress components that
need to be analyzed. However, the simpler analysis is already below and ready for you. There
are three types of stresses: a Radial, Tangential/ Hoop, and Axial/ Longitudinal. The radial stress
acts on the inner cylindrical surface of the pressure vessel, the tangential/ hoop stress acts in a
circular manner about the axis (this stress is usually the maximum and varies exponentially
moving from the outer surface to the inner surface), lastly the axial/ longitudinal stress acts
along the axis of the cylinder and is major component when the ends are capped. However if
the ends are not capped (like a gun barrel), then the axial stress goes to 0.

36

3.5.

Infinitesimal Cube
3.5.1.
These normal and shear components of stress
acting on an infinitesimal element make up the terms of a tensor.
3.5.2.
Stress is a tensor of order two and thus requires
nine values or components to describe it in three dimensions.

3-D stress tensor

xx

xy

xz

yx

yy

yz

zx

zy

zz

-The first subscript designates the reference face, and the second
subscript designates the direction of the stress.

Figure 3.3 - 3D cube with stresses acting on each face

2-D Stress Tensor

xx

xy

yx

yy
-It should be noted that the stress tensor is symmetric, which
means that:

xy = yx

yz= zy

zx = xz

37

Figure 3.4 - 2D Stress Tensor

3.6.
Strain
Stress and strain are linearly related by Hookes law in the elastic region of most engineering
materials as discussed in chapter 2.

-Strain is also a second-order tensor and can be expressed for the 3-D case:

xx

xy

xz

yx

yy

yz

zx

zy

zz

-Strain for a 2-D case:

xx

xy

yx

yy

-The same symmetric relationships shown for shear stress components also
apply to the strain components.
3.6.1.
Poissons Ratio
Ratio between a materials ability to change in the transverse versus the longitudinal (axial)
direction when an axial stress is applied.

38

3.6.2.
Generalized Hookes Law
These are the generalized hookes law for multiple stresses:
X =(1/ E)* ( X - ( Y + Z) )
Y =(1/ E)* ( Y - ( Y + X) )
Z =(1/ E)* ( Z - ( X + Y) )
Shear Stress/ Shear Strain Relationships:
XY = xy/ G, YZ = YZ/ G, ZX = ZX/ G
Where Modulus of Rigidity (G) is:
G = E/ (2*( 1 + ) )
3.7.
Principal Stresses
Applied Stresses- are the nine components of the stress tensor that result from whatever loads
are applied to the particular geometry of the object as defined in a coordinate system chosen for
convenience.
Principal Stresses- are the three principal normal stresses and the three principal shear
stresses

39

-There will always be planes on which the shear-stress components are zero.
-The normal stresses acting on these planes are called the principal stresses.
-The planes on which these principal stresses act are called the principal planes.
-The directions of the surface normals to the principal planes are called the
principal axes, and the normal stresses acting in those directions are the principal
normal stresses.
-There will also be another set of mutually perpendicular axes along with the
shear stresses will be maximal.
-The principal shear stresses act on a set of planes that are 4 5 o angles to the
planes of the principal normal stresses.
-The expression relating the applied stresses to the principal stresses is

xy

xz

nx

yx

yz

ny

zx

zy

nz

0
=

^ n y ^j+n z k^
n^ =n x i+

n^ ^n=1

-Expanding this determinant and setting it to zero, we obtain:

3

*3-D cases*

C2 C 1 C 0=0
Where: C2 = x + y + z
2

C1 = xy + yz + zx x y y z z x
C0 = x y z +2 xy yz zx x yz2 y zx2 z xy 2
-The coefficients C0 , C1 ,C 2 are called the tensor invariants,
because they have the same values regardless of the initial choice
of xyz axes in which the applied stresses were measured or
calculated.
-The three principal (normal) stresses 1 , 2 , 3 are the three
roots of this cubic polynomial.
-The roots of this polynomial are always real and are
usually ordered such that 1 > 2> 3 .
-The directions of the three principal stresses are mutually
orthogonal.
-The principal shear stresses can be found from the values of the
principal normal stresses using:

13 =

| 1 3|

2
| 2 1|
21 =
2
| 3 2|
32 =
2
40

-The directions of the planes of the principal shear stresses

are 4 5 o from those of the principal normal stresses and
are also mutually orthogonal.
-For the special case of a two-dimensional stress state for principal stress reduce to:
*Two-Dimensional Cases, muy importante!!!*

x + y
c =0

2
a = 1=algebraically largest
b = 3=algebraically smallest
c = 2=0 (other)

a , b=

-Once the three principal stresses are found and ordered as

described above, the maximum shear stress is:

| 1 3|

max = 13=

-... the 3-D case can still be used to solve any two-dimensional
case.
-However, the principal stresses are both normal and shear.
-In the case of an applied stress that is pure tensile, the maximum principal normal stress is
equal to applied stress in both direction and magnitude.
-But a principal shear stress of half the magnitude of the applied tensile stress
acts on a plane 4 5 o from the plane of the principal normal stress.
-Thus, the principal shear stresses will typically be nonzero even in the absence
of any applied shear stress. This fact is important to an understanding of why
parts fail, and it will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 5 (for ME 314
students).
3.8.
Axial Tension
-Axial loading in tension is one of the simplest types of loading that can be applied to an
element.
-It is assumed that the load is applied through the area centroid of the element
and that the two opposing forces are collinear along the x axis.
-At some distance away from the ends where the forces are applied, the
stress distribution across the cross section of the element is essentially
uniform.
-Applied normal stress for pure axial tension (or compression)

x=

P
A

-Deflection for a purely axial tension (or compression)

s=

Pl
AE

s
P 1
= =
=
l
AE E

41

-Factor of Safety
N Pure Axial =

S y S y A
=
1
P

Figure 3.5 - A member in pure tension

3.9.
Pure Bending
Assumptions for analyzing Beams in pure bending:
1. The segment analyzed is distant from applied loads or external constraints on the
beam.
2.The beam is loaded in a plane of symmetry.
3. Cross sections of the beam remain plane and perpendicular to the neutral axis during
bending.
4. The material of the beam is homogeneous and obeys Hookes law.
5. Stresses remain below the elastic limit and deflections are small.
6. The segment is subjected to pure bending with no axial or shear loads.
7. The beam is initially straight.

42

-The unloaded segment is straight but, as the bending moment is applied, the
segment becomes curver
-The line from N to N along the neutral axis does not change length, but all other
lines along the x direction shorten or lengthen in order to keep all cross sections
perpendicular to the neutral axis.
-The outer fibers of the beam at the top are shortened, which puts them in
compression, and the outer fibers at the bottom are lengthened and put in
tension.
-The bending stress magnitude is zero at the neutral axis and is linearly
proportional to the distance y from the neutral axis.

bending =

M y
I

M = the applied moment

y = is the distance from the neutral axis
I = is the second moment of inertia (area
moment of inertia) of the beam cross sectional area

Figure 3.6 - A member loaded with bending stress

-The maximum bending stress occurs at the outer fibers (as seen in figure
below):

maximum =

Mc
I

M = the applied moment

c = is the maximum distance from the neutral axis
I = is the second moment of inertia (area
moment of inertia) of the beam cross sectional area

43

Figure 3.7 - Bending in deformed shape

-An Alternate form is

max =

M
Z
Z= the beams section modulus,

Z=

I
c

-These equations are applicable to cases, where shear strain is

negligible, in which other loads in addition to the moment are applied to
the beam

44

3.9.1.
Transverse Shear Stress due to bending
Another thing to note is that bending also causes a transverse shear loading along the beam.
However if the normal and/or other shear stresses are high, than the transverse shear stress
can account for about 2% of the total effective stress. So in most high stress applications, this
stress can be negligible.

3.10.

Deflection in Beams

Definition
Distributed Loads

q
d4 y
= 4
EI d x

Shear Loads

V
d3 y
= 3
EI d x

Moment
Slope
Deflection

M
d2 y
=
EI d x 2
dy
=
dx
y=f ( x)

Integral Forms

For Shear:

V = qdx+C 1

0< x <l

M = Vdx+ C1 x+C 2

0< x <l

For Moment:

45

For Slope:

M
dx+C 1 x 2 +C 2 x +C3
EI

For Deflection: y= dx +C 1 x + C2 x +C 3 x +C 4
3

0< x <l
0< x <l

3.11.
Pure Torsion
*Many machine parts are loaded with combinations of torques and bending moments,
which will be dealt with later.
-...a straight bar having uniform circular cross section with a pure torque applied in such
manner that no bending moment or other forces are present.
-One end is fixed in a rigid wall or support.
-The other end is free and deflects through an angle
Assumptions for Pure Torsional Loading:
1. The element analyzed is distant from applied loads or external constraints on the bar.
2. The bar is subjected to pure torsion in a plane normal to its axis, and no axial,
bending, or direct shear loads are present.
3. Cross sections of the bar remain plane and perpendicular to the axis.
4. The material of the bar is homogeneous, isotropic, and obeys Hookes law.
5. Stresses remain below the elastic limit.
6. The bar is initially straight.
When members are loaded with a moment about a longitudinal axis, they are said to be in
torsion, and the applied moment is then called a Torque.
-...The Applied moment vector is parallel to the long axis (neutral axis) of a part rather
than transverse (perpendicular) to it as in the case of bending, as seen in the diagram
below.

Figure 3.8 - Difference between Bending and Torsion

46

3.11.1.
Torsion for Circular Sections
A differential element taken anywhere on the outer surface will be sheared as a result of the
torque loading.
The stress is pure shear and varies from zero at the center to a maximum at the
outer radius.

T
J
T =Applied Torque
=Radius any point
J =Polar area moment of inertia of the cross section

Therefore the maximum stress will be at the outermost surface, at radius r:

max =

Tr
J

The angular deflection due to the applied torque is:

Tl
JG
l=is the length of the

G=is the shear modulus (modulus of rigidity) of the material

E
G=
2(1+ )
=poisson ' s ratio

Polar Area Moment of Inertia of a Solid Circular cross section

d 4
J=
32
d=diameter of cross sectional area

Polar Area Moment of Inertia of a Hollow Circular cross Section

(d o4 d i4 )
J=
32
d o=outer diameter of cross sectional area
d i=inner diameter of cross sectional area

*The circular cross section is the optimum shape for any bar subjected to torsional
loading and should be used in all torsion situations if possible.
3.11.2.
Torsion for Non-Circular Sections
Non-circular cross sections subjected to torsion exhibit behavior that violates some of the
assumptions previously listed.
Sections do not remain plane, and will warp.

47

 Radial lines do not remain straight, and the shear-stress distribution

is not necessarily linear across the section.
General Expression for Maximum shear stress due to torsion in non-circular sections:

T
Q
Q=is a function of thecrosssectional geometry
Tl
=
KG
K=is a function of the crosssectional geometry
max =

*You may need to check the book for the table that lists expressions for K & Q for some
common cross sectional shapes in torsion.
**Any open section is generally no better in torsion than a flat plate of the same crosssectional dimensions.
***Open Sections should be avoided for all torsionally loaded applications
****Only closed-circular sections, either hollow or solid, are recommended for torsional
loading applications.

3.12.
Rectilinear (Axially)

Spring Rates

F AE
k rectilinear = =
y
l
k rectilinear =Force per unit deflection
y rectilinear =

either N/m or lbf/ft

Fl
AE
48

Torsional

T GJ
k torsional = =

l
k torsional =Torque per unit angular deflection
y torsional=

either in-lbf/rev or N-m/rev

T l
GJ

There will not be a whole lot of time devoted to this but it is a very simple concept and
will be left up to the student to read this chapter (1 pages).

49

4.
Dynamics
Dynamics is the study of moving parts. The analysis is a tad trickier since there are two types of
movement (Translation and Rotation), however it is essential in determining how parts will move
in a system and fundamental for anything being electro-mechanically controlled.
4.1.
Rectilinear Motion
Rectilinear Motion is a translating motion along an axis. Therefore the position is measured
linearly. If youre building an electro-mechanical device and you need to sense a linear distance,
this can be done either using a linear moving potentiometer (which short distances) or by
converting a linear motion into a rotational one and using a rotating potentiometer.
Position,
x
Velocity is the change in position over the change in time.
Velocity,

V=

dx
dt

Acceleration the change in velocity over the change in time, also the second derivative of
position over time. Although in many cases this is held constant, such as gravity.
2

Acceleration,

a=

dv d x
=
dt d t 2

An additional differential way of relating position, velocity, and acceleration is by using a

combination of the above identities.

vdv=(aconstant )dx

Figure 4.1 - Simple Example of Rectilinear Motion

For simple cases, there are three general equations that can be used:
A. Xf = X0 +V0*t + .5*(a constant)*t2
B. Vf = V0 + (a constant)*t
50

C. Vf2 = V02 + 2*(a constant)*(Xf - X0)

4.2.
x, y, z coordinates

n, t, b coordinates

r, , z coordinates

Curvilinear Motion (If the curved path is known)

Vx = dx/ dt

ax = (dVx)/ dt

Vy = dy/ dt

ay = (dVy)/ dt

Vz = dz/ dt

az = (dVz)/ dt

V = ds/ dt

an = (V2)/

at = dV/ dt = V* (dV/ ds)

= | ((1+(dy/ dx)2)3/2 )/ (d2y/ dx2) |

Vr = dr/ dt

ar = d2r/ dt2 - r*(d/ dt)2

V = r*( d/ dt)

a = r* (d2/ dt2) + 2*(dr/ dt)*(d/ dt)

Vz = dz/ dt

az = d2z/ dt2

4.3.
Rotational Motion about a fixed axis
All the particles in the body move along a circular path. Very similar to the rectilinear definitions
of motion, however this motion is strictly about some revolving axis. However instead of a
rectilinear position, we use an angular position. Which if youre building an electro-mechanical
system, you can either sense a position using a potentiometer or an encoder, this will be
discussed more in depth in the electronics portion of this tutorial.
Angular Position

Angular Velocity is similar to the rectilinear velocity, in which its the change in angular position
over a change in time.
Angular Velocity

d
dt

There is also a special relation between rectilinear/ curvilinear velocity and angular velocity

v =r
Angular acceleration is similar to the rectilinear acceleration, in which its the change in angular
velocity over a change in time.
2

Angular Acceleration

d d
=
=
d t d t2

Just like rectilinear motion, there is also another special relation between angular position,
angular velocity, and angular acceleration .

51

d =d

Figure 4.2 - Simple Example of Rotational Motion

Just like rectilinear motion, there are three simple equations that can be used to describe a
systems angular position and angular velocity.
A. = 0+ constant t
2
B. f =0 + 0t +.5 constantt
C.

f 2= 02+ 2 constant ( f 0)
a. a tangential = *r
b. a normal = 2*r

4.4.
Rotating reference Frames
Before we go into rotating reference frames. It is key that we remember that vectors have both a
magnitude and direction. Therefore when we take the derivative of a vector, we need to take the
derivative of both the magnitude and direction. It is also key to remember what the difference is
between the two. When you take the derivative of the magnitude, this is signifying that the
points A and B are moving away from each other, linearly. However we you take the direction,
instead you end up with a rotational component, that is why there is a cross product between
the angular velocity, , and the distance between B and A, rB/ A.

52

We first write a vector loop of the system to describe the position of points A and B.

Then we write another vector loop of the system to describe the velocity of points A and B.

53

Lastly, we write another vector loop of the system to describe the acceleration of points A and B.

This will be used once we get into four bar linkages and having to describe multiple points on
the system
4.5.
Force and Acceleration
4.5.1.
Translation
The sum of the forces in a specific direction, divided by the mass is equal to the acceleration of
an object (modification of Newtons second law). By integrating the acceleration over time, we
get velocity and integrating once again gives us the displacement.

54

x-direction:

Fx = m*ax

ax = (Fx)/ m

V final = ax dt

V final= a ydt

V final = azdt

y-direction:

Fy = m*ay

ay = (Fy)/ m

z-direction:

Fz = m*az

az = (Fz)/ m

X final= V x dt
X final= V ydt

X final= V zdt

4.5.2.
Rotation about an axis
The sum of the moments about a specific axis, divided by the mass moment of inertia,
equivalent of mass for rectilinear motion, is equal to the angular acceleration of an object
(modification of Newtons second law). By integrating the angular acceleration over time, we get
angular velocity and integrating once again gives us the displacement.

x-axis: Mx = Ix*x

x = (Mx)/ Ix

final= xdt

final = ydt

final= zdt

y-axis: My = Iy*y

y = (My)/ Iy

z-axis: Mz = Iz*z

z = (Mz)/ Iz

final = xdt
final = y dt

final = zdt

55

4.5.3.
General Plane
General Plane motion uses a combination of Translational force and Rotation about some axis.
4.6.
Work and Energy
An extremely important and useful topic. Everything has energy, however its the difference in
energy that allows us to convert energy from one medium to another, change speeds, change
locations, allow electrons to flow, allow fluid to flow, and change temperature of objects. Work is
similar to energy, but in the applied sense. The mathematical definition is Force times Distance
(F*x), and allows us to add energy into a system (mechanically, electrically, chemically, etc).
Energy and Work share the same units, the joule, which is N*m (not to be confused with torque)
or kg* (m/s)2. Another key concept is that energy cannot be created but can be transferred/
converted from one state to another; this is known as Conservation of Energy.
Conservation of Energy:

T1+ U1= T2+ U2

T( Kinetic Energy)

U (Potential Energy)

T = m*V2 (kinetic - linear motion)

U= F gravity*y (gravitational potential energy)

T = I*2 (kinetic - rotational motion)

U = *K spring constant*(x)2 (elastic spring energy)

T = F*x (Const linear force, i.e. friction or

applied)

56

T = T* (Const. Rotational Force)

T = V*q ( electrical - Voltage*Charge)
A sub topic is Power, power is defined as the amount of energy per second, the derivative of
energy. The units for power are Joules/ second, horsepower, or Watts.
P= dU/ dt = F* (dx/ dt) = F*V (mechanically, N*(m/ s) )
P= dU/ dt = V* (dq/ dt) = V*I (electrically, Volts*Amps)
4.7.
Motion of a Projectile
Projectile Motion moves along two different directions (X & Y, or Longitudinal and Lateral).
Therefore you must have governing equations in both the x- and y- direction. If were
considering the forces due to drag and the rotational energy of the ball, then we need to
consider the mass of the ball and mass moment of inertia, respectively. However, if we can
neglect the forces due to drag, we can use simple kinematics of a particle to model the
projectiles behaviour.

