Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Vol. 46, No.

3, 2009

UNDERGROUND STRUCTURES
EVALUATION OF DYNAMIC LOADS ON UNDERGROUND
STRUCTURES DURING HORIZONTAL JET
GROUTING OF A SATURATED SOIL
UDC 624.138.9
A. V. Chernyakov
Scientific-Production Union Kosmos, Moscow, Russia.

A quantitative estimate is given for dynamic loads on elements of structural components

during horizontal jet grouting of a saturated soil.

Jet grouting is one of the most preferable and reliable methods of stabilizing soils during the
installation of underground structures (highway and railroad tunnels, shafts, and underground workings
intended for various purposes). One of the primary qualities of this technology, which makes it irreplaceable for the installation of vertical, horizontal, and inclined soil-cement columns, is the absence of
impact loads. In certain cases, for example, use of jet grouting is suppressed by the dangerous appearance of inadmissible dynamic effects on these structures when soil is stabilized under active tunnels,
however, since the technology in question is based on use of high-potential jets of cement grout (the
injection pressure of the grout is 30-80 MPa, and the velocity of the jet is up to 350 m/sec). In addition
to this, problems involving assessment of dynamic effects on elements of structures located within the
zone where jet grouting is used are not discussed in the scientific-technical literature [1, 2].
Understanding of the phenomenon will make it possible to evaluate, and, when necessary, minimize or eliminate undesirable effects, and thereby expand the range of application of the progressive
method of soil stabilization.
Jet grouting of soil is carried out, as a rule, in two steps with forward and reverse travel of a
drill rod. During the forward travel, a leader hole is drilled to the design elevation, while during reverse
travel, the cement grout is fed under high pressure from a special device (monitor) located beyond the
drill tip. The jet of grout breaks down the surrounding soil, and mixes the components residing in the
recess that is formed. A soil-cement column is formed after the resultant mixture has hardened.
Of the three basic production variants of jet grouting (one-, two-, and three-component), only the
first is used for horizontal grouting. When this procedure is used, the force-induced loads that develop
in the soil are a result of the direct dynamic effect of the immersed jet on the soil and surface of the
underground structures, as well as the pressure that develops as the grout seeps through the soil (both
during jet grouting, and also drilling of the leader hole).
The high-velocity jet of cement grout exerts the greatest dynamic effect during flow (sweep)
past the surface of an obstruction. A plane stationary surface forces the jet to deflect and acts on it
with a reactive force R directed in the general case at an angle to the axis of the jet. The magnitude

Translated from Osnovaniya, Fundamenty i Mekhanika Gruntov, No. 3, pp. 22-28, May-June, 2009.
108

0038-0741/09/4603-0108

2009 Springer Science+Business Media, Inc.

m2v2

m2v2

m1v1

Fig. 1. Symmetric impact of jet against plate.

and direction of R are determined on the basis of the law of conservation of momentum. The impact
force F of the jet reaches a maximum value under a symmetric impact when the direction of force R
coincides with the axis of the jet (Fig. 1). In that case, R = m1v1 (where v1 is the velocity of the fluid
in m/sec, and m1 is the mass of the impinging fluid in kg/sec), and F is equal to R in magnitude, but
opposite in direction.
The force F increases if the form of the surface of the body being impacted is such that the
o
direction of the jet changes by 180 . If, among other things, the direction of the effective jet is changed
o
by 180 , F attains the maximum, and is F = 2m1v1.
It is more convenient to use the above-mentioned formulas for estimable calculations as applies to jet
technology, if the variables are expressed in terms of quantities known from the conditions of the process
F = PS,

(1)

where is the reflectance of the jet, which depends on the form and position of the obstacle with
respect to the axis of the jet, and which varies from two (for a jet impinging on the plane surface of a
o
o
body at an angle of 90 ) to four (for a jet impinging on a concave surface that ensures a 180 turn of
the jet), S is the cross-sectional area of the jet at the outlet from the nozzle opening (for standard nozzles used in jet grouting, S can be assumed equal to the cross-sectional area of the outlet opening of the
nozzle) in m2, and P is the injection pressure in MPa.
It is apparent from Table 1 that the computed force F acting on a plane surface perpendicular to
the axis of the jet (kN) is much lower than the forces for which structures are usually designed. This is
confirmed, however, by results of monitoring conducted by the Scientific-Production Union Kosmos
during the construction of a tunnel on the Leningrad Highway (Moscow). Deformations of the components of the underground structures, which are being subjected to the direct action of jets, were found
to be negligibly small, and did not extend beyond background limits.
In addition, one must remember that the minor influence exerted by the force F on the deformation of an underground structure does not imply that the jets are not at all harmless. It should be considered that the static pressure is equal to the injection pressure in the initial section of the jet's dis109