Figure - Projectiles FBD

If FDrag can be neglected, we see the only force (or acceleration) that is acting on the system is
the acceleration. Therefore we can use simple kinematics to describe the projectile's motion.
Motion in the y- direction:
Motion in the x- direction:

Yf = Y0 +(V0)Y*t + .5*(a gravity)*t2

Xf = X0 + (V0)x*t

57

Figure - Problem Statement or Sketch of System

This system can be solved using different methods. If you know the velocity or the angle, you
can iteratively solve for the distance. Or if you know the amount of time in the air, angle, and
distance; you can analytically solve for the velocity. However, based on physical components
and description of the system. It would be easier to use the first method and iteratively solve for
the velocity and angle. The figure below is an example of an iterative method using a
spreadsheet program and the equations above to solve for the projectiles path. You can also
code the targets (& barriers) into the graph to help with seeing the projectiles path and make
sure it hits the target.

58

59

4.8.

Impulse and Momentum

4.8.1.
Linear and Angular Momentum
A. Linear Momentum
t2

a.

mv 1+ Fdt =mv 2
t1

b. m*v1 = m*v2
B. Coefficient of Restitution

a.

V A 2

V B 1
V A 1

V B 2

e=

C. Rotational Momentum

H 0 2
M 0dt=

a.

t2

H 0 1+

t1

b. (H0)1 = (H0)2

60

5.
Kinematics of Mechanisms
Mechanisms are essential in transferring power from one medium to another. There are a ton of
different types of mechanisms, therefore this chapter has only a handful of mechanisms that we
can use and apply to our projects.
5.1.
Beams as Springs
By analyzing a system as a beam. Perform a Shear, Moment, Slope, and Deflection analysis of
the beam. Then use the deflection as the springs displacement for turning beams into springs.
Deflection Equations for Beams
Definition
Distributed Loads

q
d4 y
= 4
EI d x

Shear Loads

V
d3 y
= 3
EI d x
2

Moment
Slope
Deflection

M
d y
= 2
EI d x
dy
=
dx
y=f ( x)

Integral Forms

For Shear:

V = qdx+C 1

0< x <l

M = Vdx+ C1 x+C 2

0< x <l

For Moment:

For Slope:

For Deflection:

0< x <l
Singularity Functions:
Quadratically Distributed Loads
Linearly Distributed Loads
Uniformly Distributed Loads
Concentrated/ Point Loads
Concentrated Moments

M
dx+C 1 x 2 +C 2 x +C3
EI

0< x <l

y= dx +C 1 x 3+ C2 x2 +C 3 x +C 4

<x-a>2
<x-a>1
<x-a>0
< x - a > -1
< x - a > -2

Boundary Conditions

61

The first type is a Cantilever Beam which is one of the most important and common types of
beams. A cantilever can actually have large deflections and but it can also be subjected to
failure.

The second most common type is a simply supported beam. In actuality, most systems like
vehicles, bridges, architectural systems, etc. can be modelled as a simply supported beam.
Simply supported beams have much smaller deflections than cantilever and are more resilient
to failure than cantilevers.

62

5.2.
Four Bar Linkage
Four Bar Linkages are the most versatile and easily applicable mechanisms to use. If designed
properly, 1 motor can move an object in two-dimensional space; this is significant since you
would typically need two motors to move an object in two dimensional space. Four Bar linkages
also exchange torque for angular velocity, or vice versa; which comes in handy when you need
to amplify the output torque.
5.2.1.
Four Bar Fundamentals
Degree of Freedom
- # of inputs to create a specific output
Degrees of freedom can be estimated using the methods below, however, they do not taken
geometry into account. Therefore these should be used for preliminary attempts.
Grueblers Equation
M= 3*L- 2*J- 3*G
M= degree of freedom or mobility
L= # of links
J= # of joints
G= # of grounded links
Kutzbach Equation (modified Grueblers Equation)
M= 3*( L-1)- 2J1- J2
M= degree of freedom or mobility
L= # of links
J 1 = # of 1 DOF (full) joints

63

J 2 = # of 2 DOF (half) joints

Six Rules for Linkage Transformation
1. Revolute joints in any loop can be replaced by prismatic joints with no change in
DOF of the mechanism, provided that at least 2 revolute joints remain in the loop.
2. Any full joint can be replaced by a half joint, but this will increase the DOF by
one.
3. Removal of a link will reduce the DOF by one.
4. The combo of rules 2 and 3 above will keep the original DOF unchanged.
5. Any ternary or higher-order link can be partially shrunk to a lower-order link by
coalescing nodes. This will create a multiple joint but will not change the DOF of the
mechanism.
6. Complete shrinkage of a higher-order link is equivalent to its removal. A multiple
joint will be created, and the DOF will be reduced.
Inversion
-

Created by grounding a different link in the kinematic chain.

Grashof Condition for four-bar linkages

S + L P+Q
S = length of the shortest link
L = length of the longest link
P = length of one remaining link
Q = length of other remaining link

64

5.2.2.

Algebraic Position Analysis

Closed Vector loop starting from O2 going to point B:

LAO2+ LBA- LO4O2 -LBO4= 0
Using Eulers Notation:
a*e j2+ b*e j3- d*e j1 -c*e j4= 0
Cartesian form:
a(cos2+jsin2)+b(cos3+jsin3) - c(cos4+jsin4)- d(cos1+jsin1) =0

65

Real part (x component) and also 1=0:

a*cos2 + b*cos3 - c*cos4 - d = 0
Imaginary part (y component), divide out js, and 1=0:
a*sin2 + b*sin3 - c*sin4 - 0 = 0
Isolating 3 and solving for 4, then squaring each term and doing some algebra
manipulation. ( You can reverse the operation and isolating 4 and solve for 3 )
b2 = a2 + c2 + d2 - 2ad*cos2 + 2cd*cos4 - 2ac*(sin2sin4 + cos2cos4)
Further simplifying:
K 1 cos 4 K 2 cos 2+ K 3=cos 2 cos 4 +sin 2 sin 4
K 1 cos 4 K 2 cos 2+ K 3=cos (2 4 )
d
K 1=
a
d
K 2=
c
a2b2 +c 2 +d 2
K 3=
2 ac
cos( 2 4)=cos 2 cos 4 + sin 2 sin 4
Using half-angle identities:

4
)
2
sin 4 =

1+ta n2 ( 4 )
2
2tan(

4
)
2
cos 4=

1+ta n 2( 4 )
2
2

1ta n (

66

Since 2 is an input (and should be known), express 4 as a function of 2.

+Btan 4 +C=0
2
2
A=cos 2K 1 K 2 cos 2+ K 3
B=2 sin 2
C=K 1( K 2+ 1) cos 2 + K 3
Using the quadratic formula, determine the roots of 4.
B
4 =2arctan

Now that 4 is known as a function of 2. Now determine 3 as a function of 2.

Ata n2

( )

( )

1,2

Isolation step and simplifying step:

K 1 cos 3 + K 4 cos 2 + K 5 =cos 2 cos 3 +sin 2 sin 3
d
a
d
K4=
b
2
2
2
2
c d a b
K 5=
2 ab
K 1=

Reducing the simplified step to a quadratic form:

Dta n2

( 2 )+ Etan ( 2 )+ F=0
3

D=cos 2K 1 + K 4 cos 2+ K 5
E=2 sin 2
F=K 1+( K 41)cos 2+ K 5
Using the quadratic formula, determine the roots of 3.
E
3 =2arctan

1,2

5.2.3.
Velocity Analysis
Since we already have the euler equation that describes the position of the four bar linkage,

a*e j2+ b*e j3 -c*e j4- d*e j1= 0

were simply going to use this and take the derivative in order to determine the velocity.

jae j

d 2
d 3
d 4
+ jbe j
jce j
=0
dt
dt
dt
3

d 2
d
d
= 2 , 3 =3 , 4 =4 ,
dt
dt
dt
j
j
j
ja2e + jb3e jc 4e =0
2

Another Form known as the velocity difference equation can be written as:
VA+VBA-VB=0 (recall from dynamics)
67

V A = ja2 e j =a 2(sin 2 + jcos 2)

2

V BA = jb3 e j =b3 (sin 3+ jcos 3 )

3

V B = jc 4 e j =c 4 (sin 4 + jcos 4 )
4

3 4 :
a2 sin( 42 )
3 =
b sin(3 4 )

Solving for angular velocities

4=

a2 sin (23 )
c sin( 43)

*Use the previous angle techniques to determine 3 and 4

5.2.4.
Acceleration Analysis
We know from the previous analysis that the position (in terms of euler notation)

a*e j2+ b*e j3 -c*e j4- d*e j1= 0

We also know from previous section that if we take the derivative, we get the velocity.
ja2e j + jb3e j jc 4e j =0
If we take the derivative, we get the acceleration:
( j 222 )a e j +( j 332 ) b e j ( j 4 42) c e j =0
Another way of simplifying the accelerations into their proper links, we get
a A =( j 222) e j
2

a B / A =( j 3 3 ) e
2

j 3

j4

a B=( j 4 4 )e
If we want the cartesian form, we need to expand the euler form:
2
2
2
( j 22 )a(cos 2 jsin 2 )+( j 3 3 )b(cos 3 jsin 3)( j 44 ) c (cos 4 jsin 4 )=0
However we need to separate the x components from the y components.
Real (or X component)
( 2 sin 2 22 cos 2) a+( 3 sin 3 32 cos 3)b+( 4 sin 4 + 42 cos 4 ) c=0
Imaginary (or Y component)
( 2 cos 222 sin 2) a+( 3 cos 3 32 sin 3 )b +( 4 cos 4 + 4 2 sin 4)c=0
To find 3 , use the above equations and cancel out 4 .
To find 4 , use the above equations and cancel out 3 .
5.2.5.
Three Position Graphical Synthesis
There are two main ways to do positional synthesis for four bar linkages. Either using the
graphical method or using the analytical method. The graphical method is shown below, it
requires a minimum of three positions. Then draw a line connecting the left attachment points
(blue lines) from one position to the next; then do the samething for the right attachment points,
connect them from one position to the next (red lines). Then halfway along the attachment lines
(either solid blue or red) then draw a perpendicular dotted line. Where the two (or more) dotted
lines intersect is where there should be an attachment point. However, build this as a sketch in
68

solidworks to verify that theyre indeed the correct attachment points; you may also how to do
this iteratively.
It should also be noted that in the McGraw Hill text book, Design of Machinery, the author uses
a generic triangle to represent three key points on the middle link. Two of the vertices on the
triangle are the attachment locations on the link itself, the third point is locate a specific point on
the middle link, such as the a corner edge of the link or a special component. However, this is
more useful for the analytical method than the graphical.

69

5.2.6.
Two Position Analytical Synthesis
As mentioned in the graphical synthesis section. The analytical side needs three points in order
to generate positional synthesis; it needs two attachment points and a third point to help with the
orientation of the middle link. However it is key to note that the third points location is
dependent on either the point has to butt up to another edge or if the point is used for
clearance of an obstacle.

The position difference vector P21 defines the displacement of the output motion of point P and
is defined as:
P21=R2R1
(5.1)
The pin-to-pin length and angle of link 3 (vector V1) is defined in terms of vectors Z1 and S1.
V 1=Z1 S 1
(5.2a)
The ground link 1 is also definable in terms of the two dyads.
G1=W 1 +V 1U 1
(5.2b)
DYAD - An open kinematic chain of two binary links and one joint.
We will first solve for the left side of the linkage (vectors W1 and Z1) and later use the same
procedure to solve for the right side (vectors U1 and S1).
W 2 + Z2 P 21Z 1W 1=0
(5.3)

70

Now substitute the complex number equivalents for the vectors.

we j(+ ) + ze j(+ )P21e j ze j we j=0

2

(5.4)

If we simplify and rearrange:

we j ( e j 1 ) + ze j ( e j 1 )=P21e j
2

(5.5b)

The scalar equation above can be revealed by substituting Eulers Formula (eqn 4.4a, P.185)
and separating the real and imaginary terms as was done in Section 4.5 (P.187).

e ix =cos( x )+ isin( x )
next separate the real components from the imaginary.
Real Part:

(5.6a)

[wcos ](cos 21)[ wsin ](sin 2 )+[ zcos ](cos 21)[ zsin ]sin 2=P21cos 2
Imaginary Part:

(5.6b)

[wsin ](cos 21)+[wcos ]sin 2 +[zsin ]( cos 2 1)+[zcos ]sin 2=P21sin 2

There are eight variables in these two equations: w , , 2 , z , , 2 , P21 , 2 .
We can only solve for two variables.
Three are from the problem statements.
Three are forced to choose three as free choices.
5.4.2.1 First Strategy Left Side
Solve for links W1 & Z1 , and assume values for the three angles,
In equation 5.6a (P. 233),

, 2 , .

A=cos (cos 21)sin sin 2

71

B=cos (cos 21)sin sin 2

C=P21cos 2

(5.7a)

and in equation 5.6b (P. 233)

D=sin (cos 21)+cos sin 2

E=sin (cos 21)+ cos sin 2
F=P21sin 2

(5.7b)

then:

Aw+ Bz=C
Dw+ Ez=F

(5.7c)

Solving Simultaneously (using Kramers rule),

C B
F E

CEBF
A B =
D E AE BD
w=

AFCD
AEBD
A C
D F
z=

B
D E

(5.7d)

5.4.2.2 Second Strategy for Left Side

Assume a length z and angle for vector Z1 and the angular excursion
then solve for the vector W1 .
This is a commonly used approach.
X- and Y-vectors of W1 and Z1:

W 1 x =wcos
W 1 y =wsin

2 of link 2 and

Z 1 x =zcos
Z 1 y =zsin

(5.8a)

Next, substitute the above equations into 5.6:

W 1 x (cos 2 1)W 1 y (sin 2 )+Z 1 x (cos 21)Z 1 y sin 2=P21cos 2

&

(5.8b)

W 1 y (cos 21)W 1 x (sin 2 )+Z 1 y (cos 21)Z 1 x sin 2=P21sin 2

Simply the expression:

A=cos 21
D=sin 2

B=sin 2
E=P 21cos 2

C=cos 21
F=P21sin 2
(5.8c)

Substituting:

AW 1 x BW 1 y + CZ 1 x DZ1 y =E
&

(5.8d)

AW 1 y + BW 1 x +CZ 1 y + DZ1 x =F
and the solution is:

W 1 x=

A(CZ 1 x + DZ1 y + E)+ B(CZ 1 y DZ 1 x + F)

2A

&
W 1 x=

(5.8e)
A(CZ 1 y + DZ 1 x + F)+ B(CZ 1 x DZ 1 y E)
2A

72

(5.9a)

U 2 +S 2P21S1U 1=0
Rewrite in complex variable form and collect terms:

ue j ( e j 1 ) +se j ( e j 1)=P 21e j

2

Rewrite in cartesian coordinate system:

Real part:

(5.9b)
(5.10a)

ucos ( cos 21)usin sin 2 + scos (cos 21)ssin sin 2=P21cos 2

Imaginary part:

(5.10b)

usin (cos 21)+ucos sin 2+ ssin (cos 21)+ scos sin 2=P21sin 2
5.4.2.3 First Strategy for Right Side
The same first strategy can be applied to equations 5.10 to solve for magnitudes of vectors U
and S, assuming for angles , , 2 .
The quantities
In equation 5.10a let:

P21 , 2 , 2

are defined from the problem statement as before.

A=cos (cos 21)sin sin 2

B=cos (cos 2 1)sinsin 2
C=P21cos 2

(5.11a)

In equation 5.10b let:

D=sin (cos 21)+cos sin 2

E=sin ( cos 21)+cos sin 2
F=P21sin 2

(5.11b)

Then:

Au+Bs=C
Du+ Es=F

(5.11c)

73

Using Kramers Rule to solve it simultaneously:

C B
F E

CEBF
A B =
D E AEBD
u=

AFCD
AEBD
A C
D F
s=

A D B E =

(5.11d)

5.4.2.4 Second Strategy for Right Side

If the second strategy is used, assuming angle 2 and the magnitude and direction of vector
S1 (which will define link 3/ make an assumption), the result will be:

U 1 x =ucos
U 1 y =usin

S 1 x =scos
S 1 y =ssin

(5.12a)

Substitute in equation 5.12b:

U 1 x (cos 2 1)U 1 ysin 2+ S 1 x (cos 21)S1 ysin 2=P21cos 2

U 1 y (cos 21)U 1 xsin 2+ S 1 y (cos 21)S 1 xsin 2=P21sin 2

(5.12b)

Let:

A=cos 21
D=sin 2

B=sin 2
E=P 21 cos 2

C=cos 21
E=P 21 sin 2

(5.12c)
Substitute in equation 5.12b,

AU 1 x BU 1 y +CS 1 x DS y 1=E
AU 1 y BU 1 x +CS y 1DS1 x =F

(5.12d)

and the Solution is:

A(CS1 x + DS 1 y + E)+ B(CS y1DS1 x + F)

2 A
A(CS1 y DS1 x + F)+ B(CS x1 DS1 y E)
U 1 x=
2 A
U 1 x=

Technically there is an infinity of solutions for each free choice.

74

5.2.7.

Four-Bar Excel Version

75

76

5.3.

Special: Crank - Slider

5.4.
5.5.

Special: Slider - Crank ?

Gearing
5.5.1.
Gearboxes (Gear Sets/ Trains): External and
Internal Sets
Gears are used to transmit torque and angular velocity ( or linear force and linear velocity in
certain cases) in a wide variety of applications.
-There are a wide range of gears such as bevel, helical, spur, and worm. However we
will be focusing on spur gears since they are the most common for two parallel rotating
shafts.
-More specifically, we will be focusing on the involute form.
-Essentially gearboxes, gear sets or gear trains are devices that exchange torque for
angular velocity or vice versa.
The easiest way to picture two gears meshing is to think about to rolling cylinders. It is also the
simplest form of transferring the rotary motion of one shaft to another shaft. This can be seen in
the figure below.
-The smallest of the two gears is called the pinion, which is usually connected to the
drive shaft. While the larger of the two meshed gears is just called gear.
- Gear Sets can be constructed in two different ways. The first way is called an external
set, this is when the pinion is on the outside of the gear. The second way is called an
internal set, this is when the pinion gear is on the inside of the gear.

77

- There will be no slip between the cylinders

until the maximum available frictional force at the joint is
exceeded by the demands of torque transfer.
if Torqueneeded >(F frictionr gear) , then slip will occur which
is a condition that you do not want to happen. This case also
defeats the purpose of a gearset.
For instance your car on an icy road where
the torque output exceeds the amount of
torque the road can take.
A variation of the Rolling Cylinder drive is the flat or vee belt (aka Friction belt drive)
-This mechanism also transfers power through friction and is capable of quite
large power levels, provided enough belt cross section is provided.
- However, this is for whenever absolute phasing is not required and power levels
are moderate.

78

Fundamental Law of Gearing

-The angular velocity ratio between the gears of a gearset remain constant throughout
the mesh.
Angular Velocity
-The angular velocity ratio (VR or m v ) referred to in this law is the same one that is
derived for the four bar linkage.

VR=mV =

out
N
r
= = P

r out N G

= angular speed of the shafts, gear, or pinion

r = radius of the gear or pinion
N = number of teeth on the respective gear or pinion
Torque Ratio (or Mechanical Advantage, m A )
-...exchange torque for velocity or vice versa
-The reciprocal of the velocity ratio (VR or m v )

m A=

r
N

1
= = out = G
mV out
r N P

-An external set reverses the direction

Gear Ratio ( m G )
-The magnitude of either the velocity ratio or the torque ratio, whichever is > 1.

mG= mV mG= m A , for mG 1

79

 the gear ratio is always a positive number > 1 regardless of

the direction in which the power flows through the gearset.
5.5.2.
Terminology
Pitch Circle
-Theoretical circle on which all calculations are usually based.
-The pitch circles of a pair of mating gears are tangent to each other.
-These are where the hypothetical rolling cylinders are mating without slipping.
Diametral Pitch, P (aka pitch circle)
-The number of teeth on the gear per inch of its pitch diameter.

Pd =

N N
=
2R d

Pd= teeth per inch (teeth/in)

N= number of teeth (#)
R= is the radius of the pitch circle (inches)
d= is the diameter of the pitch circle (inches)
-The inverse is called module m and its (pitch diameter / # of teeth)

m=

2R d
=
N N

Circular Pitch, Pc
-The distance from one tooth to the adjacent tooth measured along the pitch circle.

pc =

2 R

pc =
N
Pd
-The second equation is with respect to an established Diametral Pitch
circle

Addendum, a
-The radial distance between the pitch circle and the top land of each tooth.
Dedendum, d
-The radial distance from the pitch circle to the bottom land of each tooth.
Whole Depth
-The sum of the addendum and dedendum.
Clearance, c
-The amount by which the dedendum of a gear exceeds the addendum of the mating
gear.
Backlash
-The amount by which the width of a tooth space exceeds the thickness of the engaging
tooth

80

Figure _._ - Gear Teeth

(source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikiversity/en/thumb/6/60/Gearnomenclature.jpg/550px-Gearnomenclature.jpg)

5.5.3.
Involute Gear Tooth Form
For gears transmitting torque and velocity on parallel shafts, the involute is one of the most
common meshing gears due to the fact that if there are any small errors in center-distance
(distance between two meshing gears), they will not affect the velocity ratio too severely. Where
as if they are non-involute gears, they will not mesh correctly and will cause ripples in the
output velocity.
-However, the pressure angle is affected due to errors in the center-distance; which can
cause unnecessary stress on meshed gears and could lead to potential failure if the
torque demand is excessive.
-Additionally, the error in center-distance is too great, there could be backlash. Which will
lead to potential failure due to sudden impacts on gear teeth.
-One more thing, the American Gear Manufacturers Association (AGMA) already has
some standards for full depth gear teeth.
5.5.4.
Standard Gear Teeth
-Standard, full-depth gear teeth have equal addenda on pinion and gear...
...with the dedendum being slightly larger for clearance.

81

82

Conversion from inches to metric:

m=

25.4
Pd
5.5.5.

Interference, Undercutting, and Contact Ratio

InterferenceWhen the meshed gears can no longer move due to any number of reasons.
i.e. invalid geometry, incorrect sizing or placement.
UndercuttingWhen too much material is removed from the tooth, this causes stress concentrations
that could cause the tooth to deform and break.
The minimum number of full-depth teeth required to avoid interference on a pinion running
against a standard rack gear:

N min =

2
si n2

83

Minimum Number of Pinion Teeth to avoid Interference between full depth pinion and full depth
rack gear

Pressure Angle (deg)

N minimum

14.5

32

20

18

25

12

Contact ratio m P
-Defines the average number of teeth in contact at any one time.

mP =

PdZ
P dZ
=
Pb
cos( )
-Z, length of action, is the distance along the line of action between these
points within the mesh.
5.5.6.
Different Types of Gear Trains

Gear Train
-... is any collection of two or more meshing gears.
-A pair of gears, or gear-set, is then the simplest form of gear train and is usually limited
to a ratio of about 10:1
-The gear-set will become large and hard to package beyond that ratio if the
pinion is kept above the minimum numbers of teeth as shown in the tables
above.
-Gear Trains may be simple, compound, or epicycle.

84

5.5.6.1.
Simple
A simple gear train is one in which each shaft carries only one gear, the most basic two gear
example of which is shown in the figure below.
These gear trains are 1-DOF devices, one input and one output.

85

The velocity ratio of a gear-set is given by equation 12.5a, shows a simple gear train with five
gears in series.
mV =mV =(N 2 /N 3)(N 3 / N 4 )(N 4 / N 5 )(N 5 / N 6 )=+ N 2 / N 6
(9.7)
the numerical effects of all gears (in a simple gear-set) except the first and
last cancel out.
Only the sign of the overall train ratio is affected by the intermediate gears,
which are called idlers, because no power is typically taken from their shafts.
if the sign is positive, the input and output gear are moving in the
same direction.
if the sign is negative, the input and output gear are moving in the
opposite direction.
5.5.6.2.
Compound
A compound train is one in which at least one shaft carries more than one gear.
Theyre used for gear train ratios that are greater than 10:1.
Unless they use a gear train called epicycle.
86

m V =N 2 / N 3N 4 /N 5( 9.8 a)

The gear train on the left is a Non-reverted gear train and the gear train on the right is a reverted
gear train.
The general expression for gear train ratio:
mV= product of number of teeth on driver gears product of number of teeth on
driven gears
(9.8b)
A larger ratio can be obtained in a compound gear train despite the
approximately 10:1 limitation on individual gear-set ratios.
The plus or minus sign in equation 12.9b depends on the number and type
of meshes in the train, whether external or internal.
5.5.6.3.
Planetary
Epicycle or planetary train are 2-DOF devices in which they either need two inputs for one
output or one input and two outputs.
automotive differential has one input is provided (the drive shaft)
and two frictionally coupled outputs are obtained (two driving wheels).

87

Epicycle or planetary trains have several advantages over conventional trains, among which are
higher train ratios obtainable in smaller packages, reversion by default, and simultaneous,
concentric, bidirectional outputs available from a single unidirectional input.
This has become an
epicycle train with a sun gear and a planet gear orbiting around the sun, held in orbit by the
arm.

A conventional gear train is a special case of the epicyclic gear train by holding the arm
stationary.
A more useful configuration is shown below, to which a ring gear has been added. The ring
gear meshes with the planet and pivots concentric with the pinion, so it can be easily tapped as
the output member.
Most planetary trains will be arranged with ring gears to bring the
planetary motion back to a grounded pivot.
Note how the sun gear, ring gear, and arm are all brought out as concentric
hollow shafts so that each can be accessed to tap its angular velocity and
torque as either an input or an output.
Since the gears are rotating with respect to the arm, and the arm itself has motion, the velocitydifference equation must be used:
88

w gear=warm +w gear /arm

(9.12)

*INCLUDE REFERENCES*
Equations 12.10 and 12.5a are all that are needed to solve for the velocities in an epicyclic train,
provided that the tooth numbers and two input conditions are known.
For the first gear in the system:

w F / arm =w F w arm

(9.13a)

For the last gear in the system

w L/ arm =w L w arm

(9.13b)

Dividing the last by the first:

R=

w Lwarm
product of number of teeth on driver gears
=
w F w arm
product of number of teeth on driven gears

(9.14)

R is defined as the velocity ratio of an epicycle gear set.

5.5.7.
Special: Rack
Rack Gears are linear gears. They allow the transfer of a radial motion to a linear motion.

5.5.8.

Special: Bevel

89

5.5.8.1.
U-Joints
U-joints are another type of converting a rotational motion about one axis to another axis at a
slightly different angle. These are perfect for transferring motion from a high torque motor to a
movable load (i.e. wheels, or off-roading wheels).

90

5.6.
Cam
Types of CAM: 2D radial, 3D cylindrical, and Axial
Follower motion: Translating or Rotating
Type of Follower: Curved (Mushroom), Flat, Rolling, or Sliding.
Motion Program: rise-fall (RF), rise-fall-dwell (RFD), or rise-dwell-fall-dwell (RDFD)
Joint Closure: Force (ext. force applied to keep in contact) or Form (Cased Geometry drives
motion).
Dwell - when the follower is holding a specific position
SVAJ Diagrams - Graphs that depict the position, velocity, acceleration, and jerk (derivative of
acceleration). Very crucial when determining the followers response and avoid any and all
infinite responses.
: Duration angle of the motion interval
Fundamental Law of Cam Design - The Cam function must be continuous through the first and
second derivatives of displacement across the entire 360o interval.
-Additionally, the jerk function must be finite across the entire 360o interval
-Determine minimum # of Dwells to get position back to normal.
-Because of Boundary Conditions, the front-end and tail-end of a dwell must
have 0 velocity and 0 acceleration ( at 0o and s)

General form of a polynomial displacement function for a double-dwell case:

s = C0x0 + C1x1 + C2x2 + C3x3 + C4x4 + C5x5 + C6x6 + Cnxn
5.7.
Hydraulics and Pneumatics
Pneumatics and Hydraulics work on the simple principle that Fluid will flow from a higher
pressure to a lower pressure; which is the principle for how energy, heat, and electrons flow. It
should also be noted that both Pneumatics and Hydraulics are both very energy inefficient; in
addition to being loud, requiring high pressure reservoirs, and increased cost. However they
some very good advantages such as: can exert large amounts of force over a decent distance,
have excellent damping qualities, and are robust.
Simple Equation for Pressure:
Pressure = Force/ Area

91

For a projectile launcher ( or a simple Linear actuator) we can simply modify this equation to
give us Force for a known pressure and known Area.
Modified: Force = Pressure*Area
These are simple equations to help us with a global analysis, however there are more in depth
equations that govern these dynamics better, but since Fluid Mechanics was not a prerequisite
for this course, I will keep this simple and easy to use.

92

6.
Mechanical Component Design (Adv. Topic, Covered more in ME 314)
As a mechanical engineer, you will be tasked with both designing parts and evaluating if the part
will fail or not under a Static load or a Fatigue load ( type of loading that varies cyclically over a
period of time). There are other types of loadings but these are the most commonly used types
of loadings.
6.1.
Static Failure
This loading is the most commonly analyzed type of loading (and easiest). Static loading is also
the fundamental basis for fatigue failure as well. Along with your knowledge from Statics
(loadings and geometry) and Mechanics of Materials (stresses and yield strength of materials),
you will need to combine all the stresses into an effective uniaxial stress (Von Mises for ductile
and Modified Mohr for Brittle). The reason being is that most data about materials come from
uniaxial tests of materials; therefore we need to combine all the stresses into a uniaxial stress,
aka Von Mises.
6.1.1.
(Maximum Shear Theory) Tresca
One of the earliest failure theories believed that parts failed at the maximum plane shear stress.
The equation to calculate the maximum shear stress is:

max =

1 3 Y
S
=
= Y
2
2n 2n

6.1.2.
(Distortion-Energy Theory) Von Mises Effective
Stress ( or v)
There are several versions of the Von Mises Effective stress, which are dependent on the type
of material, types of loadings and how youre evaluating the part.
Three Dimensional Applications

Von Mises Effective Stress (If Principal Stresses are known)

v =

Von Mises Effective Stress (If x , y ,z stresses are known)

v =
Two Dimensional Applications

Von Mises Effective Stress (If Principal Stresses are known)

v =

Von Mises Effective Stress( If x y stresses are known)

v =
Von Mises Effective Stress (If applied stresses are known)
v =

93

6.1.2.1.

Modified-Mohr Effective Stress (~

or M )
Unlike the Von Mises Effective Stress which can only be applied to materials with ductile
properties, the Modified-Mohr Effective stress can be applied to Brittle Materials. Once again,
brittle materials are materials that do not exhibit a yield strength and dont plastically deform (i.e.
glass or ceramic).
Modified-Mohr uses the maximum stress generated by the principal stresses and 3 other
coefficients. Which is great to use along with a spreadsheet program.

M= MAX( C1, C2, C3, 1, 2, 3)

Suc ( 1 + 2 )
2S ut Suc
1 2 +
1
C1=
2
Suc ( 2 + 3 )
2S ut Suc
2 3+
1
C1 =
2
Suc ( 3 + 1 )
2S ut Suc
3 1+
1
C1 =
2
However, M=0 if all the values are below 0 ( if MAX<0 )
6.1.3.
Factor of Safety (N FOS or N)
Factor of safety is a unitless number that allows you to evaluate how much force (or a
multiplicative amount of force) it will take to break (brittle materials) or plastically deform a part
(ductile materials).

N FOS (Ductile )=

F yield
Fapplied

N FOS (Brittle)=

FUT
F applied

Notice how its the materials properties (yield or UT, Ultimate Tensile) over the applied force.
Meaning if the applied force is greater than the materials, the Factor of safety is less than 1.
However, we also consider if those forces are equal to one another to also be failure, in that
case the factor of safety is 1. Keep in mind minimum factor of safety for failure is 1. Therefore if
FOS is greater than 1, the part will not fail. Most automobiles have an FOS range of 8-20,
meaning the vehicles can take 8 to 20 times the amount of estimated weight before parts will fail

94

in the vehicle. Whereas most commercial planes have an FOS of 1.2, this is due to the need for
an appropriate FLift to weight ratio.
Highly recommend making a spreadsheet program for automatically calculating these values.

Shear Yield Strengthas a Function of TensileYield Strength S ys=0.577S y

N Tresca =N Max .Shear =

6.1.3.1.

Max. Shear Stress (Tresca)

6.1.3.2.

Ductile

6.1.3.3.

Brittle

SY
SY
=
2 MAX 2( 1 3 )

S
N Ductile = yield
V
S
N Brittle = ut
M
6.2.
Stress Concentration Factors
Most real Machine parts have varying cross-sectional areas. Any one of these changes in crosssectional geometry will cause localized stress concentrations.
-The stress concentrations are highly nonlinear!
-Such geometric changes (fillets, notches, change in diameters, etc) in a part are often
called stress-raisers and should be avoided or at least minimized as much as possible
in design.
-Unfortunately, it is not practical to eliminate all such stress-raisers, since such
geometric details are needed to connect mating parts and provide
functional part shapes.
Introducing the new increased maximum stress!!!

max =k t nom
nom =Nominal Normal stress either due axialbending
k t =denote stressconcentration factor for normal stresses
max =k ts nom
nom=Nominal Shear stress either due shear loading , shear due bending ,torsion
k ts =denote stress concentration factor for shear stresses
*It should be noted that the factors

k t k ts are only with respect to the part geometry

and not how the material behaves in the face of stress concentrations.
However, we will be covering how the part behaves in the face of
stress concentrations at a later time.
6.2.1.
Re-apply to Von Mises
Re-apply to the individual stresses before determining the Von Mises Stress.
v =

95

6.3.
Fracture Mechanics
The static failure theories discussed so far have all assumed that the material is perfectly
homogeneous and isotropic, and thus free of any defects such as cracks, voids, or inclusions,
which could serve as stress-raisers.
-This is seldom true for real materials.
-Actually, all materials are considered to contain microcracks too small to be seen with
the naked eye.
every structure contains small flaws whose size and distribution are dependent upon the
material and its processing.
These may vary from nonmetallic inclusions and microvoids to weld
defects, grinding cracks, quench cracks, surface laps, etc. Scratches or
gouges in the surface due to mishandling can also serve as incipient cracks.
Functional geometric contours that are designed into the part may raise
local stresses in predictable ways and can be taken into account in the stress
calculations.
Cracks that occur spontaneously in service, due to damage or material
flaws, are more difficult to predict and account for.
The presence of a sharp crack in a stress field creates stress concentrations that
theoretically approach infinity.

k t =1+2

( ac )

Note that when the value of c approaches zero, the stress concentration, and
thus the stress, approaches infinity. Since no material can sustain such high
stresses, local yielding (for ductile materials), local microfracture (for brittle
materials), or local crazing (for polymers) will occur at the crack tip.
If stresses are high enough at the tip of a crack of sufficient
size, a sudden, brittle-like failure can result, even in ductile
materials under static loads.
*include figure 4-35 graph

96

Examples of how fracture mechanics can destroy tankers, pressure vessels, and rocket-motor
case.
6.3.1.
Fracture Mechanics Theory
Fracture mechanics presumes the presence of a crack. The stress state in the region of the
crack may be one of plane strain or plane stress.
Linear-Elastic Fracture-Mechanics (LEFM)
If the zone of yielding around the crack is small compared to the
dimensions of the part.
LEFM assumes that the bulk of the material is behaving according to
Hookes law.
However, if a significant portion of the bulk material is in the plastic
region of its stress-strain behavior, then a more complicated approach
is required than that described here.
6.3.2.
Modes of Crack Displacement
Mode I - the applied loads may tend to pull the crack open in tension.
Most of the fracture-mechanics research and testing has been devoted to
the tensile loading case.
Mode II - shear the crack in-plane
Mode III - Shear (tear) it out-of-plane

6.3.3.