TABLE 1
Injection pressure
P, MPa

20
40
60
80

Computed force F for diameter of

discharge opening of nozzle of, mm
2

0.6
1.3
1.9
2.5

1.4
2.8
4.2
5.7

2.5
5.0
7.5
10.1

3.9
7.9
11.8
15.7

charge. The latter may be sufficient to cause erosion of the surface layer of many materials, including
concrete. The length X of the initial section of the jet, however, is small [3]
X
6D,

(2)

where D is the inside diameter of the nozzle in the outlet section in m.

If we assume that the diameters of the nozzles used in jet grouting do not exceed 5 mm, the
length of the initial section is no more than 30 mm. Beyond the limits of the initial section, the pressure of the submerged jet drops-off rapidly with increasing distance from the section of the nozzle
(inversely proportional to the square of the distance). Calculations indicate that erosion of the majority
of materials employed in underground construction is completely eliminated even when the surface of
the underground structure is 15-20 cm from the mouth of the nozzle.
Thus, the monitor used for jet grouting can be located near the surface of underground structures
(sweep the surface). Such a possibility will permit more complete utilization of the advantages of jet
technology, and preclude its replacement by compensation injection for stabilization of sections of soil
located near the surfaces of structures.
During jet grouting with the seepage of water, and bentonite or cement grouts through the pores
of the soil, a pressure, which in the general case, is determined for an incompressible fluid from the
equation obtained by substitution of Darcy's velocity equation in the continuity equation [4, 5]

p
k
div[ (grad p + f g )] = Q s

(3)

may develop in the soil, where k is the penetrability factor of the soil in m2, is the dynamic viscosity in Pasec, p is the pressure of the fluid in Pa, f is the density of the fluid in kg/m3, g is the velocity vector of free fall in m/sec2, Qs is the intensity of the source of fluid in 1/sec, S is the pore content
in 1/Pa, and t is time in sec.
The seepage of fluids existing in a saturated incompressible soil with no internal sources, i.e., when
S = 0 and Q = 0, are examined within the framework of this study. As a result, Eq. (3) assumes the form
div[

k
( grad p + f g )] = 0.

(4)

If we are limited to determination of the fluid pressure during strictly filtration, the term characterizing its filtration under the force of gravity can be eliminated from Eq. (4). Assuming k/ = const,
we ultimately obtain
110

soil

floor

dis

Fig. 2. Boundary conditions for jet grouting: 1) drill rod;

2) drill bit; 3) discharge hole; 4) cut-off wall; 5)
mixture of cement grout and soil.

2p = 0.

(5)

This is the well know Laplace equation, which can be used in many physics problems. Methods
are sufficiently developed for its solution.
At the presenttime, Eqs. (4) and (5) are readily solved using familiar software applications
implementing the grid method (MatLab, Plaxis, Comsol, etc.).
Let us evaluate the pressures that develop in soil in an example of the stabilization of the soil
beneath a tunnel under constructed to eliminate a transportation grade crossing in the area of the metro
station "Sokol."
For the jet grouting, a solution (more accurately, suspension) containing approximately 70% of
water and 30% of cement (by volume) was fed into, and mixed with the soil. Under the conditions of
the saturated soil, a slurry containing water, cement particles, and soil, emerged beyond the limits of the
zone being treated in a volume equal to that of the grout delivered. The bulk flow rates of cement grout
and slurry during the process remained virtually unchanged over time, and corresponded to the assigned
flow rate.
In the case under consideration, organization conditions for removal of the slurry is mandatory. The pressure will increase markedly when there is no discharge, or even when discharge channels
are briefly closed. A pressure increase of only 0.1 MPa will initiate a force approximately equal to
75,000 kN, which acts on the bottom of the tunnel run. During the analysis, we examined the case
of unloading either through a preventer alone, or through a preventer and discharge hole simultaneously.
The boundary conditions of jet grouting in the selected region are as follows (Fig. 2):
1. The flow through the boundary of the zone of column formation (boundary floor) is equal to
the flow rate of cement grout (Neiman condition). The recess formed is a cylinder 1.2 m in height and
0.6 mm in diameter.
2. The pressure at the outlet from the preventer and discharge hole (boundary dis) is equal to the
atmospheric pressure, i.e., P = Patm (Dirchilet condition). The areasof the flow section of the discharge
hole and preventer are assumed equal to 0.035 and 0.01 m 2, respectively.
3. The flow through the boundaries of the soil mass (formed by the anti-seepage ring of soilcement piles and cut-off wall along the sides, the impenetrable layer of soil on the bottom, and by the
lower boundary of the tunnel run from above) is equal to zero (boundary soil).
111