Stress Intensity Factor K

97

The crack is assumed to be sharp at its end, and b is much larger than a. An r polar
coodinate system is also set up in the xy plane with its origin at the crack tip. From the theory of
linear elasticity, for b>>a the stresses around the crack tip, expressed as a function of the polar
coordinates, are

K
y=

K
xy =

z=0
x=

for plane stress

or

z=( x + y )
yz= zx =0

for plane strain

Note that, when the radius r is zero, the xy stresses are infinite. The stresses diminish rapidly as
r increases.
The angle defines the geometric distribution of the stresses around the crack
tip at any radius.
The high stresses near the crack tip cause local yielding and create a plastic zone of radius ry.
For any radius r and angle , the stress state in this plastic zone at the crack tip is directly
proportional to the stress intensity factor K.
If b>>a, then K can be defined for the center-cracked plate as
K= nom
for a<<b
This equation will be accurate within 10% if a/b 0.4.
The units of K are either MPa-m0.5 or kpsi-in0.5.
If the crack width a is not small compared to the plate width b, and/or if the geometry of the part
is more complicated than the simple cracked plate, then an additional factor is needed to
calculate K.
K= nom

The value of

is a dimensionless quantity that depends on the parts geometry,

the type of loading and the ratio a/b.
Values of for various geometries and loadings can be found in
handbooks
for the center-cracked plate can be found

=
This asymptotically approaches 1 for small values of a / b and is
1.

6.3.4.

for a / b =

Fracture Toughness

98

Fracture Toughness KC (which is a property of the material) the crack can be considered to be
in a stable mode (if the load is static and the environment is non corrosive), in a slow-growth (if
the load is time-varying and the environment is non corrosive), or in a fast-growth mode (if the
environment is corrosive).
However, we will be focusing on stable mode.
When K reaches KC, by reason of an increase in the nominal stress or by growth of the crack
width, the crack will propagate suddenly to failure.
The rate of this unstable crack propagation can be spectacular, reaching
velocities as high as 1 mile/sec!
The factor of safety for fracture-mechanics failure is:

N FM =

KC
K

Fracture toughness KC for engineering metals ranges from 20 to 200 MPa-m0.5; engineering
polymers and ceramics KC ranges from 1 to 5 MPa-m0.5. Fracture toughness generally parallels
ductility and increases substantially at high temperatures.
6.4.
Fatigue Failure
Since mechanical parts tend to move in some form or another (i.e. translation, rotation, or some
complex), the stresses can fluctuate over a specific range and over time, causing the part to fail
at much lower stresses. The two types of materials we will focus under the fatigue failure
section are Aluminums and Steels.
6.4.1.
3 Modes of Stress Loading: Fully Reversed,
Repeated, and Fluctuating
There are three modes of fluctuating stresses when analyzing factor of safety for a given part:
Fully Reversed, Repeated, and Fluctuating. Fully reversed is when the part sees the same
stress value in tension as in compression, and an average (or mean stress) of 0. Repeated is
when the part sees a value of 0 minimum stress. Fluctuating stress is when all stresses have a
value that is non-zero.
Additionally, these waveforms can be characterized by two parameters:
maximum and minimum values

maximum : max
minimum : min
mean and alternating components

max + min
2

amplitude = max min
2
mean =

(6.1c)
(6.1b)

Additionally, stress range

= max min

(6.1a)

ratios of these values

Stress ratio : R=

min
max

(6.1d)

99

Amplitude ratio : A=

amplitude
mean

(6.1d)

stress is fully reversed: R=-1 and A=

stress is repeated R=0 and A=1
stress is fluctuating R and A are positive and

0R1

6.4.2.
Endurance Strength for Steel and Fatigue Strength
for Aluminum
Since cyclically loaded systems wear down parts over a period of time. It is good to know their
material properties as a function of stress and time. However it is also dependent on several
other factors such as size, temperature, surface finish, reliability, and the loading. These
contribute what is known as the endurance strength (or limit) for steels and the fatigue strength
(or limit) for aluminums.
Additionally, Steels and Aluminum fatigue wear act radically different. Steels have what is known
as a knee, which is at about 10 6 cycles, any loads that are under endurance strength will be
able to last forever. I used the quotation marks because that should be the case theoretically.
On the other hand, Aluminums have what is known as a fatigue strength which is similar and not
similar to the endurance strength of steels. It is similar in the sense that if the applied stress is
lower than the fatigue limit, that the part should be able to last till the fatigue limit which is at
5*10 8 cycles. Unlike steels, the aluminum part should fail shortly after that limit.
Uncorrected Fatigue Strength Estimates

100

Steels: Se =0.5*Sut for Sut < 200 kpsi (1400 MPa)

or
Se= 100 kpsi (700 MPa) for Sut >= 200 kpsi (1400
MPa)
Irons: Se=0.4*Sut for Sut < 60 ksi (400 MPa)
or
Se=24 kpsi (160 MPa) for Sut>= 200 kpsi (400 MPa)
Aluminum: Sf @5E8= 0.4*Sut for Sut< 48 kpsi (330 MPa) or
Sf @5E8=19 kpsi (130 MPa) for Sut>= 48 kpsi (330 MPa)
Corrected Fatigue Strength Estimates
Se=Cload*Csize*Csurf*Ctemp*Creliab*Se
Correction Factors for Fatigue Strength
Cload = 1 for Bending and Torsion, Cload = 0.7 for Axial loads
Csize =1 for d=< 0.3 in (8mm), Csize= 0.869*d-0.097 for 0.3 in< d=< 10 in,
Csize=1.189*d-0.097 for 8mm<d=<250mm

Csize=1 for axial loads

0.95d 2

d 2=0.0766d 2

A 95=

d =

Csurf= A*(Sut)b
use the chart provided on test, also if Csurf > 1.0, then Csurf = 1.0
for Creliab use chart
provided
for T=<450oC (840oF) Ctemp=1,
for 450oC<T=<550oC Ctemp=1-0.0058(T-450),
for 840oF<T=<1,020oF Ctemp=10.0032(T-840)
Approximate Strength at 1,000 cycles (Sm)
Bending and Torsion Sm = 0.9*Sut
Axial Loading Sm = 0.75*Sut
S-N Diagram
log(S(N))= log(a)+b*log(N), b=(1/z)*log(Sm/Se)
where z = log(N1)- log(N2) , log(a) = log (Sm)
- 3*b
Notch Sensitivity

1+
q=1/

Modified - Goodman Diagram equations

' a =S f

( ' m /S yc )+( ' a /S yc )=1

( ' m /S y )+( ' a / S y )=1
Fatigue Stress- Concentration Factors

Kf = 1+q(Kt -1)

final)
Safety Factor for Fully Reversed Stresses Nf = Sn /
Safety Factor for Fluctuating Stresses
Case 1:

Nf =

( ' m /S ut)+( ' a /S f )=1

if Kf |

|< Sy Kf m=Kf (which will be the case on

'

Sy
'
(1 a ), a constant m varies
'm
Sy

Case 2:

Sf
'
(1 m ), a varies m constant
'a
S ut
Case 3: N f =(S f S ut )/( ' aS ut + ' mS f ), a / m constant ratio
Nf =

case 4 on the test

Fracture Mechanics in Fatigue

K =

K
da
=A
dN

N failure =[af
6.5.

Case 4: There will be no

(1n/ 2)

cycles
n
n /2
n
]/[ A (1n/ 2)]

(1n/ 2)
i

Surface Failure

Surface Failure is due to a contacting wear failure, this means an entire system can fail or become
inoperable while only losing a few grams of worn material.

101

7.
Computer-Aided Design (CAD)
CAD is a tool that engineers use in order to create three dimensional parts (generally from a 2D
sketch).

There are several operations that can be used in order to create a 3D part.
A. Extrude

102

B.
C.
D.
E.

Revolve
Sweep
Loft
Engineering Tools: Fillet, Chamfer, Shell, Rib, Pattern, etc.

7.1.
Finite Element Analysis (FEA)
FEA is a software that is used to evaluate a part under a given loading and material. What the FEA
software will do is create a mesh (using tetrahedrals) that wrap around the entire part and as it is applying
the stresses, it will evaluate the forces and deformations along those connecting mesh lines. I have
worked with at least three FEA (Comsol, Creo Simulation, and SolidWorks Simulation) softwares and they
all seem to have a similar procedure once you have the model. Granted there are a few little tweaks here
and there, but its essentially:
1) Load the part

103

2) Activate the FEA software

3) Select a Study or Analysis

4) Define the material

104

5) Constrain a Fixed support

6) Select a face that will be loaded

105

7) Mesh the part

106

8) Run Simulation

9) Modify Result graphs

107

Generally during the results, the FEA software will give you the stress in terms of the Von Mises stress
(which is talked about in the previous section).
7.2.
Computer- Aided Manufacturing (CAM, via HSMWorks)
1) Load the Part
2) Activate the CAM software
3) Create a Yob
a) Specify the Coordinate System origin
b) Specify the stock material
4) Create a Face operation that will mill part to the create surface
5) Use one of the other 2D milling operations in order to create the part
6) Hole

108

8.
Electronics (Adv. Topic, covered more in EE 204 and ME 202)
Were no longer in the age where everything is driven by purely gears and cams. These days everything
is electronically driven/ controlled, and even though we as mechanical engineers can design and build all
the mechanical components we still need to drive the components using a combination of electronics and
programming. This is the reason why ME 310 is now including electronics and programming into the
curriculum because of the need in industry. Not to mention, this will make you a better engineer if you can
learn how to incorporate and include this into your design.
8.1.
Definitions
A. Electrons, and Positive versus Negative
a. Electricity is nothing more than the flow of electrons from a negatively
charged element to a positively charged electron
b. If you remember from chemistry it was found that if an element had too
many electrons it becomes negatively charged, versus an element who had one less
electron it becomes positively charged. This is the fundamental concept for electricity and
why things are either positively and/or negatively charged
B. Two fundamental methods for analyzing circuits
a. Conventional Method believes electricity flows from the + (positive)
terminal on a power source through the circuit to the - (negative) terminal.
b. Whereas, Electron-Flow actually deals with the actual flow electrons;
believe it or not but the electrons actually flow from the - negative terminal to the +
(positive) terminal.
c. Regardless of directionality, it is very important that you understand that
electrons are flowing from a higher potential to a lower potential.
C. Voltage Sources
a. Direct Current (DC)
i.
When the voltage is a constant Voltage and does not
fluctuate over a long period of time
b. Alternating Current (AC)
i.
When the voltage source is fluctuating, rhythmically,
between source positive voltage value and some negative voltage source.
ii.
However, the AC signal/ Voltage can also be
superimposed still fluctuate rhythmically but can either have a maximum and
minimum value that is either both positive or both negative.
c. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
i.
Is a cross between DC and AC. Where the signal is
fluctuating between a high value and a low value and nothing in between.
1. In many micro-controllers, such as
Arduino or Raspberry Pi, the high value is 5 Volts ( for arduinos but 3
Volts for Raspberry Pi) and the low value is 0 Volts.
a. *Warning, be careful
when connecting a higher voltage output to a lower voltage input.
Its like pumping more air than a balloon can handle and
eventually something is going to pop.

109

2. This output is usually coupled with a

FET, type of transistor that is discussed later, which allows for fast
switching and is ideal with a PWM signal.
ii.
The width can be electronically controlled via a microcontroller by adjusting the time the output is high or low depending on how the
system is coded.
1. Many Micro-controllers do not have the
capabilities to convert digital signals to analog without auxiliary
components and voltage sources. This is a work around.
2. PWM is also used a major way of
D. Charge (q)

controlling motors by adjusting how long the high value is.

{q or coulomb}
a. Charge is referred to the amount of electrons.

E. D. Current (I)

coulomb
sec

or

dq
}
dt

a. Current is the amount of charge flowing through a given Cross-sectional

area

F. Potential Voltage (V)

Joules
or
charge

J
}
q

a. Voltage is the ability for an electron to do work.

b. This is similar in gage pressure which tells the operator the difference in
pressure between what is in the chamber and atmosphere.
i.
This must be with respect to some 0 Voltage value.
Much like an airplane flying in the air must be with respect to either the ground or
sea-level
G. Resistance (

{ohms or

Jdt
}
qdq

a. Quality that tells us how much something resists the flow of electrons
given a specific voltage drop. It is found by using Ohms Law below:
b. Ohms Law (

R=

V
V
V =IRI =
)
I
R

{Watts or W}

H. Power (P)
i.

The amount of energy dissipated for a given amount of

time. Power dissipated is found by using the equations below:

1.
I.

P=IV =I 2R=

V
R

Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL)

a. Kirchhoffs Voltage law tells us that the sum of the voltages in a given
circuit is equal to the input voltage
b. Baseline is the Voltage in is equal to the voltage out

i.
J.

V power supplyV resistor 1V resistor 2...V resistor nth =0

Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL)

a. Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL) tells us that the sum of the current in a
loop is equal to the input current.

i.

i power supply =i loop1 +i loop2+...+i loopnth

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8.2.

Analog and Components

8.2.1.
Components: Power Sources, Switch, Resistor,
Potentiometers, Capacitors, Relays, Diodes, LEDs, Transistors (BJTs and FETs),
and Operational Amplifiers (Op Amps).
A. Power Source
a. DC Voltage Source
i.
These are the most common types of power sources.
They can range from batteries, desktop power supplies, or computer power
supplies.
b. DC Current Source
i.
There arent many common independent current
sources, granted regular power sources are designed to kick out a lot of current,
theyre designed to keep a constant voltage.
ii.
There are however dependent current sources, such as
bipolar junction transistors. These transistors are designed to kick out current;
however they can be designed to control voltage too.

Figure 7.7 - Examples of Power Sources

c. AC Power Source
i.
AC power sources are designed to output a fluctuating
voltage source.
ii.

Some of these devices use a fluctuating magnetic field

to create an AC source, such as an alternator.

iii.
Some can be made electronically using a PWM signal
and transistors.
B. Switch

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C. Resistor (in my case 1k ohm),

(Multisim)
(Real Life)
a. resistors are used to either dissipate heat, impede the flow of electrons,
circuit calibration, and/or signal manipulation.
b. Also used to create voltage drops for certain circuits.
c. Can also think of resistors as a kink in a normal garden hose or a water
wheel.

112

Figure 7.1 - Johnstons Water Analogy for a circuit

Figure 7.2 - Water Wheel Analogy for Resistance

D. Potentiometer (variable Resistor)

a. Used to create controlled Voltage drops and/or gain adjustments for

electronic controllers
b. You can imagine a Potentiometer as two resistors in series with a wire or

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wiper between them

i.

As you turn the knob, the wiper turns and it will decrease

the one side of the resistors, while increasing the resistance of the other side; the
voltage is then picked off the wiper
E. Capacitor (Also known as a Cap)

i.
b. Capacitors are used to store a charge, which subsequently causes a
voltage potential
i.

Much like a toilet tank stores a volume of water before it

is discharged
1. Note: Right one is polarized, stores a
bigger charge on one side, however the other side has very little or no
ability to store a charge (*caution, may cause the Cap to explode)
2. Note: The Negative lead of a Polarized
cap will have an arrow pointing to the anode

ii.

*Various types of Capacitors

as seen on a breadboard

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Figure 7.3 - Water Tank analogy of a capacitor

F. Relays
a. Relays are used for circuit separation. Especially for high current
operations that require massive amounts of current that could potentially destroy and
sensitive components.
b. Relays can also be used for switching systems on and off for low power
systems (i.e. microcontroller)

115

G. Diode
a. Diodes are one way valves that allows fluid/ electrons (or current) to flow
in only one direction. Theoretical they cant flow the opposite direction, but in reality they
could but at the cost of damaging the diode
b. Theyre made from joining two different types of materials: P-Type and NType materials. The most common base material for both P and N type materials is
Silicon.
1. Silicon has 4 electrons in its valence
shell and is normally an electrical insulator.
ii.
When Silicon is doped with Boron, it creates the P-type
of material.
1. P-type of material is missing an electron
in its valence shell, ergo its known as the hole material. This allows
electrons to fill the hole when the applied correctly
iii.
When Silicon is doped with Phosphorous, it creates the
N-type of material.
1. N-type of material has an extra electron
in its valence shell, ergo its known electron material. This material has
extra electrons and under the right conditions, the electrons leave the
N-type material to fill in the holes in the P-type material.

Figure - Diode Circuit Diagram

116

Figure 7.4 - Diodes in a nutshell

H. Light Emitting Diodes (or LEDs)

Light Emitting Diodes (or LEDs) work the same way as regular diodes, but the electrons emit light as the
electrons cross from the N to the P material. However, LEDs consume more power than regular diodes
and at the same time they can only pass a certain amount of power. If the power is too little, the electrons
will not pass through; and if the power is too high, the LED can explode. There are too long wires that
come out of the LED, the longest is the Anode and is supposed to be connected to the positive terminal of
a power source (or closest side to a positive power source).

Figure - LED Diagram and terminals

I.

Transistor

Transistors are amplifying devices that take an input signal and magnifies the output either by voltage or

117

current. There are two main types of transistors: Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) or Field Effect
Transistor. Both of these types of transistors use a combination of P- and N-type of material, as talked
about in the diode section.

Figure 7.5 - Transistor Fundamental and structure

a. Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

i.
As shown in figure 7.5, BJTs use a stacking
combination of the P- and N- type of material. There are 2 simple types: NPN and
PNP
1. NPN
a. Can only be used with a
positive source
b. Apply positive voltage to
the base in order for the transistor to turn on
2. PNP
a. Can only be used with a
Negative Source
b. Apply negative voltage
to the base in order for the transistor to turn on
ii.
BJTs have 3 main components: Base, Collector, and
Emitter
1. Base
a. The base is where there
input signal is connected.
b. The base for BJTs can
consume a fair amount of current. Be cautious when wiring the
transistor.
2. Collector
a. The collector is where

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you connect to the power sources, respectively to a positive or

negative source.
b. The Collector is the part
of the transistor that generates the most amount of heat, this
may need a heatsink to prevent the transistor from exploding.
3. Emitter
a. The emitter is generally
connected closest to ground (or some load for class B amplifier).
iii.
The main way BJTs work are by inputting a small
amount current into the base in order to cause a large amount of current to travel
from the emitter to the collector. The base essentially creates a bridge between
the emitter and collector.
1. You can also think of this as a valve in
some piping system. A small change in the valve's position, creates a
large change in position of the valve, allowing large amounts of fluid to
go through the pipe. See Figure 7.6 for a better idea.
iv.
Two other things that must be accounted for are the
Cutoff and Saturation
1. Cut-off
a. Is the amount of current
needed to get the flow of electrons going. Once it has exceeded
that level, the current can then flow from collector to emitter.
2. Saturation
a. The total amount of
current the transistor can output is dependent on the gain of the
transistor, temperature, and the input current.
b. Field Effect Transistor (FET)
i.
FETs also use a combination of P- and N- Type of
material.
ii.

FETs dont need current, just need to apply a voltage to

the gate in order for the transistor to work.

1. With that said, the gate is separated
from the channel by a dielectric, similar to a capacitor.
iii.
FETs are like solenoids, they either turn on or off, there
is no proportional control.
iv.
See Figure 7.6 for a better understanding how they
operate.
1. The Gate is connected to the input.
2. The Drain is connected to the power
sources.
3. The Sink is connected to ground, or
closest to ground.

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Figure 7.6 - Transistor Operation in a nutshell

J. Operational Amplifiers (Op Amps)

Op Amps have several configurations that can either be used for signal conditioning or power
amplification. However the output from the Op Amps cannot exceed the power sources.
a. Op Amp-Single (LM 741)
i.

ii.
b.

120

c. Op Amp-Quad (LM324), four LM 741s in one

d.

equiv

K. Breadboard
a. The Colored columns on the side are connected vertically
from the top of the board to the bottom of the board.
b. The rows inside are connected horizontally.
c. However the break in the middle separates the set of rows
from the left from the rows on the right.

8.2.2.
Most Important Circuit: Voltage Divider
Voltage Divider can either be used as a sensing circuit (i.e. tachometer in your vehicle) or a Controller
circuit (i.e. the joystick on your video game controller). The probe that is connected between the two
resistors is where you use for sensing (see figures below). This circuit would then be connected to either

121

Voltage Follower (Buffer), Instrumental Amplifier, or micro-controller; which would be used for further
signal conditioning.
A. Voltage Divider (Using two resistors)

a.

V divider =

R2
V
( R1 + R2 ) supply

b.
B. Voltage Divider (Using a Potentiometer)

a.

122

b.

V divider =

R2
V
( R1 + R2 ) supply

(The equation remains the same)

8.2.2.1.
Wheatstone Bridge
Wheatstone Bridges are simply two sets of voltage dividers, one voltage divider is used as a set point and
the other set of voltage divider is used as a sensor circuit. There should be no direct connection between
the two voltage dividers. The 2 points in the middle should be connected through a signal conditioning
circuit or microcontroller.
8.2.3.

Most Commonly used Op Amp configurations

8.2.3.1.
Differential Op Amp
This is the original configuration of an Operational Amplifier with NO feedback. Since there is no
feedback, there is absolutely no proportional output control. So depending on which input is greater, the
output will be associated that power supply. Meaning if the non-inverting input is greater, the output will be
what the Positive supply is; and vice versa for the inverting input and the negative supply.

8.2.3.2.
Voltage Follower
Theyre used to output a voltage without impeding (or sucking up current) from the previous circuit. This is
ideal if youre using a micro-controller, this buffer will help protect the microcontroller if there are any
damaging back-emf signals/ currents. Additionally, microcontrollers can only send so much current (they
are more for generating voltages, and currents), therefore a buffer will output the same voltage or signal
and be able to send higher currents.

V =V out *,

*as long as the voltage is in between the supply voltages

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8.2.3.3.
Non-Inverting Gain Op Amp
Some signals may be very small and not easily picked up by other components or microcontrollers,
therefore we need to boost the signal. There are 2 main types (Op Amp configurations) of boosting a
signal by using a Non-inverting Op Amp and Inverting Op Amp. The non-inverting has a weird gain that
has to be taken into account, the signal is also a little less stable compared to the inverting. The
inverting gain is easier to interpret and is extremely stable; however, it does invert the voltage and thus
needs a positive and negative power supply.

V out =(

R 1+ R 2
R
)V =(1+ 2 )V
R1
R1

Non- Inverting Op Amp configuration(s)

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8.2.3.4.
Inverting Gain Op Amp (Analog
Proportional Controller)
The inverting Op Amp multiplies the input voltage, and then negates it. If the input voltage is 5V and the
gain is 10, the output voltage is then 5*10*(-1) = -50 V.

V out (s) Rfb

=
V ( s) Rinput

8.2.3.5.
Summing Op Amp
The Summing Op Amp is a modification of the Inverting Gain Op Amp. The Summing Op Amp takes in
multiple input signals and adds them together, then negates the result. Very similar to the Inverting Gain
Op Amp.

V out (s)=

R fb
[V 1 ( s)+ V 2 (s)], as long as R 1=R2=R
R

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8.2.3.6.
Difference Op Amp
The Difference Amplifier is a combination of a non-inverting and an inverting op amp, and a summing op
amp. The Difference amplifier amplifies the difference between 2 voltages. However, the closer the
voltages are to one another, in the millivolt range, the signal becomes a little less stable, but for larger
differences(at least 1+ V difference range), they work really well.

If R3=R1R 4=R 2 ,

2
V out = R (V 2V 1)
1

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8.2.3.7.
Instrumentation Op Amp
Instrumental is a little more complicated, but offers even more stability and precision of a simple
Difference Op Amp. Additionally, an Instrumentation Op Amp is a combination of 3 Op Amps.

8.2.3.8.

Active Low Pass Op Amp (Analog

Integral Controller)

127

V out (s)
C 1s
1
=
=
V ( s)
R input
R inputC 1s

8.2.3.9.
Derivative Controller)

Active High Pass Op Amp (Analog

V out (s) Rfb

=
=RfbC 1s
V ( s)
1
C 1s

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8.2.3.10.
Analog PID Configuration
Simplified Analog PID using Op Amps, uses all Op amps above (inverting op amp, Low-pass/ integrator,
high-pass/ differentiator, and summing op amp)

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8.2.4.
Sensors
Sensors are how we describe the real world to computer. Or how we can monitor minor fluctuations that
can be much motions on a much grander scale (i.e. earthquake sensors). The following are a handful of
sensors that can (or will) be used during your designs.
8.2.4.1.
Rotational Sensors: Potentiometers and
Encoders (Abs or Incr)
There are mainly two types of rotational sensors: Potentiometers and Encoders.
Potentiometers have a wiper that is connected the main shaft or knob. As the knob rotates so will the
wiper; the wiper is a contact that is runs along the resistor (pins 1 and 3) which will generate a different
resistance depending on the angular position. Can either be used as a set-point for analog system or a
feedback sensor.
Encoders are discs that have multiple rings with equally spaced out notches, allowing something to pass
through the gap (i.e. magnetic field or light). As the disk spins light will pass through at different intervals;
the different times in which light passes through will either tell the angular displacement, angular velocity,
or the direction. Additionally, there are two types of encoders: Absolute and Incremental. Absolute will
keep track of the angular position, even when the machine (and sensor) are turned off. However, most
systems will use the incremental since theyre easier to manufacture, program, and implement.

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8.2.4.2.
Linear Sensors: Potentiometers, Light
Distance Sensors (or LDR)
Linear Sensors are a little harder to come by due to either manufacturing and costs. However there are
some below.
Linear potentiometers act the same way as a rotational potentiometer; in which the wiper (except it moves
linearly). But the mechanism works exactly the same.
Light Distance Sensors are a tad more difficult to use and can be used in very limited activities. There are
light intensity sensors which convert the intensity of a light source to a change in resistance; which a
computer will then interpret the change in resistance to a voltage, then to a distance using a precalibrated equation.
The other type of Light Distance Sensor (Lidar) use a laser to bounce light off a distance target, then back
to a sensor that will take the amount of time between emitting the light to receiving the light to determine
the distance that the target is at.

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8.2.4.3.
Strain Gage and Force Transducers
Strain Gages and Force Transducers convert a mechanical load or force into a mechanical strain. Strain
Gages work on the simple principle of poisson's ratio. As you apply an axial load, the wires in the strain
gage stretch but as theyre expanding in the longitudinal (axial) direction, the transverse direction will
shrink; the ratio in how much the transverse direction changes with respect to the longitudinal is Poissons
Rato. So to recap, as an axial load is applied, the Gage stretches, the cross-sectional area shortens
which limits the amount of current passing through the wires.
There are two types of Force Transducers, one that works on the same principle as a strain gage and the
other uses the piezo-resistivity properties of some materials such as amorphous silicon. As a force acts
on the amorphous silicon, the orbitals that makes up the atom compress together, which then changes
the electrical properties (or a materials electrical resistance). There are a tad more complicated things
that go on, but these are the basics of how those types of force transducers work.

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8.2.4.4.
Pressure Sensors
Pressure sensors are used for both fluids and gases (check the sensors data sheet first). Pressure
sensors have a diaphragm in the middle of the chip, this diaphragm has an embedded wheatstone
bridge circuit on the surface. As the diaphragm stretches the piezoresistive properties of the diaphragm
change on either side of the diaphragm (due to bending stresses). This change in resistance on either
side of the chip will be sensed using the wheatstone bridge and will help to determine the loading on the
sensor. The chip is laid out below. The first pin has a slight notch on the pin itself to help determine which
is the first pin. The voltage difference between pins 2 and 4 are in the millivolt range; therefore the voltage
difference must be amplified first in order to significantly determine a change in pressure. This description
was for analog pressure sensors only, digital pressure sensors work on a slightly different principle.

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8.2.4.5.
Temp Sensors: Thermocouples,
Thermopiles, Thermistors, and RTDs
Although we will not need any temperature based sensors for our projects, I thought it would be best to let
you know how the most common temperature sensors work. The most common are the Thermocouples.
Thermocouples use what is known as the Seebeck effect. If you have two dissimilar metals attached and
a temperature gradient between the two connection points, this will generate a voltage (or a current inside
the wires, however you want to see it).
Thermopiles use a known amount of thermocouples in a known square area, which allows you to
calculate the average temperature across a small area. These are mainly used in an area where you
have radiation heat transfer.

134

The second well known temperature sensor is the thermistor. The thermistor works very similarly to a
strain gage, as the glass capsule is heated around a wire. The glass capsule expands and compresses
the wire, which decreases the cross-sectional area, this in turns limits the amount of current passing
through the cross sectional area.
RTDs are resistor temperature dependent chips. These have a known value of current at a specific
temperature and they bleed a small amount of current (in the form of heat) to the atmosphere. As the
temperature increases, the temperature decreases the amount of current is inhibited. These are more
used in relative temperature applications or convective flows.

135

8.2.5.
Actuators
Any type of mechanism in which you apply a voltage in order to generate a mechanical movement.
8.2.5.1.
DC Brushed Motor
DC Brushed Motors are the simplest and easiest to implement. They simply require a potential difference
(voltage) across the leads; the voltage can either come from an analog or digital source. The DC
Brushed Motor has 3 main components when it comes to the circuit diagram: Motor (armature)
Resistance (Ra), Motor Inductance (La), and a Back-EMF. The resistance is due to wire inside the motor.
The inductance is because a motor is simply a loop of wire spinning in a magnetic field, which produces
an impedance to the current, and back emf is when the motor creates a voltage that minimizes the
applied. The back-emf helps the motor run cooler since it doesnt need as much current to run.
However, if the motor is operating near stall (not moving) and the response is non-crucial, we can model
the motor with simply the motor resistance.
Another key component are the Torque vs Speed Curve. Since Torque times angular speed is Power
(joules/sec), this is directly related to electrical power Voltage times Current. The manufacturer should
supply this information. At a given Voltage the motor can operate with a certain amount of torque and
angular speed, as you increase the voltage, the torque and angular speed will increase proportionally; as
shown below.

8.2.5.2.
DC Brushless Motor
A Brushless DC Motor is more efficient , lower maintenance, lower wear, and lower power. However the
circuit that drives a Brushless DC Motor is a little more complicated. A brushless DC motor also requires
more power and a digitally controlled sequence.

136

137

In the figure above, middle coils is on and the top and bottom are off.
8.2.5.3.
Servo
Servos are positionally controlled devices that have coded inputs. They have several advantages such
as: prepackaged gearbox, high torque outputs, relatively quick responses, and accurate/ reactive position
control. There are some slight downsides such as: they can use large amounts of current (especially
digital and continuous), the position is encoded using PWM, and because of the packaging there is no
access to the feedback potentiometer.
8.2.5.3.1.
Analog Position
Controlled
Analog are by far the easiest Servos to use. They use an encoded PWM signal; the general period for the
PWM signal is 4 milliseconds. They come in several modes, 90 o or 180o degree rotations; however the
middle is somewhere around 1.5 milliseconds on high (out of the 4 milliseconds). There is a downside of
signal contamination if the wires are too close to another fluctuating source.
The operator creates a new setpoint either by a potentiometer connected to a microcontroller or digitally
enter in the new setpoint into the microcontroller. The microcontroller then sends a PWM signal that is
proportional to the new set point (i.e. 0o has a duty cycle of 0% or a 0 millisecond pulse, or 45 o has a duty

138

cycle of 50% or 2 milliseconds pulse), to the servo. The servo then compares the incoming signal to the
one coming from the feedback sensor, the difference or error is then sent to the PID Controller and
Amplifier which then sends power to move the DC Brushed Motor until the two signals are equal and the
difference between the signals becomes zero.

8.2.5.3.2.

Digital Position

Controlled
There are digitally controlled servos, which are less likely to be contaminated by another source.
However, they use even greater amounts of current, but on the plus side they just require a digital signal
or digital value in order for the system to function properly.

139

8.2.5.3.3.
Continuous
The continuous servos use the same package and input signal, but they have no feedback signal to help
control the motor. So the motor will turn fully on in either one direction or the other. Meaning if the signal is
less than the middle set point (~1.5 - 2 milliseconds) the motor will turn one direction. Or if the signal is
greater than the middle set point (~1.5 - 2 milliseconds) the motor will turn the other direction.

140

8.2.5.4.
Stepper
Steppers are another common motor that have a lot of potential. Steppers are similar to Brushless in the
way they operate; however, they are designed to have higher holding torques, programing is much
simpler than a brushless, only one coil is on at a time, and they step from one angle to the next simply
by turning on the next set of coils.

8.2.5.5.
Linear Actuator
Linear Actuators are simply DC (or in some cases AC) motors connected to a gear train, and then to a
rack gear (a linear gear and not radial). Linear Actuators are perfect for converting a radial motion into a
linear motion. This works really well since DC motors can operate at high RPMs, and with the proper gear
ratio/ train they can output a high amount of force in a small displacement. One other key component
compared to other linear actuators, is that the output force is linear and constant no matter how much the
rack gear has extended.

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Heres a link to a very interesting one: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HN1xSIgnwDA

8.2.5.6.
Solenoids
Solenoids are another type of linear actuator that can output high amounts of force and have a quick
response time. However they use massive amounts of current, the force output is nonlinear with the
output displacement, and have very minimal output displacement (or stroke length).

142

8.3.
Digital
In the recent years, digital circuitry and coding have made leaps and bounds. To that end, digital circuitry
and programming has made the mechatronics and control systems fields much easier (see PID example
in Section 9.4). Instead of having to a multiple circuits in order to either condition a signal or move a
motor; the circuits can be replaced with a few lines of code. Additionally, most of those other circuits
would require two power supplies (a positive and negative, since not all power supplies have them).
8.3.1.
Micro-Controller: Arduino
The Micro-Controller we are going to focus on are Arduinos. Arduinos have a multiple of boards available
and are practically sold everywhere either online or offline. But the main reason why we are focusing on
Arduinos is that they have a DAC unit already embedded. A DAC (or Data- Acquisition) allows the
microcontroller to take an analog signal (anywhere between 0 - 5 volts, for arduinos) and convert it into a
digital signal (on-off, 1s and 0s, etc). Its the same thing as our senses (sight, smell, touch, hearing, etc); it
allows the microcontroller to process the outside world.
Below is an example of the Arduino programming layout. There are generally three main sections to a
code. The first area is where you can initialize any global variables or functions. This means that the
variables can be used anywhere in the code. The second area (or the void setup) is a special area for
both initializing special functions and/or variables. These special functions include (but not limited to)
initializing communication between the Arduino and the computer, as well as setting up pins for either
input or output. The last area is the meat and potatoes of the code; this area is where you will write your
conditional statements, for loops, and embedded do-while loops, as well as taking in data and/or output
data. The code that you will write is what will determine how the arduino will function and respond.

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Additional Information, check out Arduino Playground:http://playground.arduino.cc/

8.3.1.1.