The parameter of the problem, which determines the physical properties of the medium, is the
coefficient of permeability K in m/sec. It depends on the penetrability factor k (m2) of the soil, and the
coefficient of dynamic viscosity of the fluid (Pasec) and its specific weight , (N/m3). The following
relationship exists between them [6]:
K/ = k/.

(6)

The factor k may vary from point to point within the soil zone undergoing stabilization. It will
depend on the direction of the seepage flow (anisotropic soils), and may vary over time as a result of
precipitation, cavern formation, or coagulation of soil particles, and as a result of deposition of particles
contained within the slurry (alluvial filter effect). Based on data derived from geologic-engineering surveys conducted by the publicly owned joint-stock company Metrogiprotrans in developing the construction plan for elimination of grade crossings in the area of the metro station "Sokol," the average weighted value of k for the soil mass under consideration is 7.841012 m2 (coefficient of variation of 0.17).
The viscosity of the fluid will depend on the temperature, which may increase due to liberation of the heat of the cement-hydration reaction, and dissipation of the energy of the jet.
The specific heat of the hydration reaction of the cement will depend on its chemical composition, and is represented as the sum of the specific heats of hydration of all components of the cement,
and may attain 400 kJ/kg. If it is considered that conventional portland cements liberate no more than
half of the overall amount of heat after one-three days, and the mass of cement is approximately half
the mass of the grout, the specific heat of hydration should be evaluated as an amount that does not
exceed 100 kJ/kg. The specific heat liberated as a result of dissipation of the jet's energy will depend
on its kinetic energy, and will be 40 kJ/kg at an injection pressure of 410 atm. Considering the heat of
dissipation, the total specific heat will not exceed 140 kJ/kg.
The thermal conductivity of soil cement is comparatively low; the temperature within the soil
o
mass being stabilized may therefore rise by 30-35 C on average. A local increase in temperature may be
even higher due to nonuniform distribution of cement within the soil-cement structure.
o
Based on monitoring data, 40 C was adopted as the average weighted temperature. This value
4
corresponds to = 6.5310 Pasec (coefficient of variation of 0.21).
Within the limits of this solution, a constant filtration factor K = 1.2104 m/sec (coefficient of
variation of 0.27) can be adopted for the entire soil mass, and K = 0.1 m/sec for the soil filling the discharge hole.
A quantity sought for the calculations is the force of the pressure acting against the upper
boundary of the soil mass with an area of 755 m2, where the bottom of the tunnel run is located under
actual conditions. The relationships between this force and various parameters were determined during
modeling of the jet grouting (Fig. 3). The coefficient of variation of the values obtained for the force of
the pressure corresponds to the coefficient of variation of the soil properties.
Analysis indicates that the basic resistance to flow within the closed space is concentrated within relatively small soil masses immediately adjacent to the zone of column formation Rsour, and slurrydischarge sections Rdis (through the preventers, discharge holes, etc.). The resistance of the soil mass
Rmass, which is situated between the source and discharge of slurry, is negligible; this is expressed in a
certain relationship between the force of the pressure exerted on the bottom of the tunnel run and the
relative position of the columns being formed and the discharge hole (see Fig. 3 a, c, d). Results of the
field analysis indicate a relationship between the pressure and interface between the treated and untreated soil into which the slurry is delivered. During the course of grouting, this quantity will increase as
the monitor advances toward the mouth of the hole.
Results of analysis and experimentation were compared. Simple piezometers, for example, transparent manometer tubes, were employed to measure the pressure of the fluid. One end of each tube,
which was fitted with a filter, was placed directly into the mass, while the second end was lead verti112