Quick explanation of some functions

Arduino Function

Details (for extra help http://playground.arduino.cc/ )

setup(){ *insert code*}

Use to initialize serial comm., initialize variables, or pinModes

loop(){ *insert code*}

Do-While Loop - continues to cycle till end condition is met

millis()

returns current time in seconds

float variable

assigning a decimal number for a variable

int variable

assigning an integer/ whole number for a variable

unsigned long variable

assigning memory for large numbers like time (no negative #s)

map(x1, x2 , y1, y2)

maps range x onto range y. I.e. 0-5V between 0-1023 digits

abs(variable)

taking the absolute value of a variable

pinMode(variable, output or input)

setting a variable as either an input or an output

analogRead(variable)

reads outside voltages & assigns 0-1023 based on 0-5 Volts

analogWrite(Pin,variable)

outputs a PWM signal based on duty cycle, 0-255, 255= 100%

digitalWrite(Pin,variable)

outputs a PWM signal based on duty cycle, 0-255, 255= 100%

attachInterrupt(value, f(x),Ris../Fal..)

turns on interrupter (hall-effect, photogate, etc.), value is special pin

designation(check plygnd), check for RISING = 5V or FALLING =0V

detachInterrupt(value,f(x),
Ris../Fal..)

turns off interrupter (comes in handy for doing calculations)

if(argument){ *conditional code* }

if statements allows conditional things to happen

Serial.begin( baud rate)

allows communication between computer and microcontroller.

an Uno has a baud rate of 9600.

Serial.print( text)

Prints text or numbers in the serial comm. monitor

Serial.println(text)

After printing text or numbers in serial monitor. Creates new line

delay (seconds)

delay a loop before a command or before the loop refreshes

HIGH | LOW

HIGH = 5 V and LOW = 0 V

pow(exponent,variable)

raising a variable or constant to some exponent

sqrt(variable)

calculates the square root of a number

variable1 = variable2

Variable 1 gets Variable 2 (value) (Assignment Operator)

144

variable1 == variable2

Variable 1 is equal to Variable 2

variable1 != variable2

Variable1 is not equal to Variable2

&&

and

||

or

not

sin(variable), cos(variable),
tan(variable)

returns calculated values. Input and output is in radians

// comments after slashes

single line comment, ignored by program

/*

area for comments

*/

Multi-line comment, ignored by program.

8.3.1.2.
Sample Codes
Below are some sample codes that should give you an idea of how to code a system. Additionally, all the
codes below require a potentiometer(s) as an input (or set point). See Arduino picture below as an idea
how to implement a potentiometer. Also notice some of the other features on the Arduino, such as which
pins have the capabilities to produce a PWM signal (pins 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11); this is important if you plan on
using the arduino to drive motors. One last thing to note are the two ports on the left hand side, the big
gray one is a USB B port. The small black one is a small 2.1mm center positive barrel jack, meaning that
the Arduino can run off of a small 9V battery.

145

Figure 7.1 - How to hook up the Potentiometer to the Arduino for uni- and bi-directional codes for one
motor.
8.3.1.2.1.
dt code (Uses: elapsed
time and dt for PID controller)

146

8.3.1.2.2.
Pulses, used for angular velocity)

RPM Counter (Counting

147

148

8.3.1.2.3.

Another RPM Counter

149

8.3.1.2.4.
Before motor driving
circuits: Competing Voltage Sources

Connecting the 5 V source from the arduino board and another voltage source will only burn out
the arduino board. So DO NOT HOOK UP YOUR CIRCUIT LIKE THE FIGURE ABOVE!

150

8.3.1.2.5.
circuits: Common Ground

Before motor driving

As shown in the figure above, make sure that the ground (GND) is connected between the
arduino and the external power source. This puts them on the same 0 Voltage reference.
Another way to think of this is that your arduino is speaking italian and your power source is
speaking japanese; the wire that links the two grounds, is the translator. Without the translator,
they will not know what the other is trying to say.

151

8.3.1.2.6.

Uni-directional Code

for Class A (A& D) or Analog Servo

152

153

This is a digital class A amplifier that works with the code above. Main difference is no resistor and an NChannel MOSFET rather than a NPN BJT.

154

The code that drives the class A amplifier circuits can also drive an analog and continuous servo.
However you may need to make adjustments on the mapping of the outputSignal line, since most
servos use a smaller range, you may need to change the range from 0 to 255, to something like 140 to
240. Experiment with the values till you get the proper response.

155

8.3.1.2.7.
Code (from arduino examples)

Simple Digital Servo

156

This same layout that was used for the analog and continuous, can be used for the digital servos. The
main difference lies in the coding portion, which is based on the sending a digital value to the servo to
have it compare the feedback signal versus sending an analog PWM signal to compare with the feedback
signal.

157

8.3.1.2.8.

Bi-directional Code for

H - Bridge

158

159

The circuit is a digital H-bridge circuit that works with the code above.

160

The circuit above is a digital class B circuit that runs off the same code.
Code controlling multiple motors at once

161

162

8.3.1.2.9.
1 motor with bidirectional control

Sample PID (Position) -

163

164

Above is a circuit for a simple PID position control

165

8.3.1.2.10.

PID Sample (RPMs) - 1

motor unidirectionally

166

167

The circuit above is for a RPM PID controller. It should be noted that this was for an RPM controller lab in
which there would be an encoder disc mounted to the end of the motor shaft (a disc with a bunch of radial
notches); additionally the black little piece is supposed to represent a small photogate. As the disc rotates,
when an open section of the disc is in between the photogate, light will pass through and the photogate
will record the pulse. As the disc continues to rotate, when the solid piece of the disc passes in between
the photogate, the photogate will record a 0V.
The gray wire will be connected on the photogate and the digital pin 2; digital pin 2 and 3 are designed for
the counting pulses and can be used for RPM control. The function that is used in conjunction with

168

counting pulses is called the attach.interrupt function. The arduino playground has much more detailed
information on the interrupt function.

8.3.2.
Quick Matlab Codes for programmers
1. Vector [1 2 3 4] or [1,2,3,4] , set of variables, numbers, equation
2. Creating a Polynomial
p=poly([1 2 3 4]) = [1 2 3 4] in reality,

s 3 +2 s 2+3 s+ 4
3. Multiplying two monomials y=conv([1 0],[2 1]) (s)*(2s+1)
4. Finding Roots y=roots ([1 25 ])=1.000 2.000 i
5. Partial Fraction Expansion (PFE), Test it to be sure
>>num=32; den=[1 12 32 0]; [r,p,k]=residue(num,den)
{r=numerators,p=poles,k= X factor}
6. Solving differential eqns, y=dsolve(D2y-y=0,y(0)=-1,Dy(0)=2)
=exp(t)/2-3/(2*exp(t))
7. Plotting on an xy graph ezplot(y,[xmin xmax ymin ymax])
*if you dont fill in the stuff after the comma then it will assume automatically
8. Creating Variables to use in symbolic math,
>>syms t a b
9. Converting things into the Laplace domain
>>laplace (t^2)
ans = 2/s^3
10. Using the Inverse Laplace
>>ilaplace (s/(s^2+4))
ans = cos(2*t)
11. Creating Transfer Functions
>>num=([1])
>>den=([1 2 5])
>>F=tf(num,den) or F=tf([1],[1 2 5])
ans =

1
s +2 s+5
2

12. If forcing Function is a unit Impulse

>>impulse(F)
You get a graph of your transfer function with an impulse input function
13. If the forcing Function is a unit step
>>step(F)
You get a graph of your transfer function with a step input function
14. Gathering data on your step input response (i.e. settling time, peak time, overshoot %)
>>stepinfo(F)
15. Finding the natural frequency and the damping ratio of your transfer function
>>[wn,zeta]=damp(F)
16. Finding the Poles and Zeros of your transfer function
>>p=pole(F), z=zero(F);
17. Plotting the poles and zeros on the root locus
>>pzplot(F); or >>rlocus(F);
18. Plotting multiple graphs on one graph
>> hold on

169

 to turn off the multiple graphs type >>hold off

19. Declaring a damping ratio and Wn on root locus
>>z=0.2 (or some number); wn= 15 (or some number); sgrid(z,wn);
20. Finding K @ selected points on the root locus
>>[k,poles]=rlocfind(F)
21. Finding how much gain K the system can take before going unstable (not all cases)
>>K=margin(F)
21. Plotting K & feedback on the root locus via unity feedback
>>pzplot(feedback(G*K,1)
22. Control Design Toolbox on transfer function F
>>SISOtool (F)
23. State-Space response
>>sys= ss(A,B,C,D)
>>feedback(G,H)

170

8.4.
Motor Driving Circuit
I had students constantly ask me how to build motor driving circuits that I practically left it up on my
office white board. There are 5 different types (that I know of and can build), and 2 out of the 5 have to
be driven by a computer or some PWM signal. There are more in depth materials on each of these
circuits but I will go over them briefly and what you need to know for each.

8.4.1.

Analog - Unidirectional Motor Controller Circuit (Class A

amplifier)

The is second most basic motor driving circuit, although there is more analysis that needs to be
down. This circuit is by far the most robust when it comes to driving motors and has more
proportional control when controlling both high torque and precision motors. Additionally, this
type of amplifier can use both analog and digital inputs.
General Steps:
Firstly, find the data sheet for the motor. Determine maximum current (or stall current) at a
specific operating Voltage.
Secondly, apply Kirchhoff's Voltage Law to determine the motors resistance.
V= I stall/ R motor R motor = V/ I stall
Thirdly, Look up transistor gain chart. Use the I stall as I c on the chart. Check other data while
you're at it like how much current the base and collector can handle.
Fourthly, Use the Governing equations to determine RBase to generate enough current so the
motor does not stall.
1.

i stall = hfe* ibase

171

a.
2.
3.

hfe is the DC gain which can be found using the transistors chart

on the data sheet, as shown in the figure below.

RBase*ibase= Vsource - VBE
a.
VBE ~ .7 V, Voltage necessary to turn on transistor
RMotor*istall = Vsource (- V transistor, can be neglected)
a. V Transistor is the voltage drop across the transistor when its fully on.

172

Class A (analog) amplifier being controlled by an Arduino

173

Class A (analog) amplifier using pure circuitry components

174

For high current applications, we can place the transistors in parallel to prevent the transistors from
overheating and prevent the breadboard from melting.

175

8.4.2.
Digital - Unidirectional Motor Controller Circuit
This is the easiest motor controlling circuit to build and implement since there arent really any equations
that need to be used. However there are several things that should be checked upon such as the
maximum Drain current (which is the equivalent of the collector current), Breakdown voltages for the gate
and drain. The drain current is how much electron flow the transistor can take before breaking down
thermally, mechanically, and electrically. The breakdown voltages are similar to electrical pressure, and
there is only so much pressure that several of the components can take. Other than that, the circuit is
practically plug and play. It should additionally noted that there are other things we are neglecting such as
the charging and discharging time constants that are associated with FETs, however since were dealing
slower moving systems and close to the motors stall; we can neglect these for now.

176

177

Class A (digital) amplifier. Main different is using a N-channel MOSFET instead of a NPN BJT; which
means that the digital class A amplifier REQUIRES a PWM input signal.

For high current applications, we can not only create parallel class amplifiers, but we can also place
transistors in parallel in the same rows in order to generate more current pathways, which increases the
transistors life and decreasing potential problems due to overheating.
8.4.3.
Analog - Bidirectional Motor Controller Circuit (H-Bridge)
Highly recommend building other motor driving circuits over this one. This circuit is highly
temperamental. It should be noted that this system does have excellent proportional control but requires a
fair amount of electrical components and they can be temperamental if not installed correctly. With that
said, we will limit our focus on the other two types of bi-directional controllers: Class B amplifier and
Digital H- Bridge.

178

8.4.4.
Analog/ Digital - Bidirectional Motor Controller Circuit
(Class B amplifier)
The easiest bidirectional motor controller circuit to build is a class B amplifier. Although there is a digital
version to this, and requires a little more programing. I emphasizing how to build this one since it can
either be used via analog circuitry and digital circuitry. It should be noted that class B amplifier that are
used in conjunction with motors require both a positive and negative power sources; which arent hard to
build, see power sources in the beginning of the electronics section. Additionally, since this circuit uses
BJTs they have excellent proportional control. You can also make duplicates of the components in the
dotted region and put them in parallel to help with the current load.
Governing Equations for analyzing half the class B (apply to NPN first, and then PNP):
1. VB = VBB - IB*RBB = VBE + IMotor*RMotor
a. VBE = the voltage it takes to turn on the transistor between base and
emitter.
2. IB = IMotor/ (hfe + 1)
a. hfe is the DC motor gain constant, check analog unidirectional for better
help.
3. IC = (hfe * IMotor)/ (hfe +1)
a. Ic is a combination of the current going through the motor and current in
the base.
4. Vsource - VCE (SAT) - IMotor*RMotor = 0
a. VCE (SAT) is the Voltage drop across the transistor when it is fully saturated
(cannot supply any more current).

This is very similar to the steps that were used in the analog Uni-directional amplifier.

179

Above is an analog class B amplifier, this can be used with a potentiometer or digital signal

Class B amplifier working with two power supplies (analog, also using BJT amplifiers)

180

Above is if you have two signals from an arduino. Must merge two signals first.

Above is a diagram of how to hook up an arduino to a digital class B amplifier. However, the digital output
pins on the arduino is a pulsing voltage between 0 and 5V; therefore the positive and negative motor
driver pins must be merged together and then output. Additionally, the class B requires a positive and
negative source in order to operate; the diagram gives a brief example on how to combine two 9 V

181

batteries to produce positive and negative voltage source. Lastly, make sure that you connect the ground
from the arduino board to the ground on the new power source.

8.4.5.
Digital - Bidirectional Motor Controller Circuit ( H Bridge)
Very similar to digital unidirectional motor controller circuit. This circuit is almost plug and play. If you
recall from the different types of MOSFETs, P channels generally are on until you apply a voltage and
then they turn off. Whereas N channels are generally off until you apply a voltage to turn them on.
Therefore we will then be applying voltages to either turn on the FETs or to turn them off. Additionally, if
the gate voltages are close to the + V source you may need to apply a voltage divider circuit in order for the
circuit to work properly; by creating a voltage difference between the gate of the MOSFET and the + V
source. The voltage divider circuit will also help with decreasing any electrical noise that will turn on the
MOSFETs prematurely. Be cautious since FETs hate analog voltage and if applied can cause the
MOSFET to explode.

Circuit Diagram and quick explanation of how an H-Bridge works

182

183

Electron/ Current Flow of a working H-Bridge (Left side is ON and right side is OFF)

Circuit Layout for a Digital H-Bridge

184

For high current applications, we place several of the transistors in parallel while theyre in the
same rows. This will help with decreasing the current running through each of the transistors as
well as the heat being generated; which in turn will help with increasing the longevity of the
transistors. This parallel system can work with ever how many spots you have available on your
breadboard. However it is advised that you still try to offset them on other rows to help with
decreasing the heat being generated in such a small area.

185

8.5.
Troubleshooting a circuit
Troubleshooting is one of the most important skills that you can acquire while in college (or
interning). Physical (or Mechanical) systems can be pretty obvious to troubleshoot; i.e. replacing
broken components, etc. Unlike troubleshooting a physical system, electrical systems are a tad
trickier and require experience with circuits, but I will give you a few little tricks in helping
diagnosing a circuit.
8.5.1.
Tools for Troubleshooting circuits
There are generally two tools we use for troubleshooting circuits: Multimeter and Oscilloscope.
The multimeter can be used either to check for voltages or currents; but be careful, if hooked up
incorrectly the multimeter may become damaged. Just keep in mind that voltmeters are in
parallel with the circuit; amp-meters are in series with the circuit. The other type of diagnostic
tool is an O-Scope. The O-Scope can only check for voltages. The difference between the OScope and the multimeter is the ability to check the voltages over a period time; which comes in
handy if the circuit or motor is exhibiting odd behavior.

8.5.2.
Open or short
The most common type of problem when dealing with any circuitry is either an Open or a Short.
Both of these are VERY different, yet lots of people confuse the two. However you should two
key concepts that are very fundamental to circuitry.
The first concept is that there needs to be a connection between the positive source and the
negative source (or ground, GND). This connection allows current flows from the positive to
negative, and current is the component that does work, without current no work can be done.

186

When there is a break in the wire or there is no connection between the positive and negative
terminal, this is called an OPEN. This is can be hazardous to sensitive components such as
transistors, also dangerous if you reconnect them the two ends while the circuit is still live.
The second concept is that there needs to be a current-limiting resistor (or simply a resistor).
Without a resistor, the power supply will try to expend the maximum current physically possible (
which can cause the power supply to overheat, explode, melt, or create fires at the power
supply or anything down wind); this problem is called a short. A short will expend massive
amounts of current which can damage any components in its path. This can be determined by
using a multimeter.

8.5.3.
Misbehaving Op Amps
Op Amps can be a little misbehaving when hooked up incorrectly. Two main ways that Op Amps
can misbehave are either the power supplies are hooked up in correctly or missing feedback
connection.
Op Amps can only output a voltage that is in between the supply ranges. Therefore if you have
a +5 Volts and a -5 Volts, do not expect to +15 Volts out when using a gain amplifier; the output
can only be between +5 and -5 Volts( actually it will be a little shy of those two numbers). Using
a multimeter, check to make sure that the Op Amp can supply between those two ranges, if not
then the supplies are not hooked up or replace the Op Amp.
The other thing to check is to make sure there is a feedback connection. Natural Op Amps
without a feedback will output voltages that match the supplies. So if the inverting input (the -,
minus input) is greater that the noninverting input (the +, plus input), the output will be whatever
the minus supply is and vice versa if the noninverting input is greater. So make sure that the

187

physical Op Amp configuration matches the schematic and make sure that all connections are
secure.

8.5.4.
Transistors that are about to melt down
Transistors are fundamental components, but sometimes they can be a pain in the *** to work
with. Additionally, since were mainly concerned with using them to drive motors, the transistor
will more than likely fail internally. However there are several ways to check for this, check the
current and make sure that it is not exceeding the amount you calculated it should be using (yes
they can have internal shorts). Additionally, check the transistor for any discolorations
(especially on the metallic parts) and check the surrounding areas (i.e. melted breadboard).
When the transistor has an internal short, massive amounts of current will be going through the
transistor and it will heat up and heat damage will change colors in the metal (sometimes solder
balls will seep from the cracks). The heat will cause the surrounding areas to warm up, many
breadboards will actually melt like butter when the transistor gets too hot. All this can be
prevented by adding an aluminum heat sink to the back of the transistor (watch out the heat sink
will become electrically hot), the heat sink will dissipate the heat and prevent the transistor
from melting down.

188

8.5.5.

Other Precautions
Do not hook up higher voltage sources to low

power systems
Or higher voltage outputs to lower
voltage input impedances.
If the ground (common or 0 Voltage reference) is
not hooked up corrently
This will be evident with either the
second system not powered up correctly or the power will be
fluctuating rapidly.
Much the same thing if someone
says make a right at McDonalds, but there are thousands of
McDonalds, which one? The power supply is doing the same
thing, it doesnt know where the reference is at.

189

9.
Control Theory (Adv. Topic, covered more in detail in ME 330 and 530)
Simply put, control theory is controlling some desired output with a given input.
9.1.
Open Loop versus Closed Loop Control
Open Loop is the equivalent of your toaster. You set the dial, put your bread in the slots, wait,
and pop comes out toast. However if there is a bad wire, the dial is broken, or if there is
something other than sliced bread the toaster will not know nor care. Its a simple hit the switch.
Closed loop is a system that has some kind of feedback sensor to indicate a certain observable
parameter. Speed, Temperature, etc. This feedback is then compared with a setpoint (i.e. a set
cruise control speed); depending on the difference in speed and what controller is being used.
The system will use the error and controller to force the system to go to the exact setpoint;
however there maybe some dynamic response that must be tailored for your exact system.
9.2.
PID Explained, Prof. Tom Johnston explanation
Next time you drive your car think about:
1. What your foot does when you start to accelerate to a desired velocity. (Proportional)
2. What your foot does as you approach the desired velocity. (Derivative)
3. Why your foot knows to stay in place when you reach the desired velocity. (Integral)
4. Components of a PID System

Your senses are the Sensor/Feedback K(s)

Your Brain is the Controller C(s)

Your Foot is the Actuator

The Car is the Plant P(s)

The Cop behind you is your Setpoint R(s)

190

Figure 8.2 - Closed Loop PID controlled system

9.3.
1. Spring Mass Damper

Frequency example (open loop)

Variables:

k =Spring Constant (

N
)
m

b=damping constant (

Ns
)
m

m=mass (

Ns
)
m

f (t)=input force ( N )

y (t)=output position (m)

Newtons Law

f (t)=m

d2 y
dy
+ b +ky
2
dt
dt

F( s)=ms2 Y ( s)+bsY ( s)+kY (s ) (zero initial Conditions)

Transfer Function, (steady state gain

1
)
k

191

1
1
1
k n2
Y (s )
1
k
k
m
=
= 2
= 2
=
=
b
k s 2+ 2 n s+ n2
F (s) ms 2 +bs+ k
2
s
b
s 2
s
+
s+
+ s+1
+ s +1
m m
(k / m) k
n2 n

2. DC RPM Motor

Variables:

e a=input voltage (V )

e b=feedback voltage(V )

T (t)=Output Torque (Nm)

Ra= Armature Resistance()

J =mass moment of Inertia( kgm )

192

=Rotational Position(rad )
La= Armature Inductance (s)
=RotationalVelocity(
(1) Back EMF

b=rotational friction(

Nms
)
rad

rad
)
s

e b=k b

Eb (s)=k b (s)

(2) Kirchoffs Voltage Law

La

d ia
+ Ra i a +e b=e a
dt

La s I a ( s)+ Ra I a (s)+ Eb (s)=Ea (s)

(3) Sum of the Moments

d
+b =T m=k t i a
dt

(Js +b)( s)=T ( s)=k t I a (s)

*Combine the above Laplace Eqns to get the Transfer Function

Transfer Function w/ Inductance {2nd order response}

kt
(s)
=
2
E a (s ) [La J s +(Lab+ RaJ ) s+( Rab+k tk b )]

*To get position, just integrate this

transfer function
Transfer Function w/out Inductance (or if negligibly small)

kt
kt
R ab+ k t k b
km
(s)
=
=
=
E a (s ) [(RaJ )s +(R ab +k tk b)]
R aJ
s +1
s+1 m
R ab +k t k b

Pelec =Pmech ,

VI =T
m =time constant (s)

k m , steady state gain(

rad /s
A
)(
)
V
Nm

3. 2 Pole RC Circuit

193

Step 1: Find the differential equations of the system above and then take the laplace

(1)

1
(i i )dt +R1 i1=V i
C1 1 2

(2)

1
1
(i 2i 1 )dt +R2 i2=

i dt
C1
C2 2

(1L)

1
[ I ( s)I 2 ( s)]+ R1 I 1 ( s)=V i ( s)
C1 s 1

(2L)

1
1
[ I 2( s)I 1 ( s)]+ R2 I 2 ( s)=
I (s)
C1 s
C2 s 2

(3L)

1
I ( s)=V o (s)
C2 s 2

1
(3)
i dt=V o
C2 2

Step 2: Multiply (1L) by C1 s , and solve for

(1L)

I 1 ( s)=

C 1 s V i (s )+ I 2 ( s)
[1+ R 1 C 1 s]

Step 3: Multiple (2L) by

(2L)

C 1 C 2 s , and separate the

I 2 (s) , in equation (3L)

I 2 (s)=C 2 s V o (s)

Step 5: Substitute (1L) in to (2L), and separate

(2L)

I 1 ( s)I 2 ( s)

C2 I 1 (s)=[C2 + R2 C1 C2 s +C1 ] I 2( s)

Step 4: Solve for

(3L)

I 1 ( s)

Ei (s)I 2 (s)

C1 C2 s V i (s)=[C1 + R2 C1 C2 s + R1 C1 s+ R 1 C 1 C 2 s+ R1 R2 C 1 C 2 s ] I 2(s)

Step 6: Substitute (3L) in to (2L) and solve for the transfer function

V o (s)
V i(s)

V o (s)
1
=
2
V i(s) R1 C1 R 2 C 2 s +(R 1 C 1+ R 1 C 2+ R 2 C 2)s +1

4. First Order Lag Circuit

Step 1: Differential Equation of Kirchoffs Current Law

194

i 1=i 2+i 3

dV

i
o
o
(1) R =C 1 dt R
1
2

Step 2: Take the Laplace with zero initial conditions of the dif eq
(1)

R2 C 1 s+1
Vi (s )
1
=C 1 s V o ( s) V o ( s)=
V o (s)
R1
R2
R2

Step 3: Solve for the Transfer Function

V o (s)
V i(s)

V o (s)
R2
=
V i( s) R1 ( R2 C1 s +1)

5. Generic Inverting Op Amp Circuit

Transfer Function:
V o (s) Z 2 (s)
=
V i(s) Z 1 ( s)
Quick Reference Sheet
Electrical

Voltage-Current
1

Capacitor, C

1
V (t)= i(t)dt
C 0

Voltage-Charge

Impedance Z (s)=

1
V (t)= q (t)
C

V ( s)
I ( s)

1
Cs

195

Resistor, R

V (t)=Ri(t )

Inductor, L

V (t)=

Ldi
dt

V (t)=

Rdq
dt

R
2

Ld q
V (t)=
2
dt

Ls

9.3.1.
Frequency Response in general
Most basic control systems use a frequency response analysis in order to determine the output
characteristics of the system. There are several types of inputs in, but the most common input is
a step input. A step input is when a sudden force is suddenly turned on and is acting on your
system. If you were to apply a step input to the math models above, you should get one of the
two responses below.
First Order:
Typically has one response. However the time duration and amplitude can be modified.

Second Order:
Second Order systems have four main types of characteristics: Un-damped, Under-damped,
Critically-damped, and Overdamped. Undamped and Underdamped tend to overshoot and
oscillate; whereas Critically and Overdamped will never overshoot, which is great for no
oscillatory control systems. And like first order, the amplitude and time duration can be modified
as well.

196

9.3.2.
Frequency Response via Excel (Open Loop Only)
Once again, we use frequency response in order to dictate a motors transient response to a
step input. But there are many different softwares out there that can do the same exact thing.
The most robust and bad*** of them all is using good old excel. Excel has the capabilities of
auto-updating your system as soon as a variable is changed. However, this does require
knowing the governing equations and writing your own codes in multiple cells to generate the
data that you need in order to plot the response curve.

197

9.3.3.
Frequency Response via Matlab (Open Loop only)
Matlab is the next popular method, and by far easiest method. However, this requires
mathematically modeling your system using differential equations, then converting it to the
frequency domain using laplace methods, and then deriving the transfer function for the system.
But once all that is done prior, it then requires two lines of code; this not auto-update.

9.3.4.

Frequency Response via Simulink (Open or Closed

Loop)
Using Simulink to model the same frequency response. Simulink is very flexible in that it can
either use transfer function or use the mathematical models to show the response curve.
Additionally, Simulink can also model both Open and Closed loop response.

198

9.3.4.1.
1.To start Simulink, click on the simulink library icon

Simulink tutorial

2. Simulink Library; this is where everything you need is stored

199

3. In the picture above, the icon right below the File tab, is where you go to start a new simulink
model
4. To add a function (.i.e step), simply select and drag the icon from the library, onto your model

200

5. To change the signs on a summing node, it goes from 12 oclock and moves counter
clockwise as shown below:

6. An example of a first order system below with labels for everything:

201

7. Dont forget to declare your variables, using syms command

8. Double-click on the scope to get the graph of your output, you should get something like the
figure below

9.3.5.
Frequency Response using Vissim (Open and
Closed Loop)
Works very similar to Simulink. However, it allows us to assign variables in one location and
easy to implement them easily in the block diagram.

202

203

9.4.
Radar Dish Example
Below is an example of a position-controlling system. The set point is compared with the
feedback. The difference or error then drives the motor accordingly; which in turns drives the
feedback sensor.
9.4.1.
Using Analog Circuitry
Essentially, the set point is compared with the feedback sensor on the radar dish; if they do not
read the same value, the difference (or error) will be sent and amplified in the controller (the
three op amps that are vertically placed from one another). The amplified signal is then sent
through the motor controlling circuit which will move the motor according to the amplified error
signal. As the motor turns, the meshing gears then move the shaft connected to the radar dish,
which in adjusts the position of the feedback sensor. This will continues until the Feedback
Sensor and Setpoint are at the same voltage; because if theyre at the same voltage, there will
be no error and nothing will drive the motor.

9.4.2.
Using Digital Circuitry
As you can see, there is not a huge difference between the total layouts of the digital and
analog radar dishes. However, majority of the components have been replaced with lines of
code. However, it is critical knowing what the feedback sensor is picking up; is the feedback
sensor picking up a continuous-analog voltage from a potentiometer or other intensity circuit. On
the other hand there are digital sensors such as tachometers, hall effect sensors, encoders, and
other digital sensors that use a pulsing signal in order to tell the microcontroller information
about the outside world.

204

Once the type of sensor is know and what type of signal it conveys, the signal must be
converted in terms that microcontroller and/or the PID algorithms (see example PID codes in
chapter 8) can utilize. However for a digitally controlled system, like in the figure below, the input
(or set point) must then be compared with the feedback signal (as long as the types are
comparable); this comparison is known as error. The error is what then is used in the PID
algorithm in order to drive whatever actuator; however if there is no error, there is nothing to
drive the PID algorithm, which then in turns leaves the motor motionless.

Using the Arduino PID code for position

205

206

And the circuit lay out.

207

10.
Case Studies - ME 310 Final Project Fall 2015 - Disaster Relief Robot
This semester, students will be designing a disaster relief robot which will have several functions
that the robot must accomplish. The overall theme is that this disaster robot must enter a power
plant and drive up ramps, shut off some valves, put out fires via a projectile launcher, and
deliver first aid kits. However due to the prerequisites, the robot will be controlled using simple
hand controllers and/or digitally controlled (student's decision on which controller to use).

First Configuration of ME 310 Configuration

208

Second Configuration of ME 310 Configuration

209

10.1.
Project 1 - Electronically Controlled Four bar Linkage
Prior to working on the main project, we need to go over some of the most commonly used
mechanisms and how to implement them and how to model them. The most commonly used
mechanism is known as the four bar linkage; the four bar linkage also has many variations that
can be used and implemented (Crank-Rocker, Crank-Slider, Gears, etc). For the first project,
each group will have to construct a four bar linkage that transfers an object from a shelf to the
next. It should be noted the student must use either the analytical or graphical synthesis
methods in order to determine if the linkage will run into the other structures or not.

210

Additionally, since this project has to be electronically controlled. We need to first define if the
motor needs to rotate in one direction, two directions, or three directions? Hopefully, youre
scratching your head at this point; how do motors move in 3 directions? They dont, they can
only move in 1 or 2 directions. But to get back on track, this four bar linkage project needs to
move in 2 directions (clockwise and counterclockwise).
The reason behind the first project is that each of the subsequent projects will require at least 1
applied four bar linkage system, the subsequent projects will require some form of motor
implementation and control, and lastly, the motors will be have to have some degree of motor
control. Accomplishing this project will help prepare you for learning how to create mathematical
of kinematic mechanisms (synthesis), learning how to apply electronics, implementing motors
into a fabricated project, and the surface of programming microcontrollers and control theory.

211

10.2.
Project 2 - Valve Closing System
The valves the Disaster Relief Robot must turn off wall mounted and ground mounted valves.
Therefore the robotic arm must at least three motors: 1) To rotate and close the valve, 2) Rotate
between the wall and ground mounted valves, and 3) Move in the vertical direction since valves
can be at different heights. Since this is a design course, students are free to design the
mechanism however they see fit, as long as as the system is electronically controlled and
mathematical models are accurate.
Extra Credit
45o Valve
Able to pick up a component
The first thing that should be considered are the degrees of motion in order to achieve the
desired output. Therefore if we analyze the system below, we see that we need at least three
motors to achieve the desired output. We need 1 motor in order to rotate and close valves,
another motor to rotate from the wall mounted valves to the floor mounted valves, and lastly, we
need another motor to move the valve closing system in the vertical direction.

212

So now that the problem has been defined and some basic analysis has been done. We need
to brainstorm several variations that will accomplish said task. If you look at the figure below.
There are several ways that the task can be accomplished either using gears, four bars, and
various other systems. It will be up to your team to decide which of the systems should you
implement.

Once a design has been chosen, you will need to generate mathematical models that will help
guide the design. Below is an example of one chosen design and the FBD of everything from
Motor # 3 to the left. Also note the torque speed curves to the right. All motors should have a

213

torque- speed curve ( or can be easily generated), this will help you determine constant angular
speed for a given necessary torque.

Once the torque is known and the motor is selected, the next thing is to determine if the motor
needs to be controlled either unidirectionally or bidirectionally. This will determine which circuit
to build and apply to your system. The figure below shows a motor that needs to be
bidirectionally controlled, therefore you need to hook up the motor to a bidirectional amplifier
(either using analog or digital control).

10.3.
Project 2 - Projectile System
The fire suppression unit must launch small projectiles that will land in the fire and theoretically
explode and suppress the fire. However due to safety issues and concerns, we will be more

214

concerned with accuracy and repetition of the projectile launcher. Since this is a design course,
students are free to design the mechanism however they see fit, as long as it is electronically
controlled and mathematical models are accurate.
Extra Credit
Extra Targets
Firing Modes: Single, Burst Stream, Full Stream
We need to both define the system and create a mathematical model representing the system.
Additionally, we need to create a free-body diagram (FBD) of the projectile itself to determine
what forces are acting on the ball.

It should be noted that if the force due to drag can be neglected, FDrag, then the only force acting
on projectile is the force due to gravity, F gravity. Additionally, that means we can use simple
kinematics to model the projectile's motion. Using the governing equations of motion for a
projectile and a spread sheet program, we can create predictive mathematical models to show
the projectiles path, as shown in the figure below.
Looking at the governing equations below, we notice there are two governing equations; which
means that there are only two variables that we can solve for.
Governing Equations:
Y final = Y Initial + (V0)Y * t + () * g * t2
X final = X Initial + (V0)X * t
Since we have two equations, there are two methods that can be used in order to solve for
various variables. Method A uses the governing equations above in order to solve for Y Final and
X Final . While solving for Y Final and X Final , we need to hold the velocity as a constant but we will
change the angle to determine how the difference in angle will change Y Final and X Final . Method
B uses a slight variation of the Governing Equations, instead of solving for Y Final and X Final , we
instead will modify the equations to solve for t (time) and Velocity; however we will hold

215

constant and we will change X Final to determine different velocities. Once one of the methods
has been used and a velocity has been found to achieve the objective, we can then apply
kinetic energy equation to back track and help design a launcher.

The spreadsheet below uses Method A and an iterative trial and error approach to predict the
projectiles motion.

216

Once the projectiles path has been determined, we next need to brainstorm and determine an
optimal design for firing the projectile. However, we also need to relate the kinetic energy of the
ball to the launchers energy. Therefore when brainstorming or choosing a design, keep in mind
the mathematical model behind the launching system; which will also help when writing the
report.

Once you have chosen a particular launcher and made sure that you have either met the
necessary torque and rpms, then you need to decide which circuitry to use to make the motor
move. For the baseball pitching machine, the pitching wheel only has to turn one direction,
therefore we can use a unidirectional class A amplifier; its up to the teams discretion if they
wish to use an analog or digital class A amplifier. Below is an example of how to hook it up.

217

10.4.
Project 3 - Vehicle System
The vehicle must drive up a ramp to a platform (TBA), while on the platform the robot perform
various tasks such as closing valves, fire suppression, and drop off first aid kits. Since this is a
design course, students are free to design the mechanism however they see fit, as long as it is
electronically controlled and mathematical models are accurate.
Extra Credit
Able to carry an object back
Digital feedback?
The first thing you need to do is to define what the vehicle needs to do and any other secondary
objectives that it must accomplish. So in this case, the previous projects must be mounted to the
vehicle, the vehicle must also drop off medical kits, and it must drive up a ramp with a known
angle. Some secondary objectives are due physical constraints such as the vehicles width can
be only so wide due to the ramp and turning, the weight of the vehicle has to be light so the
motors have enough torque to drive up a ramp, and the center of gravity may shift while the
vehicle is in motion which can lead to the vehicle tipping over (both longitudinally and
transversely).