Ftot, N.10-8

Ftot, N.10-8

Stot, m2

L1, m

Ftot, N.10-8

Ftot, N.10-8

L2, m

L3, m

Fig. 3. Dependence of force Ftot of pressure acting on bottom of tunnel run on distance L1 between
zone of formation of soil-cement pile and slurry outlet (a), total outflow area of slurry Stot (b),
distance L2 between plane of bottom of tunnel run and axis of pile being formed (c), and
distance L3 between axis of discharge hole and pile being formed (d).

cally to the outside. Its pressure at a given point of the soil mass was determined on the basis of the
change in the level of the fluid.
Measurements conducted under actual conditions indicated that the pressure of the fluid against
the run of the tunnel was appreciably lower than the computed value. This can be explained by the fact
that in addition to the discharge of slurry through the preventer and discharge hole, outflow occurred
through discharges, which have not been precisely defined under the boundary conditions prescribed.
For example, this could be a discharge of fluid as a result of seepage through the mass of the black
sandy-clayey loam, which resides below the soil-cement ring of the pit, and which has a low penetrability, but substantial filtration surface. Moreover, fluid could have penetrated through permeable sections that develop as a result of random deviation of soil-cement piles forming the anti-seepage curtain
from their vertical axes [7]. Calculations indicate that the drain resistance of the anti-seepage curtain,
which had not been more precisely defined, was two-three times lower than the resistance of the more
precisely defined discharges.
Results of numerical solution do neither define internal relationships characterizing the problem
under investigation, nor make it possible to observe certain specific relationships. These special discon113

nected relationships are difficult to review on the whole, and their usefulness is limited by the framework of the case under consideration. The pressure gradient P that develops during seepage of the slurry can therefore be expressed in the following form as a function of the boundary conditions and parameters of the process:
P = R Q,

(7)

where Q is the flow rate of cement grout in m3/sec, and R is the overall hydraulic resistance of the system in Pa.sec/m3.
If /k = const throughout the entire volume of the soil mass,
R = Rsour + Rmass + Rdis = /k (sour + mass + dis),

(8)

where sour, mass, and dis are the form factors of the sources, soil mass, and discharges, respectively.
In turn,
1
,
i=1 i
n

dis =1/

(9)

where i are the form factors of the ith discharge.

Representation of the overall hydraulic resistance of the system and its resistance components as
the product of the reverse specific conductance /k and the form factor will make it possible to
impart extensive generality to results of field and numerical experiments. Expressions derived on the
basis of solution of the Laplace equation in problems dealing with electric conduction, electrostatics,
heat conduction, the stationary vortex-free flow of a nonviscous incompressible fluid, etc. can be used
to calculate individual form factors. The thermal resistances of bodies of different form, which have
been obtained in the theory of heat conduction, can be used [8].
Let us evaluate the form factor of the zone of formation of a soil-cement column. For this purpose, we can represent this zone as two resistances connected in parallel. The first resistance is a thickwall cylinder with an inside radius r1 = 0.3 m and height L = 4r1. The outside radius r2, which limits the
zone that we are examining, can be assumed equal to 10r1. The form factor of the thick-wall cylinder
cyl =

r 0.0917
1
ln 2 =
.
2 L r1
r1

(10)

The second resistance the end of the cylinder can be represented as a disk with a radius r1,
from which the flow spreads out into a semi-restricted zone., In that case, the form factor
end = 1/4r1.