218

However, before we get down to the nuts and bolts of things; it would be a wise decision for you
and your group(s) to brainstorm what type of vehicle that your group should use or aim for.
When deciding which of the vehicles to use, keep in mind several things such as steering, how
to drive the vehicle, and how to mount parts to the vehicle; this will help you limit which vehicle
to use and how to drive the vehicle.

219

Once you have a design, then start creating mathematical models to help determine both how
the forces are distributed on the system as well as the motor torque necessary to allow the
vehicle to move (and how fast the vehicle can move). Below is an two-dimensional example of a
four wheel system, it is assumed the center of gravity is in the middle of the vehicle in the
transverse direction. Were also assuming the center of gravity is somewhere in the middle;
however it should be calculated using either a program like SolidWorks or Creo, or can be hand
calculated using methods mentioned in the statics section.

Not only is there a large selection of vehicles that can be chosen to drive and steer the vehicle,
but the circuitry is just as interesting. You can either use traditional vehicle that uses 1 motor to
drive the vehicle forward and a second motor to drive a steering system left or right. The other
configuration is having an amplifier hooked up to the motor(s) on the left and another amplifier
hooked up to the motor(s) on the right.

220

However the vehicle portion of the build not only deals with the actual vehicle, but also the
medical kit deployment. Therefore we need to define the objectives and possible brainstorming
ideas for this component.

221

Once one of the designs has been chosen, keep in mind that you will have to manufacture and
control said design, then draw a free body diagram (FBD) for each component in the system
and write out mathematically how each of the forces are acting on the system. Dont forget to
also write the equations of motion as well and evaluate each of the forces in their respective
equations.

While designing the Medkit mechanism, be sure to keep in mind what type of motion will the
mechanism will be using and will the motor move in 1 direction or 2 directions. If the motor only
moves in 1 direction, you can use a class A amplifier (Analog or Digital, you decision); or if the
motor has to move 2 directions, then you have a choice of either a class B amplifier or digital HBridge Circuit.

222

11.

Appendices
11.1.

Common Geometric Theorems

11.1.1.
Bisection angles

Note the angles between parallel lines

Angles sum to 180o along straight lines
Angles sum to 180o inside triangles

11.1.2.

Triangles
11.1.2.1.
Right Triangles (SOH, CAH, TOA)
The most important and easiest tool to use when using a right triangle is SOH CAH TOA. These
acronyms describe which sides of the triangle to use when finding an angle.
SOH: Sine() = Opposite/ Hypotenuse
CAH: Cosine() = Adjacent/ Hypotenuse
TOA: Tangent() = Opposite/ Adjacent

223

11.1.2.2.
Non- Right Triangles
The world is filled with non-right triangles, so we must use tools other than SOH CAH TOA. This
is where we can use the Law of Sine and Law of Cosine.

Law of Sine :

11.1.2.2.1.

Law of Sine

11.1.2.2.2.

Law of Cosine

A
B
C
=
=
sin (a) sin (b) sin(c )

Law of Cosine :C=( A + B 2ABcos (c ))

11.1.2.3.

Similar Triangles

The sides of a similar triangle can be obtained by proportion, where:

a b c
= =
A B C

224

11.2.

Circles and angles

11.3.

First Moment of Inertia (Geometry)

225

11.4.

Second Moment of Inertia (Mass)

11.5.

Vector Relationships

226

227

11.6.
11.7.
11.8.

Partial Fraction Expansion

Common Integrals & U- Substitution
Ordinary Linear Differential Equation
11.8.1.
Commonly used techniques

Type

Dif. Eqn

Method of Solution

Separation of Variables

f1(x)g1(y)dx+f2(x)g2(y)dy =0

Exact Eqn (if dM/dy = dN/dx)

M(x,y)dx + N(x,y)dy =0

f 1 (x )
g ( y)
f (x ) dx + g 1( y) dy=c
2

Mdx

d
N dy =C
dy

Mdx+

Linear 1st order equation

dy
+ P(x ) y =Q( x)
dx

Linear, homogeneous 2nd eqn

d y
dy
+ b +c y=0
2
dx
dx

Pdx dx +c

Pdx= Qe

ye

Case 1: m1, m2 real & distinct

y=c1 e m x +c 2 e m
1

b & c are real constants

Case 2: m1, m2 real & equal

y=c1 e m x +c 2 xe m x
1

Case 3: m1,2 = p +/- q*i

y=e px (c 1 cos (qx )+ c 2 sin(qx))

b
p=
, q=

2
11.8.2.
Electrical

Voltage-Current
1

Differential Equations of Components

Voltage-Charge

Impedance Z (s)=

Capacitor, C

1
V (t)= i(t)dt
C 0

1
V (t)= q (t)
C

Resistor, R

V (t)=Ri(t )

V (t)=

Rdq
dt

V ( s)
I ( s)

1
Cs
R

228

V (t)=

Inductor, L

Linear

Ldi
dt

V (t)=

F-velocity

Ld q
2
dt

Ls

Impedance Z (s)=

F-x

F ( s)
X ( s)

F( t)=k v(t)dt

F( t)=kx (t)

Damper, f v

F( t)=f vv (t)

F( t)=

f vdx
dt

f vs

Mass, m

F( t)=

F( t)=

md 2 x
2
dt

ms2

Spring, K

Rotational

mdv (t )
dt

Impedance Z (s)=

T-w (ang. vel) T-

T (s)
( s)

Spring, k

T (t)=k w (t)dt

T (t)=k(t)

T (t)=Dw( t)

T (t)=

Damper, D

Ddw
dt

Jd2 (t)
T (t)=
d t2

Jdw(t)
Mass-Moment, J T (t)=
dt

Ds

Js

Gears

r 11=r 2 2

T 11=T 22

1 r1 N 1
= =
2 r2 N 2

T 2 1 N 2
= =
T 1 2 N 1

11.9.
Laplace Tools
Important/quick Laplace Transform Table
1) Impulse,
2) Step,

(t) 1{f (t)=F (s )}

u(t)

1
3) tu(t ) 2
s

1
s

w
2
s +w
s
7) cos( wt )u( t) 2
s + w2
6)

sin(wt )u(t )

+inf

8) L{f ( t)}=F ( s)= f (t)e dt

st

inf

229

4) t u(t )

n!
n +1
s

9) y ' (t )=sY (s) y (0) || Zero I.C.

y ' (t)=sY ( s)
at

5) e

u (t )

1
s+ a

10)

y ' ' (t)=s 2Y (s)sy (0) y ' (0) || Zero I.C.

y ' ' (t )=s 2Y (s)

230

11.10.

Simple Linear Algebra Techniques

231

11.11.

Step by Step guides (For Spreadsheet programs)

11.11.1.
Setting up a matrix to solve for multiple reaction

forces
Create free-body diagram of your system, along with the systems of equations

Set up the matrices into a spreadsheet in the same format as the linear algebra
format

To Find the solutions using the linear algebra method, we use the format X= A-1 *

232

11.11.2.
Creating a chart for different moments of inertia
Because the major stresses that were concerned with are Axial, Bending, and
Torsional. In each one of these cases, there is some cross-sectional component such as
Area (A), distance from the outer most fiber (or top of the cross-sectional area) to the
centroid of the cross-sectional (C), Moment of inertia about an axis (IX, IY, and IZ), and
polar mass moment of inertia (J) that we must account for and we would like to have a
chart that we can easily refer to that will update the values on the fly. (Yes I know that
sounded really long winded)
First Define the Cross-sectional Areas (i.e. I-Beam, Hollow
Rectangle, Hollow Circle, and Solid Circle) and the equations that define these
sections.

233

 Next, set up an area on the spreadsheet so that you can enter in the values and
have it automatically update the area (A), moment of Inertia (I), and distance to the
centroid (C).

234

 Once the values are entered in, set aside an area for the applied: I, A, and C.
That you will use in your evaluations later. However, be careful when using the I, A, and
C, make sure to use them with respect to meters and not millimeters; so make a
conversion between millimeters and meters.

11.11.3.

Applying Singularity Functions to a spreadsheet

program
Once the free body diagram is defined for the system, define the singularity
functions for the system as you move from left to right.

The System

235

The Singularity functions that describe the system

Starting from the beginning:

Recommend starting off with the Distributed load, then use the
special integration techniques for the singularity functions to go from distributed
load to shear forces; and so on and so forth.

236

So moving from left to right using the distributed load functions

(i.e. the table above); the first component is A Y . This point load starts when x =
0, therefore the singularity function were going to use is a unit impulse (or
concentrated/ point load).
So we should start writing it as q(x) = A Y <x-0>-1
Moving along the beam, the next force to affect our system is P
(which is another point/ concentrated load).
So writing system out, we have q(x) = A Y <x-0>-1 P <x-a>-1
The last component that affects our system or singularity functions
is the B Y component.
So writing system out again, q(x) = A Y <x-0>-1 - P
-1
<x-a> + B Y <x- (a+b)>-1
Next we need to integrate our distributed load function (N/m), to get our Shear
Force (N) Function. Which we once again need to refer to the picture above that has the
Integration Techniques for Singularity functions.
All of the components in our system were point loads, we can see
that if we integrate a function to the -1 power, we receive the function to the 0
power.
Just like in normal calculus integration, we also have some kind of
constant when integrating.
Therefore, as we integrate from distributed load to shear force; we
have:
V(x) = A Y <x-0>0 - P <x-a>0 + B Y <x- (a+b)>0 + C 1

237

 Continuing to integrate from shear force to moment, the exponents now will give
us some
Dont forget that we need to still account for integrating constant
Therefore, as we integrate from shear force to moment; we have:
M(x) = A Y <x-0>1 - P <x-a>1 + B Y <x- (a+b)>1 + C 1 *
x + C2
However, as we go from Moment to slope and the deflection (by integration), we
need to also account for youngs modulus and moment of inertia.

Slope (X)*E*I= (AY/2)*<x-0>2- (P/2)*<x-a>2 + (By/2)*<x(a+b)> +(C1/2)*x2+(C2/1)*x1+C3

Deflect
Y(X)*E*I= (AY/6)*<x-0>3- (P/6)*<x-a>3 +
3
3
(By/6)*<x-(a+b)> +(C1/6)*x +(C2/2)*x2+C3*x+C4
2

Once the singularity functions are determined, you then need to determine the
boundary conditions. This simply means determining the conditions to either make the
constant values either equal to 0 or some value.
For constants C 1 and C 2 we know that the shear and moment
have to be 0 when x = 0 and at the other end of the beam, when x = L
For constants C 3 and C 4 , we know that the deflection has to 0 at
both supports. therefore we need to set the deflection equal to 0 and use that
information to solve for the constants mentioned before.

Once we have determined how the equations function, we can put this into a
matrix to solve for all the variables simultaneously.

238

 Once the solutions are found then we need to make a chart to determine the
Shear, Moment, slope, and Deflection along the beam.
For Shear

For Moment

239

For Slope and Deflection, just follow the same pattern

11.11.4.
Statice Failure Block
Create a block that could be used explicitly for determining static failure

240

 Once you know how the stresses are applied to the system. Then we need to
setup a block to help with determining the stresses as they change with respect to how
they act on our parts or nodes.

241

 Once all the stresses are all found, then apply them to the appropriate factors of
safety (for even and uneven materials)

242

11.11.5.

Fatigue Failure Block

When analyzing fluctuating stresses that vary cyclically. We need to

determine how the varying cyclic stresses will affect the number of cycles the
part can last before theoretically failing.
Assumptions:
The stresses are happening in phase.
Meaning theyre happening at the same time and frequency.
Our goal: to create some kind of spreadsheet block for
faituge failure, as well as an S-N diagram that shows us graphically when
the part will fail

243

 First we need to identify several components/ equations that are needed

for fatigue failure analysis.
Material (Limited to Steels and Aluminum based on known
data)
Knowing the SUT and SUC
Stress Concentration Factor (Kf)
KF= 1+q*(KT-1)
(notch sensitivity) q = 1/ (1+ (a)1/2
/ (r)1/2)
(Nuebers Constant) a1/2 =
material, table, and chart based

244

 (notch radius/ fillet) r1/2

KT = geometrical stress
concentration, from static failure chapter

Material Strength (SM )

Based on the material as well as the load being
applied to the component
ANY AXIAL, SM = .75*SUT
Bending and Torsion, SM = .9*SUT
It should also be noted that on the S-N
diagram, it is applied at 1000 cycles

245

 Endurance (Se, for steel) and Fatigue Strength (Sf, for

aluminum)
(corrected) Se = CLOAD*CSIZE*CSURFACE*CTEMP*C
RELIAB*Se
Se is uncorrected endurance
strength (use chart or equations)
Steel
If SUT
>= 1400 MPa Se = 700 MPa
If SUT
< 1400 MPa Se = .5*SUT
Aluminum
If SUT
>= 400 MPa Sf = 160 MPa
If SUT
< 400 MPa Sf = .4*SUT

246

 CLOAD, correction factors for load

applied
For
any AXIAL, C LOAD = .7
For
Bending and Torsion, CLOAD = 1

CSIZE , correction factor for the

size

247

 A95 = is the area of

the part stressed 95% of the maximum stress
Use
chart

d equiv = equivalent
diameters for cross-sectional areas
d equiv

= ( A95 / 0.0766)
If pure axial loads,
CSIZE = 1
if d< 8mm
Csize=
-0.097
0.869*d
If 8mm<d=<250mm
Csize=1
-0.097
.189*d
for 8mm<d=<250mm
If d>250mm
Csize= .
6

248

 CSURF, correction factor for

surface
(Equation) CSURF =
A*(SUT)

if
CSURF >1, then CSURF =1
(For MPa) Ground,
A = 1.58 and b= -0.085
(For MPa)
Machined, A = 4.51 and b= -0.265
(For MPa) HotRolled, A = 57.7 and b= -0.718
(For MPa) Forged,
A = 272 and b= -0.995

249

 CTEMP, correction factor for temp

If T< 450, then
CTEMP=1
if 450 < T< 550,
then CTemp= 1- 0.0058*(T-450)
Higher
temperatures can cause yielding before fatigue failure
C RELIAB (or C RELIABILITY) , correction
factor for reliability
% of
reliability = C RELIAB
50% = 1.000
90% = 0.897
95% = 0.868
99% = 0.814
99.9% = 0.753
99.99% = 0.702
99.999% = 0.659
99.9999% = 0.620

250

 Next, determine the number of cycles

SM is at 1000 (or 103) cycles

Se has a knee (or is at) 106 cycles (for steel)

Sf occurs at 5*108 (for aluminum)
For applied stress
S(N) = A*NB
B = (1/z)*log(SM/ SE )
z=
log(NSM)-log(NSE)
A = SM / NB=SM /

(1000)B

Once A and B are known, solve for N

(cycles to failure)

N = ( S APPLIED/ A) (1/ B)

251

Then Graph the SM , SE, and S applied to see where they fall on the

graph

11.12.

Commonly Used Materials

252

Figure 9.1 - A Spreadsheet of commonly used materials

253

11.13.
References: Books, Web Sites, and Software used
Textbook References Used:
Sections
Used

Title of the Book. ed. Publisher: City, State., Year

2,10, 11

Statics. 13th ed. Pearson Prentice Hall: Upper Saddle River, NJ., 2013

4, 5, 11

Dynamics. 12th ed. Pearson Prentice Hall: Upper Saddle River, NJ., 2010

3, 11

Mechanics of Materials. 2nd ed. John Wiley & Sons: Rolla, Mo., 2011

1, 3, 5, 6, 11

Machine Design - An Integrated Approach. 5th ed. Pearson Prentice Hall:

Upper Saddle River, NJ., 2014

3, 6, 8, 9

Mechatronics - Electronic Control Systems in Mechanical and Electrical

Engineering. 5th ed. Pearson Prentice Hall: City, State., 2011

The Manga Guide to Electricity. 1st ed. Kazuhiro Fujitaki and TREND-PRO
and No Starch Press and Ohmsha: San Francisco, Ca., 2009

1, 5, 10

Design of Machinery - An Introduction to the Synthesis and Analysis of

Mechanisms and Machines. 5th ed. McGraw Hill: Worcester, Ma., 2012

1, 3, 6, 11

Shigleys - Mechanical Engineering Design. 10th ed. McGraw Hill: New York,
NY., 2015

9, 11

Modern Control Engineering. 2nd ed. Prentice Hall: Englewood Cliffs, NJ.,
1990

11

A First Course in Differential Equations with Modeling Applications. 9th ed.

Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning: Belmont, Ca., 2009

Electronic Devices. 2nd ed. Merrill Publishing Co.: Columbus, Oh., 1988

Website References Used:

Sections
Used

www.whatamIdoing.gov
What was used

http://library.sdsu.edu/guides/tutorial.php?id=28
SDSUs tutorial on plagiarism

http://studentaffairs.sdsu.edu/srr/cheating-plagiarism.html
SDSUs student affairs definition of plagiarism and disciplinary actions

http://playground.arduino.cc/
Basics of Arduino Programing, functions, and snippets of code

8, 9

http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/
Electronic Basics and Control Theory

254

1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7, 8, 9, 11

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page
General Information

1,2,3,5, 10

https://support.google.com/docs/table/25273?hl=en
General Information on spreadsheet functions

Software References Used:

Sections
Used

Software
What was used

1, 2, 7

SolidWorks
Generating CAD models and Examples of how to use FEA software

1,2,4,5

Microsoft Excel
Generating Plots and Data Calculation

1,2,4,5,

Google SpreadSheets
Generating Plots and Data Calculation

Entire
Document

Google Documents
Program this document was made on

1,2,3,4,5,6,7,
8,9,10,11

Google Slides
Used to generate illustrations and figures

National Instruments Multisim

Used to generate circuit schematics

Every Circuit (Android App)

Used to generate circuit schematics

Virtual Breadboarding (VBB)

Used to generate circuit schematics

255