(11)

The form factor of the zone of column formation can be obtained in conformity with Eq. (9)
sour =

1
0.067
=
.
1/ cyl +1/ end
r1

(12)

Thus, the pressure gradient that develops on the boundary of the soil being treated with the indicated form factor can be determined from the relationship
114

TABLE 2
Soil

Clay
Clayey loam
Dense sandy loam
Loose sandy loam
Fine-grain sand
Coarse-grain sand

/k, Pa.sec/m2 Pressure P (Pa) in soil when flow rate of cement

grout is (liters/sec)
1
2
3
12
.
(0.131) 10
Pinj
Pinj
Pinj
(0.131).1011 (0.292.20).107
Pinj
Pinj
10
6
6
.
.
.
(0.131) 10 (0.292.20) 10 (0.574.40) 10 (0.866.60).106
(0.131).109 (0.292.20).105 (0.574.40).105 (0.866.60).105
(0.131).109 (0.292.20).105 (0.574.40).105 (0.866.60).105
(0.131).108 (0.292.20).104 (0.574.40).104 (0.866.60).104

P=

0.067
Q.
k r1

(13)

This relationship makes it possible to evaluate the highest pressure that can be attained in the
soil when conditions are created for unimpeded discharge of fluid, i.e., if the hydraulic resistance on the
boundaries is equal to zero.
The dependence of the created pressure P (Pa) on the properties of the soil and the flow rate of
cement grout (liters/sec) in a bounded mass with = 0.22 (Rdis + Rmass  0) is presented in Table 2.
The hydraulic resistance of the system and its individual components were determined on the
basis of pressure measurements taken during jet grouting. For this purpose, we used the relationship
Ri = Pi/Q,

(14)

where Ri is the hydraulic resistance of the ith section of the system in Pa.sec/m3, Q is the flow rate of
cement grout in m3/sec, and Pi is the pressure gradient in the ith section of the system in Pa.
The hydraulic resistance R experimentally determined for the system in the initial period (the
amount of stabilized soil was not yet large) amounted to 2.14.107 Pa.sec/m3, and the resistance of the
mass Rmass = 3.8.106 Pa.sec/m3.
When stabilization of the soil had been completed, the resistance Rmass had increased and
amounted to 6.2.106 Pa.sec/m3, the resistance of the discharges Rdis remained virtually unchanged, and
was 4.6.106 Pa.sec/m3, and the resistance in the zone of column formation Rsour = 1.3.107 Pa.sec/m3,
which corresponds to a form factor = 0.16. Thus, = 0.22, which was obtained by calculation,
agrees well with the experimental value.
In addition to calculation of the force exerted by the hydraulic pressure, we also determined the
force transmitted through the soil skeleton from the zone of grout injection to the bottom of the tunnel
run. Under the conditions that prevailed during stabilization of the soil beneath the tunnel (dense sandy
loam), this force was found to be two-three orders lower than the force of the pressure transmitted
through the fluid.
Conclusions

1. The force that develops as a jet sweeps over a plane surface during jet grouting is small, and
is substantially smaller than the loads for which underground structures are designed.
2. The basic load acting on a structure during jet grouting of a saturated soil develops as a result
of seepage of slurry through a permeable soil.
115

3. The creation of discharge holes is an effective method of reducing dynamic loads on the horizontal surfaces of underground structures during jet grouting intended to stabilize a saturated soil.
4. In calculating the pressure exerted on a structure, only the flow rate of grout is important,
while the diameter of the nozzle and the pressure ahead of it are immaterial. The basic filtration resistance is concentrated in zones directly adjacent to zones of column formation and grout discharge.
5. During jet grouting in a confined space of saturated soil, it is necessary to monitor the level
of ground water during injection of the grout, and also the balance between the volumes of watercement grout entering the soil and the departing slurry.
6. Under conditions when an element of an underground structure resides below the groundwater
table in a permeable saturated soil, the pressure during filtration of the cement grout is transmitted
through the fluid and soil skeleton. Here, the second is substantially lower than the first for permeable
soils, and the latter can be disregarded.
7. The method of summation of hydraulic resistance at point sources (intake of cement grout)
and point discharges (outlets of slurry through preventers, discharge holes, etc.) Can be used to assess
the pressures acting on underground structures during jet grouting. Here, it is possible to use relationships from the computational domain of thermal resistances in the theory of heat exchange.

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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

116

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Moscow (1960).
GOST 23278-78. Soils. Methods of Full-Scale Permeability Testing [in Russian].
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grouting," Stroit. Mater., No. 9 (2008).
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